cooperating across boundaries
TRANSCRIPT
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C o o p e r a t i n g
a C r o s s B o u n d a r i e sp a r t n e r s h i p s t o C o n s e r v e
o p e n s p a C e i n r u r a l a m e r i C
United StatesDepartment oAgriculture
Forest Service
FS-861
August 2006
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F o r F u r t h e r i n F o r m a t i o n
Caire HarperUSDA Forest Serice
Cooperatie Forestry1400 Independence Ae, SW
Mai Stop 1123Washington, DC 20250-1123
Phone: (202) [email protected]
Tom Crow
USDA Forest SericeResearch & Deeopment1400 Independence Ae, SW
Mai Stop 1113Washington, DC 20250-1113
Phone: (703) [email protected]
www.s.ed.us/projects/our-threats
The U.S. Department o Agricuture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in a its programs and actiities on
the basis o race, coor, nationa origin, age, disabiity, and where appicabe, sex, marita status, amiia status,parenta status, reigion, sexua orientation, genetic inormation, poitica beies, reprisa, or because a or parto an indiiduas income is deried rom any pubic assistance program. (Not a prohibited bases appy to aprograms.) Persons with disabiities who require aternatie means or communication o program inormation(Braie, arge print, audiotape, etc.) shoud contact USDAs TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (oice andTDD). To e a compaint o discrimination, write USDA, Director, Oce o Cii Rights, 1400 IndependenceAenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20250-9410, or ca (800) 795-3272 (oice) or (202) 720-6382 (TDD).USDA is an equa opportunity proider and empoyer
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COOPERATING ACROSS BOUNDARIESPARTNERSHIPS TO CONSERvE
OPEN SPACE IN RURAl AMERICA
Growth and and conseration are oten seen as two
opposing orceswith proponents o each scrambing
to beat the other to auabe and. Fortunatey, a new
paradigm is emerging. Deeopment and conseration o
open space can be compatibe and compementary when
appied in strategic, coaboratie ways.
This pubication ocuses on the benets o partner-
ships and working across jurisdictiona boundaries to con-
sere the rapidy dwinding open space o rura America.
We are osing 6,000 acres o open space each day across
the United States, at a rate o 4 acres per minute. Our
and deeopment is outpacing popuation growth, es-
peciay in rura areas where the pattern o growth is owdensity, dispersed housing.
The Nations orests are particuary unerabe.
Counties with nationa orests and grassands are
experiencing some o the highest growth rates as peope
moe to be cose to pubic ands. Unortunatey, as ands
near the nationa orest borders are subdiided, our abiity
to manage the pubic and or heathy orests and pubic
enjoyment becomes increasingy dicut. The uture is
een ess certain where orests are in priate ownership
as the ast majority aresince residentia growth aters
the abiity o these orests to proide ecosystem serices
and pubic benets such as water quaity, widie habitat,
and a sustainabe fow o orest products.
Our agency is committed to heping nd soutions.
let me emphasize that the Forest Serice is not in the
business o reguating priate andsandowners and
oca eected ocias hae the principa responsibiity or
deciding which ands can be deeoped and which shoud
be consered as open space. We are aso not the ony
agency with a roe in open space conseration. Howeer,
we are committed to working in partnership with others
on this issue and can contribute many resources to hep
consere ita ands in rura America.
vibrant rura economies and rura jobs are inextrica-
by inked to consering the oundation o todays growth
in our scenic rura communitiespentiu open space.
DAlE N. BOSWORTH
Chie
USDA Forest Serice
i
l e t t e r F r o m t h e C h i e F
o F t h e F o r e s t s e r v i C e
Chie Bosworth (ront) has identied the loss o open space as one o
our threats acing our Nations orests and grasslands.
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Many thanks to the oowing or sharing theirtime and expertise in writing and reiewing thispubication.
FOREST SERvICE PROJECT TEAM
C h, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
t Cw, Research & Deeopment
rck Cky, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
a h, Research & Deeopment
FOREST SERvICE RESEARCH TEAM
B B, Northern Research Station
C F, Rocky Mountain Research Station
d W, Southern Research Station
ec gf, Northern Research Station
Jff K, Pacic Northwest Research Station
K r, Southern Research Station
p gb, Northern Research Station
r a, Pacic Northwest Research Station
s sw, Northern Research Station
FOREST SERvICE REvIEWERS
B e, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
Cy By, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
dbb p, Widie, Fish & Water, Nationa Forest
System
db W, Partnership Oce, Nationa Forest System
d mf, Partnership Oce, Nationa Forest System
Ky Ct, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
K l, Ecosystem Management, Nationa Forest System
K s, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
K C, Urban & Community Forestry, State & Priate
Forestry
l F, Strategic Panning & Resource Assessment
m r, Forest Management, Nationa Forest System
mk dc, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
mk h, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
py hw, Urban & Community Forestry, State & Priate
Forestry
r gff, Range Management, Nationa Forest System
r mcW, Sustainabiity, State & Priate Forestry
sy C, Chesapeake Bay Program, Northeastern Area
s m, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
s s, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
t B, Cooperatie Forestry, State & Priate Forestry
PARTNERS
r sw, Bouder County
l e, Chesapeake Bay FoundationJcqy Cy, City o Missoua
t Kw, Coaition or Utahs Future
d tb, Coorado State Uniersity
ec n, Cooperatie State Research, Education, and
Extension Serice
mw dby, Enironmenta Protection Agency
p v, Enironmenta Protection Agency
my mj, Greater Yeowstone Coordinating Committee
r K, Maine Bureau o Parks and lands
ab F, Nationa Association o Counties
i mcF, Nationa Association o State Foresters
gy s, Northwest Coorado Counci o Goernments
ec my, The Conseration Fund
K dy, The Nature Conserancy, Maine
l hbb, The Nature Conserancy, Idaho
l mk, The Nature Conserancy
s sk, The Nature Conserancy, Arizona
B rb, US Conerence o Mayors
B p, Washington Department o Natura Resources
a Jk, Wison Mier, Inc.
WRITING AND PUBlISHING
db rc obb, Technica Writer, Deborah Richie
Communications
ncy s a, Graphic Design
s C, Photo Seection and Editing
my J s, Editing
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
a C K n o W l e d g e m e n t s
ii
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EXECUTIvE SUMMARY..........................................2
INTRODUCTION .......................................................4Key Terms and Denitions ....................................... 7
Fact Sheet: Why Are Open Spaces Important? ........ 8
RATES AND TRENDS: A Changing Rura America...10Regiona Snapshots................................................. 13
Case Study: Greater Wasatch Area, Utah ............... 14
Index o Open Space Change in the United States ... 15
DRIvERS OF CHANGE:Migration to Rura America .................................. 19Case Study: Coier County, Forida ....................... 23
SIGNIFICANCE OF OPEN SPACE........................ 24
1. Fresh Water Deiery and Food Contro ...........25
Case Study: Chesapeake Bay Watershed .......... 26
2. Rura Ways o lie .............................................. 27
Case Study: The Northern Forest ..................... 28
3. Widie Diersity and Corridors ........................ 29Case Study: Greater Yeowstone Region ......... 31
4. Widand Fire .................................................... 32
5. Recreation Opportunities.................................... 33
Case Study: Washington State ......................... 34
6. Economic Benets o Open lands ..................... 35
Index o Open Space Signicance and Threats .... 36
PARTNERSHIPS FOR COOPERATINGACROSS BOUNDARIES.................................... 37
Case Study: Bouder County, Coorado ................. 40
CONClUSION: Fie Key Messages........................... 43
FOREST SERvICE TOOlS FOR OPEN SPACECONSERvATION............................................... 44
REFERENCES ........................................................... 46
C o n t e n t s
C O N T E N T S
Columbine and Parnassian Butterfy.
Photos on cover provided by USDA Forest Service (USDA FS), USDA
Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS) and U.S. Fish and
Wildlie Service (USFWS).
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People are building homes in rural areas to enjoy scenic beauty andother open space amenities.
2
E X E C U T I V E S U M M A R Y
e X e C u t i v e s u m m a r Y
New houses with large lots are ragmenting orests and arms at a
higher rate than i they were clustered together .
ebow room. This ow-density growth (whether 5-acre or40-acre parces) scattered across the andscape resuts inecoogica and economic impacts as open spaces are diidedinto sma ownership parces. Each new house added to therura andscape aects a arger area than a house on the urbanringe. Oten, the most desirabe home sites ie in ecoogicayragie areas, ike streamsides or winter ranges o deer or ek.
As we subdiide orests and grassands, rura areas ace adwinding o economic returns to arming, ranching, andogging enterprises. New roads and other inrastructure thatsere scattered homes ragment widie habitat, bock widiemoement, and oster the spread o inasie species. Countiespay more or serices to outying residences than they take inrom property taxes. Conerting orests to buidings and paedsuraces, ike roads and parking, resuts in the oss o naturaters that ceanse our water.
When we buid more homes within and adjacent towidands, we put more property and peope at risk towidre. More than one-third o a houses now a withinthis widand-urban interace (Radeo et a. 2005). Inaddition, the increasing popuation iing near nationa orestsand other pubic ands has ed to an upsurge in unmanagedrecreationa use that damages ragie resources.
