convergences and divergences

7
~ Pe r g a mon 0277-9536(94)E0029-R Sot'. Sci. Med. Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 285-290, 1995 Copyright © 1995 Elsevier Science Lid Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved 0277-9536/95 $7.00 + 0.00 MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY: DIVERGENCES OR CONVERGENCES? MARC IA C. INHORN Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, U.S.A. Abstract--Despite recent calls for greater collaboration between medical anthropologists and epidemiol- ogists, examples of synthetic, interdisciplinary anthropological-epidemiological esearch are frankly rare, due in large part to perceptions among medical anthropologists that anthropology and epidemiology diverge considerably in their topics of inquiry, epistemological assumptions, methods of data collection and notions of risk and responsibility for illness. In this article, five of these perceived areas of divergence are examined, with an attempt to reconceptualize them as areas of potential convergence. Key words--medical anth ropology, epidemiology, positivism, methodology, risk INTRODUCTION In recent years, anthropologists have increasingly pointed to the overlapping nature of anthropological and epidemiological interests and have sung the praises of collaborative research, especially that fo- cusing on the health consequences of human behavior [1-6]. Books have been written on the need for interdisciplinary, anthropological-epidemiological approaches to the study of health and disease [7]. Sessions at national meetings have been devoted to 'anthropological encounters with epidemiology' [8]. And editorials in major journals have deemed the "integration of epidemiological and ethnographic research methods" to be necessary for the continued maturation of the field of medical anthropology [9]. Nevertheless, as noted by Trostle [6, 10], the his- tory of such collaboration has been one of "benign neglect" and many "missed opportunities", and some observers have even pointed to an active "schism" between the anthropological and epidemiological communities [I 1]. In (a) reflecting on the actual lacuna of integrative, anthropological-epidemiological research, (b) listen- ing to unofficial discourse about epidemiology in anthropological meeting places and classrooms, and (c) reading the many penetrating critiques of epidemi- ology that have been advanced by anthropologists in recent years [11-17], I have noted five major areas of divergence between anthropology and epidemiol- ogy--as perceived by medical anthropologists--which may have prevented such interdisciplinary connec- tions from flourishing. However, as will be argued here, these perceived areas of divergence may be reconceptualized as areas of convergence, which may serve as the impetus for the performance of meaning- ful, synthetic studies that are greater than the sum of their individual anthropological or epidemiological contributions. Although this article represents yet another call for the establishm ent of interdisciplinary linkages, it is intended neither as a review of the published litera- ture on the potentials and pitfalls of integrating anthropology and epidemiology (although much of this literature is referenced within), nor as a review of the major epistemological assumptions, method- ologies, and research goals of these discipl ines (which are usually defined in standard textbooks). Rather, in an effort to stimulate discussion on this subject, my goal is to survey briefly the views that many medical anthropologists seem to hold concerning the schism that divides the discipline of epidemioiogy from anthropology and to suggest that this schism can-- and should--be bridged. I. EPIDEMIOLOGISTS STUDY BIOMEDICALLY DEFINED DISEASES; ANTHROPOLOGISTS STUDY ILLNESS EXPERIENCES As formally defined, epidemiology is "the study of the distribution and determinants of diseases a n d injuries in human populations" (emphasis added) [i 8, p. I]. In other words, epidemiology, as has been noted by anthropologists [4, 5, 14], is disease-oriented, and disease--defined as "abnormalities in the structure and/or function of organs and organ systems; patho- logical states whether or not they are culturally recognized" [19, p. 264]--is viewed by most anthro- pologists as a Western biomedical construct. Anthro- pology, on the other hand, tends to study 'illness', which encompasses the cultural meaning and social relationships experienced by the patient [20]. The 'disease-illness distinction' has been noted by quite a large number of anthropologists [e.g. 14, 19-25] and, as it now stands, is an abstraction that has become somewhat reified in medical anthropology. However, do epidemiologists and anthropologists differ on such a fundam ental level in their subject of 285

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8/3/2019 Convergences and Divergences

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/convergences-and-divergences 1/6

~ Pergamon 0277-9536(94)E0029-RS o t ' . S c i . M e d . Vol . 40 , No . 3 , pp . 285-290 , 1995

C o p y r i g h t © 1 9 95 E l s e v i e r S c i en c e L i dP r i n t e d i n G r e a t B r i t a i n . A l l r i g h t s r e se r v e d

0277-9536/95 $7.00 + 0.00

M E D I C A L A N T H R O P O L O G Y A N D E P ID E M IO L O G Y :D I V E R G E N C E S O R C O N V E R G E N C E S ?