Finding a sustainabe baance between buit areas andopen space heps protect water quaity; conseres natiewidie; buers homes rom widre; assures a uture or work-ing arms, ranches, and timberands; suppies access to outdoorrecreation; eeates home aues; reduces the cost o commu-nity serices; and enhances our quaity o ie.
r u r a l a r e a s with open spaceare experiencing unprecedented growth. Retirees, secondhome owners, commuters, and others are choosingto buid homes in rura areas to enjoy the many benetsproided by orests, akes, riers, coasts, mountains, and pubicand. The astest deeoping areas incude the South, North-east, Rocky Mountain West, Upper Great lakes, and Ozarks.
As more peope hae the means to moe to sceniccountrysides, the open space that attracts these new
residents is increasingy at risk o deeopment. The heath andwe-being o our rura open space aects city andcountry residents aike. Undeeoped orests and grassandsincuding working arms, ranches, and timberandsproidecean drinking water, wood and agricutura products, widiehabitat, recreation opportunities, and natura-resource-basedjobs. Urban areas oten depend on rura open spaces or water,ood, and ber production.
Current growth trends are showing a steady oss oopen space. From 1982 to 2001, 34 miion acres o openspace, equiaent to the State o Iinois, were conerted to
deeopment. For orest and aone, the United States ost 10miion acres to deeopment rom 1982 to 1997, with 26 mi-ion additiona acres projected to be deeoped by 2030 (Aigand Pantinga 2004).
The patterns o rura growth are as signicant as the totaamount o deeopment. Peope moe to the country to nd
RegentsoftheUniversityofMinnesota.Allrightsreserved.
Usedwithpermission.
USDANRCS
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Who should read this publication:
County and municipal ocials, landowners, State
and Federal agencies, nonprot organizations, private
companies, citizens, and others interested in conserving
rural open space.
Purpose of the Document:
Encourage cross-boundary partnerships to
strategically conserve open space across the landscape. Share
research on the importance o open space and how growth
trends may aect the benets these lands provide to society.
Oer Forest Service resources and inormation to help com-
munities balance growth and conservation.
This Document includes:
Key research ndings rom Forest Service and other re-
searchers.
Case studies o how communities across the United States
are conserving open space and guiding growth in rural areas.
Examples and highlights o how the Forest Service can help.
A promising strategy toachiee a sustainabe baanceis to work cooperatiey acrossboundaries to protect andmanage open spaces across theandscape. Case studies eaturedin this pubication iustrate howcommunities are takinginnoatie approaches to protectopen space and accommodate
new growth.
Open space includes beautiul landscapes like this one in Idahonatural
areas that are also providing us with many services, rom clean water to
wildlie habitat (see actsheet on page 10).
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The quality of life offered by the experience of wild lands
attracts people who want to move to our community:
It attracts tourism visitors and it also attracts people who
appreciate it so much they decide to relocate their businesses here,
which in turn helps diversify our economy.
SUN vAllEY CHAMBER OF COMMERCE, IDAHO (Rasker et a. 2004)
It seems like every woodlot is for sale, and
everybodys looking for that piece of property thats close
to public property. They develop and build around it.
FlORIDA (USDA FS 2002)
Wak into the corner ca in any discoered ruraparadise and you might catch a heated conersation oer
mugs o coee that goes something ike
All this growth is good or business.
People moving in are keeping this place alive.
But everywhere you look, theres a new house.
Were losing our open lands and thats what olks are
coming or.
Its getting harder to get around. Theres more tra-
fc and people who drive too ast. Dont those new olks
realize we live at a slower pace here?
I N T R O D U C T I O N
i n t r o d u C t i o n
a C h a n g i n g r u r a l a m e r i C a
Grapping with growth and change is a commontheme in many parts o rura America. Trends reea twointerreated types o rura growth. The rstand the ocus othis pubicationis drien by the appea o natura amenities,outdoor recreation, and aorabe retirement ocations. Thesecond kind o rura growth resuts rom expanding urbanand manuacturing areas, where peope moe or jobsor aordabiity.
Businesses are increasingy ocating in rura areas withopen space amenities because o the competitie adantage o
a high quaity o ie or their empoyees. Industries such astourism, outdoor recreation, and second home constructioncapitaize on scenic beauty and the proximity o paces to hike,bike, and sh.
As peope seek the good ie, rura communitiesstrugge to adjust to change. Whie wecoming new jobs andeconomies, they are worried about osing the ands and way oie they hae known.
USDAFS
Permanent migration to a rural area oten ollows three steps: 1. vaca-
tion, 2. second home ownership, and 3. migration (Stewart and Stynes
1994).
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C O M I N G T O G E T H E R T O
A D D R E S S G R O W T H
What is the answer to those morning coee debatesin cas across rura America? Estabishing a diaogue andprocess or sharing inormation is a good pace to start workingtogether to buid a andscape ision that maintains rura auesimportant to both od and new residents.
Who shoud sit at the tabe to hep chart the course? Inregions ike the Eastern United States, open ands are pre-dominanty in priate ownership. Here, the stakehoders and
partners might incude arge andowners, such as timber com-panies, amiy orest owners, State agencies, and oca ocias.In the West where pubic ands can dominate, orest
rangers, bioogists, and other Federa and State agency o-cias hae an opportunity to join with county commissioners;panners; homeowners; priate andowners, such as armers andranchers; and others to tacke the issue o open space oss as across-boundary issue.
P R I v A T E l A N DC H A N G E SA F F E C TP U B l I C l A N D S
Increasingy,nationa orests and otherpubic ands are becomingisands o wid and semi-wid ands embedded in amatrix o deeoped ands.
Priate ands in rura areasare deeoping becausepeope are attracted to theamenities o pubic ands.Yet, many o these pubicand amenities are con-nected to open spaces onpriate ands. Water fows
across borders. Widie migrates. Fires that maintain heathyorests and grassands need room to burn without endangeringpeope and their homes. Consering open space is not a priate
and or a pubic and issue, but a common chaenge to be ad-dressed at oca, regiona, and nationa ees.
A private landowner in Colorado discusses growth issues with
representatives rom the USDA Forest Service, Colorado State Forest
Service, and other landowners.
Public land, like these mountains and orests in Washington, attract
growth to rural areas.
USDAFS
BradPruitt,WADepartmentofNaturalRes
ources
USDAFS
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T H E N A T I O N S F O R E S T S A N D
T H E R O l E O F T H E F O R E S T S E R -
v I C E
The Nations orests consist o 749 miion acres opubic and priate orests. The USDA Forest Serice manages147 miion o these acres, aong with 45 miion acres o rangeand grassand, as the nationa orests and grassands. Thereare 155 nationa orests and 20 nationa grassands, dispersedamong 43 States and Territories, with the argest concentra-tions in the West (USDA FS Sept. 2005).
The USDA Forest Serice aso partners with other Fed-era agencies, States, and Territories to proide assistance toandowners and communities to care or priate orests throughState and Priate Forestry programs.
The argest orestry research organization in the word ishoused within the USDA Forest Serice. Scientists carry outbasic and appied research to study bioogica, physica, and
socia sciences. Research proides inormation necessary to bestmanage and protect our Nations orests so they can continueproiding quaity water and air, widie habitat, orestproducts, and paces or recreation and renewa.
MAP 1
I N T R O D U C T I O N
County & Municipal10 million acres
State63 million acres
Other Federal98 million acres
Forest Service148 million acres
Private430 million acres
Public and Private Forest Ownershipin the United States
Who Owns the Nations Forests?
Source: Smith et al, 2004
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K E Y T E R M S A N D D E F I N I T I O N S
o sc. n. Natura areas such as orests and grassands, as
we as working arms, ranches, and timberands. Open space
aso incudes parks, stream and rier corridors, and other natu-ra areas within urban and suburban areas. Open space ands
may be protected or unprotected, pubic or priate. This report
ocuses on open space ands in rura areas.
o sc a. n. Enironmenta, socia, and eco-
nomic benets proided by open space. Amenities incude
scenic beauty; paces to recreate; cean water; widie to iew,
hunt and sh; and and-based ieihoods ike arming, ranch-
ing, and orestry. These amenities are attracting new residents
to many rura areas throughout the United States. Faoritedestinations incude paces with orests, akes, riers, coasts,
mountains, and pubic and.
r. adj. Areas outside o cities and suburbs with ow popu-
ation densities. Oten a rura area incudes towns surrounded
by arms, orests, or ranches. Rura areas occur at the outskirts
o cities as we as in remote, nonmetropoitan ocations. The
majority o and in rura areas remains as open space with ew
houses and other buidings.
ub. adj. Cities and suburbs with moderate to high popu-
ation densities, and with the majority o and deeoped as
residences, stores, oces, and roads.
r gw. n. The trend o buiding new homes and com-
mercia structures at ow densities in rura areas. This type
o growth diers rom urban spraw in that houses are buit
on arger ots (1.7 to 40 acres) than in suburban areas. Some
reer to this trend as rura spraw or exurban growth. Ruragrowth can occur without a corresponding increase in popu-
ation when the growth is predominatey rom acation and
second homes.