MARC IA C. INHORN

Department of Anthropology, Emory Univers i ty, At lanta , GA 30322, U.S.A.

Ab stract --D espi te recent calls for greater col labo rat ion between m edical anthrop ologis ts and epidemiol-ogists, examples of synthetic, interdisciplinary anthropological-epidemiological esearch are frankly rare,due in large part to percept ions among medical anthrop ologis ts that anthr opo logy and epidemiologydiverge considerably in their topics of inquiry, epistemological assumptions, methods of data co llectionand notio ns o f risk and responsibili ty for i l lness. In this article, five of these perceived areas of divergenceare examined, wi th an a t temp t to reconceptual ize them as areas o f potent ia l convergence.

Key words--medical anth rop olo gy , epidemiology, positivism, methodology, risk

I N T R O D U C T I O N

I n r e c e n t y e a r s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e i n c r e a s i n g l y

p o i n t e d t o t h e o v e r l a p p i n g n a t u r e o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

a n d e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s ts a n d h a v e s u n g t h e

p r a i s e s o f c o l l a b o r a t i v e r e s e a r c h , e s p e c i a l ly t h a t f o -

c u s in g o n t h e h e a l th c o n s e q u e n ce s o f h u m a n b e h a v i o r

[ 1 - 6 ] . B o o k s h a v e b e e n w r i t t e n o n t h e n e e d f o r

i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y , a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l - e p i d e m i o l o g i c a la p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s t u d y o f h e a l t h a n d d i s e a s e [ 7 ] .

S e s s i o n s a t n a t i o n a l m e e t i n g s h a v e b e e n d e v o t e d t o

' a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e n c o u n t e r s w i t h e p i d e m i o l o g y ' [8 ].

A n d e d i t o r ia l s i n m a j o r j o u r n a l s h a v e d e e m e d t h e

" i n t e g r a t i o n o f e p i d e m i o lo g i c a l a n d e t h n o g r a p h i c

r e s e a r c h m e t h o d s " t o b e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e c o n t i n u e d

m a t u r a t i o n o f t h e f i e l d o f m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y [ 9 ] .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s n o t e d b y T r o s t l e [ 6 , 1 0 ] , t h e h i s -

t o r y o f s u c h c o l l a b o r a t i o n h a s b e e n o n e o f " b e n i g n

n e g l e ct " a n d m a n y " m i s s e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s " , a n d s o m e

o b s e r v e r s h a v e e v e n p o i n t e d t o a n a c t i v e " s c h i s m "

b e t w e en t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n d e p i d e m i o lo g i c a lc o m m u n i t i e s [ I 1 ].

I n ( a ) r e f l e c ti n g o n t h e a c t u a l l a c u n a o f i n t e g r a t iv e ,

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l - e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , (b ) li s te n -

i n g t o u n o f f ic i a l d i s c o u r s e a b o u t e p i d e m i o l o g y in

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l m e e t in g p l a c e s a n d c l a ss r o o m s , a n d

( c ) r e a d i n g t h e m a n y p e n e t r a t i n g c r i t i q u e s o f e p i d e m i -

o l o g y t h a t h a v e b e e n a d v a n c e d b y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s in

r e c e n t y e a r s [ 1 1- 1 7 ], I h a v e n o t e d f i v e m a j o r a r e a s o f

d i v e r g e n c e b e t w e e n a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d e p i d e m i o l -

o g y - - a s perceived by medical an thropologis ts - -which

m a y h a v e p r e v e n t e d s u c h i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y c o n n e c -

t i o n s f r o m f l o u r i s h i n g . H o w e v e r , a s w i l l b e a r g u e d

h e r e , t h e s e p e r c e i v e d a r e a s o f d i v e r g e n c e m a y b e

r e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a r e a s o f convergence, w h i c h m a y

s e r v e a s t h e i m p e t u s f o r t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f m e a n i n g -

f u l, s y n t h e t i c s t u d i e s t h a t a r e g r e a t e r t h a n t h e s u m o f

t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l o r e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l

c o n t r i b u t i o n s .

A l t h o u g h t h is a r t i c le r e p r e s en t s y e t a n o t h e r c a l l f o r

t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f in t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y l i n k a g e s , i t i s

i n t e n d e d n e i t h e r a s a r e v i e w o f t h e p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a -

t u r e o n t h e p o t e n t i a l s a n d p i t f a l ls o f i n t e g r a t i n g

a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d e p i d e m i o l o g y ( a l th o u g h m u c h o f

t h i s l i t e r a t u r e is r e f e r e n c e d w i t h i n ) , n o r a s a r e v i e w o f

t h e m a j o r e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , m e t h o d -

o l o g i e s, a n d r e s e a r c h g o a l s o f t h e s e d i s c i p li n e s ( w h i c h

a r e u s u a l l y d e f i n e d in s t a n d a r d t e x t b o o k s ) . R a t h e r , i n

a n e f f o r t t o s t i m u l a t e d i s c u s s i o n o n t h i s s u b j e c t , m y

g o a l i s t o s u r v e y b r i e f ly th e v i e w s t h a t m a n y m e d i c a l

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s s e e m t o h o l d c o n c e r n i n g t h e s c h i s m

t h a t d i v i d e s t h e d i s c i p l i n e o f e p i d e m i o i o g y f r o m

a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s s c h i s m c a n - -

a n d s h o u l d - - b e b r i d g e d .

I . E P I D E M I O L O G I S T S S T U D Y B I O M E D I C A L L Y D E F I N E DD I SE A S E S; A N T H R O P O L O G I S T S S T U D Y I L L N E S S

E X P E R I E N C E S

A s f o r m a l l y d e f i n ed , e p i d e m i o l o g y i s " t h e s t u d y o ft h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d d e t e r m i n a n t s o f diseases a n d

i n j u r ie s i n h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s " ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) [ i 8 ,

p . I ]. I n o t h e r w o r d s , e p i d e m i o l o g y , a s h a s b e e n n o t e d

b y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s [ 4 , 5 , 1 4 ] , i s d i s e a s e - o r i e n t e d , a n d

d i s e a s e - - d e f i n e d a s " a b n o r m a l i t i e s in t h e s t r u c tu r e

a n d / o r f u n c ti o n o f o r g a n s a n d o r g a n s y s t em s ; p a t h o -

l o g i c a l s t a t e s w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e y a r e c u l t u r a l l y

r e c o g n i z e d " [ 1 9 , p . 2 6 4 ] - - i s v i e w e d b y m o s t a n t h r o -

p o l o g i s t s a s a W e s t e r n b i o m e d i c a l c o n s t r u c t . A n t h r o -

p o l o g y , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t e n d s t o s t u d y ' i l l n e s s ' ,

w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e s t h e c u l t u r a l m e a n i n g a n d s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s e x p e r ie n c e d b y t h e p a t i e n t [ 2 0 ] . T h e

' d i s e a s e - i ll n e s s d i s t i n c t i o n ' h a s b e e n n o t e d b y q u i t e a

l a r g e n u m b e r o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s [ e. g. 1 4 , 1 9 - 2 5 ] a n d ,

a s i t n o w s t a n d s , i s a n a b s t r a c t i o n t h a t h a s b e c o m e

s o m e w h a t r e i fi e d i n m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y .

H o w e v e r , d o e p i d e m i o lo g i s ts a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s

d i f f e r o n s u c h a f u n d a m e n t a l l e v e l i n t h e i r s u b j e c t o f

285

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286 MARCIA C. INHORN

i n v e st ig a t io n ? A s a r g u e d b y a n u m b e r o f a n t h r o p o l o -

g i s t s , t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n d i s e a s e a n d i l l n e s s i s

b a s e d o n t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e

b i o m e d i c a l d e f i n i t i o n o f ' d i s e a s e ' i s s o m e h o w o b j e c -

t i v e a n d c u l t u r e - f r e e [ 1 9 , 2 6 - 3 3 ] . I n f a c t , m e d i c a l

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e p r o v i d e d r a t h e r c o n v i n c i n g e vi -d e n c e t h a t d i s e a s e i t s e l f is a c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o n . S u c h

e v i d e n c e i n c l u d e s , i n t e r a l i a ,

( 1) d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e r a p i d l y ch a n g i n g s t a t e

o f a f f a i r s i n b i o m e d i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f ' d i s -

ease ' s t a t e s [1 I ] :