C. n. The preseration and management o open
space to maintain enironmenta, economic, and socia ben-
ets. Key conseration toos incude pubic purchase o and,conseration easements (see page 26), sustainabe management
practices (see page 28), and smart growth (see page 26). The
case studies incuded in this pubication proide exampes o
how these toos and others are being used to consere open
spaces throughout the United States.
Housing developments in urban and suburban areas utilize less land per
house than in rural areas.
The development trend in rural areas is to build houses on large lots.RegentsoftheUniversityofMinnesota.
Allrightsreserved.
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FAC
TSH
EET
Open space is vital to our health, our
economy, and our well-being. While we
commonly place a dollar gure on the worth ogoods rom arms, ranches, and timberlands,
only recently have we recognized that our
natural open space is yielding ecosystem
services worth trillions o dollars globally
(Costanza et al. 1997). Those ecosystem
services range rom puriying air and water to
pollinating crops, helping stabilize climate, and
cycling nutrients. To simpliy the list, consider
what people and wildlie alike need to survive:
water, ood, and shelter. Open spacenatural areas plus working landsis
providing these basic needs every day.
WATER
Clean Water
More than two-thirds o Americas water
originates in orests (USDA-FS, Jan 2000). For-
ests naturally lter and remove pollutants, and
lower the risk o sediment entering streams and
rivers rom landslides and erosion. This natural
lter can help reduce the cost o puriying water
to drinkable standards. When aced with a
choice between spending $8 billion on a water
treatment acility or New York City or $1 billion
to protect and restore the watershed that pro-
duces much o the citys drinking water, the city
chose to conserve the watershed orests (Dudley
and Stolton 2003).
Natural Flood Control
Rain alling in orests is slowed by leaves and
plants, and soaks into the soil, but rain pouring
on bare soil or pavement runs o the surace,
causing erosion and fash fooding. Natures
stormwater management systems are intact
orests. Natural food control also comes in the
orm o wetlands like marshes and swamps that
absorb storm deluges.
Reliable Water Supply
Our arms and ranches require a steady
source o water. Forests oten capture and store
water that lls our aquiers and reservoirs
important or irrigation and or drinking water.
In many parts o the western United States, late
summer water fows come rom gradually
melting snowpack in the orested watersheds
o high mountains. Trees also work like a giant
pump, returning water rom the ground to
the atmosphere.
USDA
NRCS
USFWS
Why is Open SpaceImportant?
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FOOD
Farms and Ranches Close to Home
When communities conserve ertile
agricultural lands, they are keeping sourceso ood and rural livelihoods nearby, rather
than relying on distant imports. Working and
open lands also generate more tax revenue than
they receive in public servicesas shown by
economic studies in 94 counties and townships.
In contrast, residential properties on average
generate less public revenue than they cost (AFT
2002).
Pollination
Worldwide, 100,000 species o pollinatorsbees, birds, butterfies, bats, and moreare
giving our wild plants and 70 percent o our
agricultural crop species the chance to
reproduce. In turn, these pollinators need a
wide variety o habitats to survive. One-third o
our ood comes rom plants that must have wild
pollinators (Daily et al. 1997).
Wild Harvest
Hunters and anglers seek out open space
to nd trout in streams, waterowl on lakes,upland birds on grasslands, and deer in orests.
Open space also yields wild berries, mushrooms,
and medicinal plants. An impressive 118 o the
top 150 prescription drugs in the United States
are based on natural sources, including 9 o the
top 10 drugs (Daily et al. 1997).
SHELTER
Wildlife Habitat
While people are drawn to live close to
open space, many species o wildlie require
the shelter o open space, especially when
conserved as contiguous blocks o habitat
rather than patches. Just as our homes are
more than roos over our heads, open space
needs to be o sucient quality to maintain
healthy animals, sh, and plant populations.
Timber
We build our houses rom natural
materialsespecially woodthat come rom
our working orests. When we conserve
orests, we retain a source o timber within
the United States. Private orests accounted
or 92 percent o all U.S. timber harvested in
2001 (Smith et al. 2004).
Scenery and Recreation
For many people, part o what makes a
home livable is proximity to nature, whether
a small park or a sweeping expanse o land
or hiking, biking, birdwatching, or other out-
door pursuits. Open space can be considered
a key part o human habitat as well as home
or wildlie.
Deborah
RichieOberbillig
USF
WS
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nite and base. By 2100, the popuation is predicted to doube
rom the year 2000reaching 571 miion. Key actors driing
popuation growth are onger ie expectancies, an aerage o
2.1 births per woman, and a constant net immigration rate o 1
miion per year (Corde and Oerdeest 2001).
Much o that growth wi take pace near metropoitan
areas, with the South (the sunbet) generay growing
astest. Cities ike Charotte, North Caroina, are rapidy
adding popuation and spreading out as new residents seek
aordabe homes with bigger ots. Charottes popuation grew
by 33 percent in the 1990s and its urban area by 44 percent
(Aig and Pantinga 2004).
The trend or rura growth is dispersed deeopment. This
pattern o growth resuts in higher enironmenta impacts per
house than urban or suburban deeopment, due to the arger
areas aected and incursion into areas ess atered by hu-
man presence (Radeo, Hammer, and Stewart 2005). Rura
deeopment on arge ots (1.7 to 40 acres) has been growing at
a rate o 10-15 percent per year, exceeding urban and suburban
expansion rates (Theobad 2003).
10
Were 75 miles rom Madison and 75 miles rom LaCrosse,
but in the last ew years there have been many new homes
going in within a ew miles where I live. All o a sudden they just
blossomed, some on wooded, some on open land.
WISCONSIN (GOBSTER AND RICKENBACH 2004)
d e v e l o p m e n t r a t e s e X C e e d
p o p u l a t i o n r a t e s
As the U.S. popuation grows, our deeopment
generay spreads at higher rates (See Chart 1). As a resut, our
cities are expanding and so are many o our rura communities.
In the post Word War II era, rura areas were iewed as paces
osing popuation to cities. Howeer, rura areas with natura
amenities are now deeoping quicky, with acceerated growth
predicted. In addition, rura residences occupy more than
seen times more and area than urban residences nationwide,
as iustrated in Chart 2 (Theobad 2005).
Approximatey 297 miion peope ie in the United
States (US Census Bureau No 2005). By 2050, the United
States is projected to gain 120 miion more peope sharing a
R A T E S & T R E N D S
r a t e s & t r e n d s
a C h a n g i n g r u r a l a m e r i C a
CHART 2
Rural Residences Occupy More Landthan Urban Residences
Source: Theobald 2005.
= 31 million acres
While 31 million acres were settledat urban and suburban densities(less than 1.7 acres per dwelling) as of2000, more than seven times
that much land227 million acreswas settled at rural densities(1.7 to 40 acres per dwelling).
URBAN
HIGH DENSITY
RURAL
LOW
DENSITY
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
1982-1997 2000-2025(projected)
LandDev
elopmen
t
U.S.PopulationGrowth
16%
24%
34%
79%
Source: Alig et al. 2004. US Census Bureau 2000 and 2001.
Percent
Increase
Land Development isOutpacing Population Growth
CHART 1
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F o r e s t l a n d r a t e s o F C h a n g e
Two-thirds o the state is in orest cover. The trend is an increasing
amount o orest cover. But i we could see property lines out there,
wed see many more orest landowners owning smaller and smaller
parcels o orestland.
vIRGINIA (USDA-FS 2002)
Forest ands o the United States are changing as more
peope seek homes in the woods. When measuring and pro-
jecting orest and rates o change, researchers eauate three
trends: conersion, ragmentation, and parceization.
First, c reers to the repacement o trees with
houses, buidings, awns, and paement. Forest Serice
researchers estimate that by 2030, we wi conert 26 miion
acres o orest and (Aig and Pantinga 2004). This gure is
based on examining the oss o orest coer. Regions that hae
seen net osses o orest coer incude the South and Pacic
Coast (Aig et a. 2003).
Not a regions are osing orests. Oer the past 50 years,
both Northeast and the Rocky Mountain States hae seen net
increases in orest coer. The primary drier o orest gains has
been the regrowth o trees on agricutura ands. Many arms an
ranches are no onger competitie in the marketpace as techno-
ogica changes hae enabed ood to be produced on ewer acre
Other actors incude a century o re suppression eading to
Between 1982 and 1997, 10 million acres
of forests were developed (USDA NRCS
2003). Forest Service researchers esti-
mate that between 1997 and 2030,
we stand to lose an additional
26 million acres of forestland
(Alig and Plantinga 2004).
The total loss of forests
from 1982 and pro-
jected to 2030 would
be close to the size of
the state of Georgia.
1982199710 million acres
1997203026 million acres
State of Georgia
38 million acres
CHART 3
U.S. Forest Land Change from 1982 to 1997(with projections to 2030)
RegentsoftheUniversityofMinne
sota.
Allrightsreserved.
Usedwithpermission.
Roads and other inrastructure that service homes on large lots divide orests into ragments.
more orest growth and tree pant-
ing. Despite net gains, signicant
osses o orests to deeopment are
sti occurring in these regionsas
orests are gained in one ocation,
other orests are ost to deeop-
ment somewhere ese (Aig et a.
2003; Aig and Pantinga 2004).
The second trend, f-, reers to the disturbance
zone beyond the ootprint o the
deeopment. Roads and power
ines that serice new homes diide
orests into ragments. This owers
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R A T E S & T R E N D S
Watersheds in Which Housing Density is Projectedto Increase on Private Forests by 2030
Hih ha
Mium ha
Lw ha
Publi rsUrba aras
Sur: Stein et al. 200
MAP 2
the quaity o widie habitat proided by the orest, especiay
or those species that are sensitie to human disturbance.
Fragmentation aso encourages the spread o inasie species as
roads and utiity cooridors proide ectors or new inasions.
One indicator o the degree o ragmentation across a
andscape is housing density. This gies us a more detaied
ook at what is happening to our orests. Whie orests may
appear unbroken rom an aeria iew, beneath the canopy there
may be a surprising number o homes. Studies in the southern
Appaachian orests demonstrate that measuring and coer
changes aone cannot account or the impacts on biodiersity
and ecosystems when houses are buit within orests
(Turner et a. 2003).
According to recent ndings rom the Forests on the Edge
project o the Forest Serice, more than 44 miion acres o
priate orest ands coud experience sizeabe increases in
housing density by 2030. The South, Northeast, and parts o
Caiornia and the Pacic Northwest are projected to hae the
most extensie housing increases. The greatest impacts wi be
et in the Southeast, a region o high biodiersity and timber
productiity (Stein et a. 2005) (See Map 2).
The third measure o orest change is cz. In
genera, as orest properties become smaer in size, the
potentia grows or those ands to be deeoped or housing.
From 1993 to 2003, the number o amiy orest owners swee
rom 9.3 miion to 10.3 miion, controing 42 percent o the
U.S. orest ands (Buter and leatherberry 2004).
Smaer properties tend to be aso more dicut to manag
or orest and aues ike timber, water, and widie. Nine o 1
amiy orest owners hae ewer than 50 acres, oer ha o whic
own 1-9 acres (usuay as a houseot) (Buter and leatherberry
2004). Preiminary data rom the Nationa Woodand Surey
indicates that the acreage o priate orests hed in sma parce
has increased by amost 8 miion acres since 1993, but sti on
accounts or approximatey 20 percent o priate orest and
(Nationa Woodand Surey 2004).
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Forests owned as small parcels are more likely to be developed or housingNRCS
t r a C K i n g t h e
r u r a l r e n a i s s a n C e
Rura iing dened America in the ate 1700s when ony
5 percent o peope ied in cities, but by the 1820s the pace
o city growth began to pick up markedy. The 20th century
ushered in the Industria Age and a steady exodus o rura resi-
dents to cities. By the 1920s, ha the popuation ied in cities
and suburbs. Today that number has sweed to 80 percent.
Post-Word War II America experienced a sharp rise inpopuation, and deeopment, persona incomes, and
suburbanization. During this era, popuation grew by more
than ha whie the amount o deeoped and doubed.
Aerage amiy income increased by 150 percentgiing
more peope the abiity to own arger houses and yards at the
urban ringe.
Meanwhie, the rura decine continued. Whie arming
and other and-based actiities sti prospered, the adent o
big machines and corporate ownership drasticay reduced thenumber o workers.
Then something remarkabe happened in the 1970sa
turnaround or parts o rura America. Suddeny, peope were
feeing the cities and seeking a pastora settingresuting in a
14-percent jump in popuation in sparsey popuated areas. The
arm crisis o the 1980s sowed and, in some cases, hated the
rura renaissancetemporariy. In the 1990s, rura counties
grew by 3 miion peope and beneted rom a aster rate o job
growth than metropoitan areas (Johnson and Beae 1998).Note that the return to rura iing does not equate with
a return to and-based actiities ike arming. Economic and
technoogica changes are aowing peope a greater mobiity o
workpace (as expored in Driers o Change Section).
The reia o rura iing is not happening eerywhere.
Peope continue to eae the Great Pains, Western Corn Bet,
and Mississippi Detapaces cosey inked to agricuture.
The Mountain West, Upper Great lakes, Ozarks, and parts o
the South and Northeast show the greatest popuation gains
(Johnson and Beae 1998).
A study o western States ound that rura counties with
the strongest economic growth and higher wage serice jobs
share an important trait. Those counties are cose to protected
pubic ands, such as widerness areas and nationa parks, and
hae air or road access to metropoitan areas (Rasker et a.
2004).
Forest Serice research on open space amenity migration
shows that counties with nationa orests are seeing higher
popuation growth rates than counties without these pubic
ands. long-term trends in the U.S. economy indicate that the
migration to amenity-rich ocations is ikey to increase or the
oreseeabe uture (Garber-Yonts 2004. Johnson and Stewart,
in press).
r e g i o n a l s n a p s h o t s
Research can hep predict not just the rates o rura
growth, but specic areas that hae the right combination o
eatures or growth in the uture. As the oowing regiona
snapshots show, actors such as topography (how much dee-
opabe and is aaiabe), and ownership, existing transporta-
tion networks, and and use panning infuence rates and trends.
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C
A
SE
STU
DY
Greater Wasatch Area, UtahEnvision the Future to
Guide Growth
When planners in Utah orecasted 3
million more residents living in the Salt Lake
City area and close to the Uinta and Wasatch-
Cache National Forests by 2050, citizens and
public ocials took notice. Envision Utah, a
public/private partnership that began in 1997,
developed a strategy or growth that involves
as many o todays 1.6 million residents as
possible. The new inhabitants o 2050 will
mostly be their children and grandchildren.
Without changing patterns o growth,
urbanized lands are predicted to quadruple
by 2050. However, that picture could be ar
dierent under scenarios created by local
residents, mayors, city council representatives,
and other stakeholders. Dozens o
community design workshops organized by
Envision Utah
in 1998 gave participants the chance to take
a look at where to place more people on the
land within constraints o land and water.
Four growth scenarios or this Greater
Wasatch Region (covering 23,000 square miles
o central Utah) emerged rom the workshops.
Envision Utah shared these our scenarios in 50town meetings. Every household in the region
received a newspaper insert with illustrations
analyzing each scenario.
Over 19,000 citizens responded and the
vast majority supported a growth strategy that
promotes preservation o critical lands,
supports a variety o transportation choices,
and develops more walkable communities.
Families would still enjoy single-amily homes,
but on slightly smaller lots situated in villages
and towns. New development would be placedin existing urban areas or clustered along
transit routes, leaving more land or open
space and
agriculture.
Aiialirmai:www.envisionutah.org
Sur:Envision Utah 2004.
CoalitionforUtahsFuture
Coa
litio
n
for
Ut
ah
sF
ut
ure
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I n d e x o f o P e n S P A c e c H A n g e I n
t H e U n I t e d S t A t e S
Percent o land considered rural: 83
Percent o population that is rural: 20
Amount o land settled at urban high densities as o2000, in acres: 31 million
Amount o land settled at rural low densities as o 2000,in acres: 227 million
Open space loss to development between 1992 to 1997,in square miles: 24,000
Size o West Virginia in square miles: 24,000
Open space projected to be developed by 2020, in squaremiles: 100,000
Size o Caliornia in square miles: 100,000
Rate o open space loss per day, in acres: 6,000
Rate o open space loss per minute, in acres: 4
Percentage o orest lands that are privately owned inU.S.: 57
Number o private orestland owners: ~10 million
Amount o private orestland lost to development rom1982-1997, in acres: 10 million
Net amount o orest projected to be developed rom1997 to 2030, in acres: 26 million
Surs: crll a ovrvs 2001, thbal 2005,
USdA nRcS 2003, Ali a Plaia 2004.
0
1
MillionsofAcres
2
3
4
5
7
6
Change in Developed Areain U.S. by Region, 1982-1997
th Suhas expri h Hihs grwh
Surs: Ali al. 2004. USdA nRcS 2001.
CHART 4
o which 132 are o concern and 28 are criticay imperied.
The primary threat is habitat oss rom conerting or modiy-
ing ands (Wear and Greis 2002). The region aso produces the
most timber in the country and has 89 percent o its orests in
priate ownership.
A comprehensie assessment o southern orests concud-
ed that urbanization wi hae the most direct, immediate and
permanent eects on southern orestso a orces o change
(Wear and Greis, Oct 2002).
Southeastern orests are home to many endangered species like this Red
Hills Salamander in Alabama.
USFWS
s o u t h e a s t
A warm cimate and attractie natura eatures combine
to make this the astest growing region with the highest ees
o spraw outside cities. Some o the most desirabe oca-
tions coasta areas and southern Appaachiansare aso
the most ragie ecoogicay. The Southeast boasts high pant
and widie diersitya staggering 1,208 ertebrate species,
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R A T E S & T R E N D S MAP 3
The Midwest is Experiencing Rapid Landscape Changes
Surs:R.B. Hammer and V.C. Radelo
University o Wisconsin-Madison (mapGobster and Haight 2004 (statistics)
Husi Uispr Km2
0
0-2
war
2-4
4-8
Sa buaris
8-16
16-128
>128
1940 2000
Iras i husi uisbw 1940 a 2000 i hMiws, pr: 146
grwh mium siyhusi (4-32 huss pr squarkm) bw 1940 a 2000 ih Miws, pr: > 250
Housing development next to armland in Dane County, Wisconsin.NRCS
n o r t h C e n t r a lThis and o many akes and priate
orests that stretch across gente terrain
is undergoing rapid andscape changes
(See Map 3). More and more second
homes are sprouting around akes, ri-
ers, and in orests with good road access
to major cities. Two-thirds o orests
contain at east 10 housing units per
square mie. Forests traditionay man-aged or timber are being subdiided. As
arge expanses o northern orests start
to ragment, there is concern among
bioogists whether those orests wi
continue to sere as homes or widie
that hae ost habitat esewhere (Gob-
ster and Haight 2004).
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Howeer, a 2004 oter-approed initiatie now requires
the State goernment to compensate andowners or property
aue osses rom and-use decisions such as zoning. WhetherOregons and use panning can be enorced ater this measure
is questionabe. Research predictions suggest that a apse in
zoning enorcement woud resut in greater deeopment in
western Oregons orests and agricutura ands (Kine, June
2005). Today, panners, poicymakers, and researchers in Or-
egon are taking a new ook at whether zoning aone can be e-
ectie in the ong run as popuations and and aues increase.
USDANRCS
Rural growth in the Rocky Mountain West is occuring in both orests
and grasslands.
USDAFS
r o C K Y m o u n t a i n W e s t
In contrast to the Southeast and Northeast, there is a high
ee o pubic and ownership in western mountainous States.
Much o the pubic and as in higher eeation ands,
incuding the dramatic Rockiesaored destinations or
recreationists. Many kinds o widierom ek to warbers
require both pubic ands o the mountains and ower eea-
tion priate ands or suria. Oten, aeys and riers in
priate ownership hae the highest ecoogica aues. Much othe region is arid, where widres pay a natura roe but aso
endanger the increasing number o houses and communities in
the widand-urban interace (Romme 1997). Fourteen o the
astest growing counties in the United States are in the Rocky
Mountain West and rura popuation growth rates are exceed-
ing urban rates (Corde and Oerdeest 2001).
p a C i F i C n o r t h W e s t o r e g o n
Oregon is known or its rugged coastines, ush orests,
Cascade Mountains, and high
desert. It is aso known or a
pioneering comprehensie
statewide and use-panning
program enacted in 1973. To
achiee its goas, Oregons cit-
ies and counties are required to
concentrate new deeopment
inside urban growth boundar-
ies and to protect arm andorest uses through zoning out-
side the boundaries. Research
suggests the program has been
measuraby successu at
shaping deeopment in ways
that consere prime armands,
orests, and other open spaces
(Kine 2005). Oregon has instituted urban growth boundaries to protect arms and orests.
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R A T E S & T R E N D S
REGIONAl OPEN SPACE KEY QUESTIONS
Can the South produce high ees o timber, protect and
manage or biodiersity, meet the demand or outdoor recre-
ation, and house miions more peope in rura areas?
Can the Great lake States consere northern orests and
akes that are stronghods or birds and animas that haeost habitat to the south?
What are strategies to steer growth away rom
re-prone orests in the Rocky Mountain West?
Can Oregon sti consere orest and armands now that the
2004 oter-approed initiatie mandates aected andown-
ers to be compensated or reductions in and aues?
How wi Southern Caiornia accommodate increasing
ees o recreation use on pubic ands?
One million acres o Central Valley armland are predicted to be lost by
2040. (USDA FS 2003)
USDANRCS
s o u t h e r n C a l i F o r n i a
Four nationa orests are within easy driing distance olos Angees and other highy urbanized areas. The warm dry
cimate and Pacic coast hae drawn peope here or many
years, making southern Caiornia the most popuous region
in the United States. Now the popuation is expanding rom
the coast counties into the Centra vaey and Inand Empire,
where popuation is orecast to increase rom 5.4 miion in
1998 to 15.6 miion by 2040. Demographics are shiting too,
with an increase in Hispanic and Asian popuations (USDA
FS 2003).New homes are peppering canyons and hisides that are
at high risk or widres. Productie arms are giing way to
housing deeopments; the predicted oss o armand in the
Centra vaey is 1 miion acres by 2040. The chaenges or
the region incude managing increased and changing recreation
use o pubic ands, consering widie habitats and working
arms, and contending with more houses in the widand-
urban interace (USDA FS 2003).
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To better grasp why rura areas with open space amenities
hae become a target or growth, socia scientists are studying
the driers behind rura growth. They hae documented how
we hae become a nation o nomadic peope moing rom
pace to pace or jobs or to nd a desirabe ocation to put
down roots.
Retirees and working-age peope aike are reocating torura areas where they can hae daiy access to the outdoors or
recreation and or soitude. This greater mobiity o where we
ie comes rom rising incomes since Word War II and
transportation adances ike the interstate highway system that
put the countryside within commuting range o cities.
This pubication does not ocus on suburban areas
expanding rom cities. Howeer, there are rura areas just be-
yond the suburbs that are growing rapidy. Peope are wiing to
commute arther to work to experience a rura iestye and ndaordabe housing. Now, 3.4 miion Americans endure a daiy
extreme commute o 90 minutes or more each way to work
(U.S. Census 2005).
Meanwhie, a surey conducted or the Nationa
Association o Reators and Smart Growth America ound that
79 percent o recent homebuyers ranked a commute time o
45 minutes or ess as a top priority in their choice o where to
ie. Another high priority (72 percent) is the abiity to wak to
shops, restaurants, ibraries, schoos, and pubic transportation.For peope panning to buy a home, 87 percent paced top prior-
ity on a shorter commute. The surey shows a cear demand
or iabe communities with wakabe neighborhoods cose to
serices rather than the traditiona kind o arge ot suburban
setting (Nationa Association o Reators and Smart Growth
America 2004). This suggests that one strategy to keep rura
areas rura is to buid communities that eature compact, mixed
use, and wakabe neighborhoods.
D R I V E R S O F C H A N G E
d r i v e r s o F C h a n g e
m i g r a t i o n t o r u r a l a m e r i C a
CATSKILL MOUNTAIN FOOTHILLSNEW YORK
TYPE: LAKEFRONT LAND
PRICE: $172,500
FRONTS A 46-ACRE MOUNTAIN LAKE
Exceptionally rare 25-acre lake ront property with
1,400 eet o lake rontage on a 46-acre mountain
lake. Located on a quiet Town Road next to a
1,000-acre private reserve. Pretty meadow, hardwoods,
and a view. Walking trail along the lake. I its the lie-style or simply an investment, look no urther.
FULLERTON GULCHMONTANA
TYPE: RANCH
PRICE: $250,000
ADJACENT TO THE NATIONAL FOREST
67 acres with year-round creek, national orest land
on three sides. Great building site that is very remote
yet only minutes to town by paved road. This is a must-
see i youre looking or a real Montana home setting.
Rural Montana is growing aster than the States cities and towns
(Theobald 2003).
USDANRCS
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W h o s m o v i n g t o r u r a l
a r e a s a n d W h Y ?
Retirees and the Baby Boom Generation
Throughout the United States, peope are moing to rura
areas to enjoy open space amenities, such as akes, scenic iews,
and orests. Retirees are a eading orce behind this migration
trend. Portabe pensions and dispersed amiies enabe retirees
to choose amenity-rich ocations. Between 1990 and 2000,
counties with nationa orests, recreation opportunities, naturaresources, and aesthetic quaities (see Map 4) experienced high
popuation growth ratesbetween 15 and 30 percent. These
growth rates are expected to acceerate as 70 miion baby
boomers (born between 1946 and 1964) reach retirement age
(Johnson and Stewart, in press).
D R I V E R S O F C H A N G E
National Forest and High-Amenity Counties
n Aln wih Hih AmiyHih Amiy Aln
Aalysis: K.H. Jhs, Lyla Uivrsiy chiadaa: USdA rs Srvi; USdA emi
Rsarh Srvi. Jhs a Bal (2002)
MAP 4
naial rs ahih-amiy uiar xprii raprwh. Hih amis ilu auralamiis suh as ashis, rraialppruiis, arirm appal.
USFWS
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Search or Nature
America is known as
a meting pot, and a
restess one. Research
shows Americans hae a
strong need or contact
with nature that in turn
eads to deeopment o
natura habitats, oss oopen space aues, and an
exodus to the next ast best pace (Kapan and Austin 2004).
In the West, migrants into Coorado are moing to Montana
and other States to nd the next unspoied rura and aord-
abe haen (Robb and Reibsame 1997). And as urban areas
expand into rura ands, peope moe arther rom the city to
nd a country experience.
Appeal o Large Lots
The rura dream o owning a piece o paradise heps sup-
port a market or arge ots. Reators and deeopers market
and respond to this demand. In act, 80 percent o and con-
erted or recent residentia housing ies outside urban areas
and 94 percent o the acreage is diided into ots o 1 acre or
arger. More than ha o those ots are sized at 10 acres or
more (ERS 2005).
Zoning, too, can ead to arger ots. When rura
communities zone or minimum ot sizes, they discourage
deeopment o custered, denser communities with arge ad-jacent open spaces. In Coorado, andowners hae an incen-
tie to subdiide into 35-acre parces, the minimum size or
diiding ands without going to a zoning board or approa.
D R I V E R S O F C H A N G E
Housing Aordability
When rura areas rst grow, the appeaing arge home site
tend to be aordabe. Some o the attraction or new migrants
ies in the combination o cheaper and than they can nd
within commuting distance o a city, combined with proximityto widie and soitude.
Housing aordabiity becomes a strong drier in areas ike
los Angees where housing prices hae cimbed steepy. Many
urban workers commute 60 mies or more rom inand
communities ike Rierside (US Census 2005). As more jobs
moe out to suburbs, rura areas are aso increasingy within
commuting distance.
Howeer, rura growth eentuay dries up and prices
and taxes. The rea estate market or country iing proides
andowners with an incentie to subdiide and se. The
returns are oten ar greater than traditiona orestry and
agricutura incomes. In the Southeast, the weighted aerage
aue o and in orest use or 473 counties is $415 per acre
compared to an urban use aue o $36,216 per acre 90 times
higher (Aig and Pantinga 2004).
A study o 500 property owners close to 12 lakes in Walworth County,
Wisconsin, revealed that 62 percent were second-home owners, with
primary residences in Chicago, a 2-hour drive away. Almost 40 percent
intend to become permanent residents. (Gobster and Haight 2004)
RegentsoftheUniversityofMinnesota.
Allrightsres
erved.
Usedwithpermission.
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Collier County, FloridaConcentrating New Development
Away from EnvironmentallyValuable Land
Retirees and immigrants are focking to
sunny, coastal Collier County in southwest
Florida. In 2000, a group o landowners
created incentives and a new marketplace to
conserve ecologically rich rural lands while
welcoming more people on the land.
The Collier landowners hired a consulting
rm, WilsonMiller, Inc., to assess their natural
resources and develop a new model or land
use planning. Using a geospatial analysis,
WilsonMiller quantied and assigned values
to environmentally sensitive eatures, such as
wetlands and panther habitats, or a 195,000-
acre area. This analysis is used to add value
to traditional market prices or land.
Here is how it works. A Rural Land
Stewardship plan identies sending and
receiving areas. The sending areas cover land
with sensitive or rare natural resources like
native pine orests. Landowners within the
sending area can choose to sell Stewardship
Credits to developers. The number o credits
available or sale depends on the specic
natural characteristics o the property.
In addition, a landowner can gain bonus
credits or choosing to restore some acres
or place them under permanent conservation
agreements.
The Ave Maria development project
recently tested the new market. A new
town and university are being built on
5,000 acres within the designated
receiving area. The developer purchased
approximately 8 credits per developed acre
to protect 17,000 acres o open natural
land surrounding the community. The
new town is being built as a compact,
mixed-use community that concentrates
growth in walkable neighborhoods close
to stores and oces.
C
A
S
ESTU
D
Y
The Collier Rural Lands Stewardship Area will
accommodate the projected 2025 population in
new rural towns and villages. These towns will oc-
cupy only one-tenth o the land ormerly needed
or 5-acre home sites. This win-win solution will
protect 90 percent o all native wetlands and
upland orests at no cost to the public, and willprovide an income stream to all landowners in the
area. Now, landowners have an incentive and eco-
nomic return or the protection o environmentally
sensitive lands.
In recognition o the potential and unique-
ness o this approach, the State o Florida in 2004
codied the use o Stewardship Credits in State
law, and encouraged other counties to use Collier
County as a model or rural lands planning.
Swarship cris: a tradable value or land that
accounts or variation in environmental characteristics andland uses. Stewardship credits are used in designated areasto guide development away rom environmentally valuableland and to encourage compact growth that preserves openspace.
Rural La Swarship Pla: a land use plan that desig-nates sending and receiving areas. Landowners in sendingareas can choose to sell stewardship credits to cash in thevalue o their open space. Developers must purchase stew-ardship credits to gain approval or new development proj-ects, and have a monetary incentive to concentrate growth incompact developments. All new development occurs in thereceiving areas.
Aiial irmai: Rural Lands Stewardship
Program http://privatelands.org/rural/RLSP.htmor www.WilsonMiller.com
Surs: Demers 2003. Jenkins 2005.
Wils
on
Mill
er,
Inc.
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S I G N I F I C A N C E
O F O p E N S pA C E
The question is not whether we should develop, but rather how
best to use the land to maintain or enhance the goods and services
provided by ecosystems.
WAYNE ZIPPERER, FOREST SERvICE RESEARCH FORESTER
(USDA FS 2002)
In the 2004 all election, voters in 26 States approved $3.25
billion in public unds or parks and open space. The approval rate
o open space bond initiatives was 75 percent.
(TPl 2005)
When open space is unctioning we, the seamess
natura abric o the and is oten unappreciated. Open space
pays signicant roes in our eery day ie. Forests reguate
cimate, cean water and air, maintain hydroogic cyces, and
contribute to heathy, ertie sois. Periodic burns in
re-adapted orests and grassands proide a serice in
rejuenating sois, pants, sheries, and in reducing ues. The
trick is to gie these natura processes room to perorm theirjobs. Open space can be working and as we,
important or haresting timber, ranching, and arming.
When open space rays and the seams unrae, the
osses become cear, one strand at a time. Water quaity
drops. Nonnatie and inasie species increase. Widie dier-
sity decines. Sometimes it takes a discerning eye to recognize
those raying pieces.
Take this story o two eds in Missouri, subjects o a
Forest Serice research study (Thompson and Burhans 2003).
At rst gance, the eds appear remarkaby simiar, except that
one is ound in an urbanized settingthe city o Coumbia,
Missouri, and the other in nearby rura Boone County. Now,
ask a birdwatcher to te you the dierence between the two.
The rura ed eatures much higher bird diersity and
uncommon species ike the bue-winged warber and white-
eyed ireo. Fewer bird species iing in the urban ed is
directy reated to brown-headed cowbirds that thrie in nearby
awns and disturbed areas. Cowbirds ay their eggs in songbird
nests. The songbirds then raise cowbird chicks at the expense
o their own. The researchers compared a number o rura
and urban eds and concuded that the nests o northern car-
dinas, yeow-breasted chats, and indigo buntings were parasit
ized by cowbirds 3 to 12 times more requenty in urban eds.
Keeping open space intact is important not ony to birds
and birdwatchers, but to a o us, whether we ie in urban or
rura ands. Open space proides critica serices and benets
that we a need and enjoy.
s i g n i F i C a n C e o F o p e n s p a C e
Brown-headed
cowbirds lay their
eggs in songbird
nests.
USFWS
USFWS
Indigo bunting
nests are parasit-
ized by cowbirds
312 times more
requently in urban
elds (Thompson
and burhans 2003).
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W H A T S A T S T A K E ?
1 . F r e s h W a t e r d e l i v e r Y a n d
F l o o d C o n t r o l
Forests sere a ita unction connected to cean water.
Some 66 percent o the Nations resh water originates in
orests (USDA FS 2000). Here, trees hep ter stormwater
and coney it to groundwater aquiers. In western moun-tains, orested headwaters hod snow that in turn becomes a
critica source o ate season fows or ranchers irrigating hay
meadows in aeys beow. Trees aso sow storm runo and
reduce fooding.
Whats at stake or water quality
When orests gie way to residentia and commercia
deeopment, we ose the serices they proide. For ex-
ampe, the oss o trees between 1972 and 1996 in the Puget
Sound watershed (near Seatte, Washington) has increased
stormwater fow by 1.2 biion cubic eet in the region during
peak storm eents. Repacing the ost stormwater retention
capacity with reseroirs and engineered systems woud cost
$2.4 biion (American Forests 1998).Open ands, whether orested or grassand, assure rains and
snows are absorbed into the ground. Water cannot percoate
through paement. When water runs o roads into streams,
cean water suers as sediments and poutants are swept into
streams, riers, and akes. In Anchorage, Aaska, researchers
ound that the abundance and diersity o aquatic insects su-
ered when parking ots and other paement conerted just 5
percent o the watershed (Ourso and Frenze 2003).
Forests are a key source
o clean water.
USFWS
USFWS
USDANRCS
A restored wetland in Yolo County, CA, lters sediments and pollutants.
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Chesapeake Bay WatershedProtecting Forests to
Restore Water Quality
The Chesapeake Bay is the Nations
largest estuary and one o the most
productive ecosystems in the world. The bay
supports a wealth o wildlie, sh, and birds. Italso supports a thriving shing industry whose
harvests o sh and shellsh are
enjoyed by people throughout the country.
Keys to the bays health are in the trees and
orests in the watershed. Forests lter out pol-
lutants beore they enter streams, rivers, and
the bay. Once, over 95 percent o the 41-mil-
lion-acre watershed was orested, but that
number has dropped to 58 percent as develop-
ment and agriculture replaced trees. Current
orest loss in the watershed is estimated to be100 acres per day.
Today, Forest Service and government
agencies rom Maryland, Virginia,
Pennsylvania, and the District o Columbia, as
well as nonprot groups, are working together
to conserve and restore watershed orests. In2000, the partners set a goal to permanently
protect 20 percent o the watershed (6.5 mil-
lion acres) by 2010, using donated and publicly
purchased conservation easements, tax
incentives, and parkland purchases to add
to already existing protected lands. They are
also working to conserve and restore orests
C
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along 70 percent o streams and shorelines in
the watershed.
The Washington, D.C., regions Smart
Growth Alliance has contributed as well, en-couraging developers in the watershed to build
in ways that minimize water pollution and
maintain tree cover. The Alliance, made up o
the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, Coalition or
Smarter Growth, Greater Washington Board o
Trade, Greater Washington Builders Alliance,
and the Urban Land Institute, hosts a jury
o environmentalists, developers, and planners
who certiy whether development projects
meet smart growth criteria, including
building in and around existing communities,reducing impervious suraces, managing
stormwater, and maintaining trees and wet-
lands. Developers pay to have their project
proposal evaluated. I the project meets
smart growth standards, jury members
advocate or the project at local hearings.
csrvai easm. A legal agreementbetween a landowner and an eligible organization(usually a land trust or government entity) that re-stricts uture development activities on the land toprotect its conservation value. Most conservationeasements are perpetual and apply to both currentand uture landowners.
Smar grwh. Smart growth describesdevelopment patterns that create attractive,distinctive, and walkable communities that givepeople o varying age, wealth, and physical abilitya range o sae, convenient choices in where they
live and how they get around. Growingsmart also ensures that we use our existing inrastructureeciently by ocusing most new growth near existingdevelopment, achieving more compact orms and pat-terns o growth, and preserving both the rural lands andhistoric buildings that shape our communities.
Aiial irmai:chsapak Bay Prram visit www.chesapeakebay.net or call1-800-YOUR-BAY.
Washi Smar grwh Alliawww.sgalliance.org.
Smar grwh nwrkvisit www.smartgrowth.org
Surs: USDA FS 2004. Washington Smart GrowthAlliance 2005. Claggett 2005. Epstein 2005.
MikeLand,ChesapeakeBay
Gateways
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2 . R U R A l W A Y S O F l I F E
Keeping open space intact is an important actor in
maintaining traditiona rura ieihoods. The andscape
chaenge is to consere the most appropriate paces or
pursuits ike arming, ranching, and ogging and to integrate
new economies with the od.
Whats at stake or timber harvest
What happens when more houses are buit in timber
haresting areas? Researchers ound that in some regions, as
housing density increases, timber harest decreases (Wear et
a. 1999; Sabor et a. 2003). A study in virginia concuded that
when popuation densities reach between 20-70 peope per
square mie, the ikeihood that remaining orestands can be
commerciay managed decines. At 70 peope per square mie,
commercia orestry is ony ikey on 25 percent o remaining
orest and (Wear et a. 1999). In the Great lake States, ess
than 10 percent o haresting takes pace in areas where
housing density exceeds 50 units per square mie. (Sabor et a.
2003).
The reationship between housing density and orest
harest ees inoes many dierent actors, incuding such
practica dicuties as gaining access to ands surrounded
by houses. New owners whose scenic iews are aected by
management may aso be opposed to extensie management
actiity and haresting. The continued growth o housing in
the orested areas o this region suggests growing impacts on
timber harests.In Oregon, ndings show ess connection between rura
deeopment and decreased timber harest, because o a
greater amount o timberand aaiabe reatie to the amount
o deeopment that has occurred (Kine et a. 2004).
Whats at stake or arming and ranching
Rising property aues, tax burdens, and changing goba
markets or agricutura products pace economic pressure
on armers and ranchers to se their and, despite desires to
continue iing o the and and passing that heritage to their
chidren. Oten, ands that are most easiy paed oer or roads
and housing are the best ands or arming. Isoated arms
within subdiided ands sometimes ace resistance rom
new neighbors to traditiona practices ike ed burning.
Subdiided arms aso become too sma or iabe
arm operations.
In the West, a common pattern o deeopment is diid-
ing ranches into ranchettes that oten a aong the oothis
o re-prone pubic orest ands and mountains. Homes are
oten buit on high ground with panoramic iews, which eads
to greater ragmentation o open spaces to connect roads to
these premium buiding spots. The subdiision o ranches near
Gunnison, Coorado, increased road ength by 60 percent on
these properties and doubed the number o houses (Theobad
et a. 1996).
S I G N I F I C A N C E
O F O P E N S PA C E
USDAFS
NRCS
Grazing near Tucson, Arizona
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The Northern ForestMaintaining Working Landscapes
The Northern Forest spans 80 million acres
in northern New England and Canada and 26
million o these acres are in Maine, New Hamp-
shire, Vermont, and New York. Vast areas, espe-
cially in Maine, are uninhabited industrial orestswhose spruce and hardwood have long provided
wood or paper mills and sawmills.
In 1988, citizens in the our-State area
became alarmed ater British nancier Sir James
Goldsmith acquired Diamond International
Corporations 976,000 acres o timberland.
Goldsmiths business strategy was to resell this
land in smaller parcels or substantially more
value than the original sale. Concerned about
the uture o working orests, Congress commis-
sioned the Forest Service to develop a NorthernForest Lands Study to assess how land owner-
ship and use changes would aect the region
and timber towns.
In 1994, a multi-State Northern Forest Lands
Council used the Northern Forest Lands Study
to recommend increased public unding or the
Forest Services Forest Legacyprogram, which
conserves land primarily via conservation ease-
ments (see page 28), a orm o voluntary land
protection. Today, over 2.5 million acres are cov-
ered by conservation easements in the our-Stateregiono which 570,000 acres were protected
by the Forest Legacy program. Participating land-
owners either donated the easement or were
compensated or the development value o their
lands, and can continue to harvest timber.
In the backyard o Millinocket, Maine
a paper mill town that has long relied on the
orest or woods and mill jobsa landmark
partnership has helped conserve 750,000
acres o unbroken orests. In 2002, The Nature
Conservancy helped Great Northern Paper Co.
delay bankruptcy by purchasing $50 million o
its loans, retiring $14 million o the debt and
renancing the remainder at competitive rates.
In exchange, the company granted a
conservation easement on 195,000 acres
o Maine orests abutting Baxter State Park,
and transerred 41,000 acres in ee to the
Conservancy. With support rom the Forest
Legacy program and matching State unds, the
Conservancy is making a bargain sale o the
Katahdin Forest Project easement lands to the
State o Maine Bureau o Parks and Lands.
Now an expansive orest will continue to
stretch beneath Mount Katahdin. The core
land owned by the Conservancy serves as a
biological preserve and critical breeding
ground or birds and animals. Surrounding
the preserve, the easement land remains
permanently open or public recreation ac-
cess while sustainable management o the
orests provides timber or nearby mills.
rs Lay prram. Part o the State and PrivateForestry division o the Forest Service, the agencyadministers Forest Legacy in partnership with States andworks with interested private landowners to acquire landsand conservation easements. To date, the program hasprotected over 1 million acres o environmentally impor-tant oreststhis land has remained in private ownershipor has become State land.
Susaiabl Maam. Management to maintainthe long-term health o ecosystems and sustain a ullrange o environmental, economic, and social beneftsor current and uture generations. A sustainablymanaged orest provides not just timber and othereconomic products, but also public benefts like waterquality, recreation, and wildlie habitat.
Aiial irmai.
nrhr rs Las www.northernorestlands.org
th naur csrvay www.nature.org/success/katahdin.html
USdA S rs Lay Prram 202-205-1389www.s.ed.us/cooperativeorestry/programs/loa/fp.shtml
Surs: The Nature Conservancy 2004.Northern Forest Lands Council 1994.NESFA 2004. Byers and Ponte 2005. Dempsey 2005.
BillSillikerJr.
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3 . W I l D l I F E D I v E R S I T Y
A N D C O R R I D O R S
Species diersity is highest where open space is unc-
tioning we. For exampe, many species o songbirds require
contiguous bocks o habitat to successuy breed and raise their
young. Identiying the hot spots or birds and other widie
aows oca goernments to steer deeopment away rom these
important habitats. Bioogists at the panning tabe can answer
questions on where widie nest, den, raise young, or rest duringmigration.
Despite an abundance o pubic ands in many western
States, many widie hot spots are ound on priate ands.
These incude winter ranges or ek and deer, and streamside
areas or a high diersity o birds. In Montana, 55 percent o
breeding bird species (134 species) depend on riparian areas that
make up ony 4 percent o the State
70 percent are ound on priate ands
(Montana Partners in Fight 2000).In Coorado, 69 percent o bad eage
winter habitat is ound on priate ands
(Romme 1997).
The Southeast has 14 criticay
endangered orest communities, re-
duced in size by 98 percent since
European settement. Those
communities a within seen casses,
yet ony twood growth and spruce-rare ound on the sma amount
(11 percent) o pubic and in this
region. The remainder and their associated widie species
are in priate ownership. Pubic orests can sere to protect ony
some habitats and species. large bocks o orests are
important or consering sensitie pant and widie
species, yet ony 16 percent o the remaining orests are in tracts
greater than 500 acres (USDA FS 2002).
In addition to arge bocks, many widie speciesrom
rier otters to grizzy bearsrequire natura corridors that
connect the chunks o remaining open ands. Corridors aow
widie popuations to mix, keeping the gene poo heathy, andink widie eeding paces and migration routes.
Peope, too, can benet rom corridors, especiay near
urban areas where greenways are growing in popuarity among
recreationists seeking ong trais and connected bike paths. To
meet the needs o peope and widie, those corridors need to
be wide enough or both. For exampe, Dunham lake in
Hartand Michigan eatures a greenway buer that ranges
between 100 and 400 eet that preseres the pristine waters
and waterow habitat whie oering the many adjacent homesa akeside trai (Arendt 1994). Guideines or width dier
depending on geography, habitat and speciesanother reason
to make sure bioogists are at the panning tabe.
Whats at stake or biodiversity
Panning or corridors and
open space with widie needs
in mind can hep maintain
diersity and preent species
decine.
Habitat oss is the num-
ber one threat to biodiersity
oss. The number two threat
is the rising tide o inasie pants and animasnonnaties
that spread and can wipe out natie species. Approximatey 46
percent o the pants and animas ederay isted as endangered
species hae been negatiey impacted by inasie species
S I G N I F I C A N C E
O F O P E N S PA C E
USFWS
Wol tracks at Nogaba-
hara Sand Dunes, Alaska.
USDAFS
Bald Eagle
Red-cockaded Woodpecker
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(Wicoe et a. 1998). Many kinds o noxious weeds take
hod and prosper when and is disturbed, an ineitabe part oconstructing new houses and roads in rura ands. Controing
weeds on sma parces o and is more dicut than on arge
intact parces.
When houses and roads enter a orest, they proide
access or nest predators and parasites ike crows, jays, and
cowbirds. A team o scientists rom the Uniersity o Wiscon-
sin and the Forest Serice demonstrated that 37 o 137 bird
species decined with increases in housing and agricutura use
(lepczyk, in reiew). Housing and eds disrupt natie oresthabitats, putting at risk birds such as the red-eyed ireo and
oenbird that depend on interior orests.
Houses aso bring in ree-ranging domestic cats, which
prey on numerous songbirds and sma mammas in rura areas
each year. Studies in Wisconsin estimate that cats ki 39
miion birds in that State each year (Coeman et a. 1997).
Widie habitat and rura housing preerences oten
intersect in the most sensitie and ragie paces. For instance,
research in the Yeowstone area ound that home densities areneary 70 percent higher within a mie o these hot spots
(Hansen and Rotea 2002). Amost a o the identied hot
spots e on priate ands in an area where biodiersity is
highest at ower eeations, which are at the most risk
o deeopment.
S I G N I F I C A N C E
O F O P E N S PA C E
Whats at stake or wildlie on the move
As wid animas moe to nd the habitats they need,
they oten ace a potentia threatroads. Highways and een
smaer roads can bock natura corridors or trae. Cars
coide with widiea danger to peope and animas aike.
Een sma dirt roads connecting homes on arge ots can
cause probems or widie. Many amphibians, sma mammas
and inertebrates shy away rom roads, and ose connectiity
to important habitats. Sow-moing repties ike turtes and
USDAARS
Invasive white knapweed prospers when land is disturbed.
snakes seeking the warmth o a road during the day are reguar
casuaties. Roads aso disturb ground and become a ector or
weeds to spread into open spaces (Mitche et a. 1997).
Today, the Federa Highway Administration has projects
in most States to ink habitats and cut down on highwaymortaityrom a saamander underpass in Massachusetts
to a desert tortoise cuert under a highway in southern
Caiornia. Underpasses on I-75 in Forida are saing
endangered panthers rom being struck and kied (Federa
Highway Administration 2005).
ScottJackson
Underpasses designed or wildlie can provide or sae passage and
link habitats.
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Greater Yellowstone RegionCoordinating Among Ownerships
To Conserve the Ecosystem
Americas rst national park rests in the
heart o a much larger ecosystem. Surrounding
Yellowstone National Park are six national or-
ests, two national wildlie reuges, the GrandTeton National Park, and the J.D. Rockeeller
Memorial Parkway. This ecosystem is the last
stronghold or a suite o species no longer
ound together anywhere in the world
grizzly bears, wolves, bison, wolverines, and
trumpeter swans.
The 20 counties within the ecosystem
are among the astest growing in the United
Statesa 62-percent population increase rom
1970 to 2000, with an accompanying 350-per-
cent rise in developed lands. The large amounto land aected by each new house reveals a
pattern o low-density growth as ranches and
arms are subdivided. Today, about 370,000
people live as permanent residents on these
private lands in Idaho, Montana, and Wyo-
ming.
Private lands all in oothills, valleys, and
along the Yellowstone, Madison, Clarks Fork,
and Snake Rivers. Most public lands are at
higher elevation. Wildlie moves between the
two, and much o their essential habitat is onprivate lands. To conserve the Yellowstone
ecosystem requires considerable coordination.
Fortunately, Federal agencies in the region
had the oresight in 1964 to create the
Greater Yellowstone Coordinating
Committee (GYCC). National orest supervi-
sors, park superintendents, and reuge manag-
ers communicate regularly to oster partner-
ships, and contribute resources to address
priorities most eectively addressed across all
land areas.Controlling the spread of invasive
weeds oers one example o the benets o
cooperation. When treating weeds, all it takes
is one untreated parcel o land to serve as a
seed source or re-inecting nearby lands.
The rising number o new landowners and
smaller parcels o lands could be a deadly com-
C
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binationallowing or the spread o invasive
weeds that can choke-out native plants and in
turn harm wildlie that depend on the native
plants or ood.
To tackle the problem, the GYCC leverages
unds to partners or monitoring, mapping, and
treating weed inestations in certain areas.
The committee also takes on projects that
benet the entire Greater Yellowstone Area,
such as producing homeowner guides to weed
control and establishing weed-ree certication
standards. By 2004, the GYCC completed a
weed database and map to identiy top-priority
inestations. That same year marked the estab-
lishment o Cooperative Weed Management
Areas covering 100 percent o the area. In ad-
dition, private citizens who want to contribute
to managing and preventing the spread o inva-
sive weeds can nd help rom the multi-partner
GYCC subcommittee, The Greater Yellowstone
Area Weed Working Group.
The result? While invasive weeds continue
to be a threat, the vigilant eorts o many indi-
viduals and groups are keeping the worst o the
weeds at bay. The success record with weeds
oers a model and inspiration or
guiding residential growth and protecting
valuable private lands rom ragmentationa
challenge also being addressed by partners
across the ecosystem.
Aiial irmai:grar Yllws criai cmmi:http://mpin.nbii.org/projects/gycc
Sra Isiu: www.sonoran.org
Surs: GYCC 2005. Maj 2005. Sonoran Institute 2005.
DeborahRichieOberbillig
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4 . W i l d l a n d F i r e
Widand res pay a natura roe in keeping orests
heathy, reducing ues, and adding nutrients to sois. How-
eer, a century o re suppression has ed to a buid-up o ues
in many orests, which can ead to seere widres that are
dicut to contro. Today, the Forest Serice and other and
management agencies baance re preention, suppression,
and prescribed re. Where open space is extensie and
connected, managers can successuy prescribe res with the
goa o restoring ecoogica processes and reducing ues. When
priate and pubic andowners coaborate, there is a better
chance o guiding deeopment away rom high-risk re areas,
and o protecting existing houses by reducing ues around
them.
Designated pubic open space can aso become a
showcase or communities to appreciate the ecoogica roe o
re. For exampe, in Bouder, Coorado, resource managers or
the Open Space and Mountain Parks combine prescribed res,
seectie thinning, and some grazing to repicate natura pro-
cesses and keep ands heathy. Education and pubic outreach
is an important component, incuding on-the-ground iustra-
tions o benets. The city can show citizens where a 130-acre
prescribed re in 1998 became the turning point in sowing
a widres adance in September 2000. When the fames
reached the preiousy burned area, the ack o ues sowed the
re ong enough or reghters to stop the re rom reaching
houses (Bouder County 2005).
Whats at Stake or the Wildland-Urban Interace
Weve got steep, dead-end roads that go up hillsides to homes. Fire-
fghters are at risk trying to reach these peoples homes.
GEORGIA (USDA FS 2002)
Today, more homes than eer are being buit in a rea-
tiey narrow part o the andscape, termed the widand-urban
interacethe area where houses meet or interminge with
undeeoped orests and grassands. More than one-third oa housing units (44.3 miion) a in this widand-urban
interace, which coers about one-tenth o the and area o the
conterminous United States (Radeo et a. 2005).
Houses that a in widre-prone parts o the widand-
urban interacesuch as the Caiornia chaparracan be
dicut and sometimes impossibe to deend rom raging res.
More peope iing in these areas aso correates with more
human-caused res. For exampe, during the record-setti