( 2 ) a n a l y s i s o f t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h ' f o l k m o d e l s '

p e r m e a t e b i o m e d i c a l p h y s ic i a n s ' n o ti o n s o f

d i s e a s e d e f i n i t io n a n d c a u s a t i o n a n d c r e a t e

g r e a t d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s w h o

m u s t g u e s s w h a t p h y s i c i a n s r e a l l y m e a n b y

s u c h e n t i t i e s a s ' v i r a l s y n d r o m e ' [ 3 4 ] ; a n d

( 3) e x a m i n a t i o n o f th e d e g r e e t o w h i c h b i o m e d -i c a l p r a c t i t i o n e r s ' d e f i n i t i o n s o f d i s e a s e a n d

d i s e a s e c a u s a t i o n d i f f e r f r o m o n e c u l t u r a l

c o n t e x t t o t h e n e x t [ 3 5 , 3 6 ].

F u r t h e r m o r e , a s N a t i o n s [ 1 3] p o i n t s o u t , b y j o i n i n g

f o rc e s, a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d e p i d e m i o l o g y , w i t h t h e i r

r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e m u l t i p l e ca u s e s o f i l l n e s s , h a v e t h e

p o t e n t i a l t o f o r c e a s ig n i f i c an t " p a r a d i g m s h i f t " , i n

w h i c h b i o m e d i c i n e w i l l b e p r e s s e d t o r e t h i n k w i d e l y

a c c e p t e d W e s t e r n b i o m e d i c a l s c h e m a t a o f d i s ea s e

c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a n d e t i o l o g y , i n c l u d i n g t h e s t a n d a r d

I n t e r n a t i o n a l C l a s s i f ic a t i o n o f D i s e a s e s ( I C D - 9 - C M ) .I n d e e d , e p i d e m i o l o g y , l ik e m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y i t-

s e l f , i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y u n c r i t i c a l i n i t s a c c e p t a n c e o f

b i o m e d i c a l n o t i o n s o f ' d i s e a s e ' o r l i m i t e d m o d e l s o f

e t i o l o g y ; t h e s u b f i e l d o f ' s o c i a l e p i d e m o l o g y ' , f o r

e x a m p l e , i s d e d i c a t e d t o t h e s t u d y o f t h e s o c i a l

r e l a t i o n s o f p o o r h e a l th r a t h e r t h a n n a r r o w l y d e f in e d

d i s e a s e o u t c o m e s [ 3 7 ] .

P a r t o f t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t e p i d e m i o l o g y a n d a n -

t h r o p o l o g y a r e s t u d y i n g d i f f e r e n t p r o b l e m s s t e m s

f r o m t h e b e l i e f w i t h in t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l c o m m u -

n i ty t h a t e p i d e m i o l o g y is a m e r e ' h a n d m a i d e n ' o f

b i o m e d i c i n e . I n f a c t, e p i d e m i o l o g y is w i d e l y v ie w e da s t h e s t a t i s t i c a l s u b d i s c i p l i n e o f b i o m e d i c i n e [ 14 , 3 8] .

I t i s e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t

e p i d e m i o l o g y i s a p u b l i c h e a l t h s p e c i a l t y [ 3 7, 3 8 ],

w h i c h i s t a u g h t o n t h e m a s t e r ' s a n d d o c t o r a l l e ve l s

w i t h i n s c h o o l s o f p u b l i c h e a l t h . U n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y ,

e p i d e m i o l o g y w a s n o t a r e q u i r e d s u b j e c t i n m o s t

m e d i c a l s c h o o l s i n t h e U . S . , a n d , m o r e o f t e n t h a n n o t ,

i t is st i ll t a u g h t t o d a y i n a s u p e r f i c i a l m a n n e r , i f a t a l l .

T h i s e d u c a t i o n a l l a c u n a i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s i g n i f i c a n t

n u m b e r o f p h y s i c i a n s , m o s t o f t h e m i n t e r e s t e d in

i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d p u b l i c h e a l t h , w h o a r e c o m p e l l e d t o

s e e k e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r t r a i n i n g i n e p i d e m i o l o g y , e i t h e rt h r o u g h M a s t e r ' s o f P u bl ic H e a l th ( M P H ) p r o g r a m s

o r t h r o u g h c o u r s e s o f f e re d b y th e C e n t e r s f o r D i s e a s e

C o n t r o l ( C D C ) .

T h u s , e p i d e m i o l o g y a n d b i o m e d i c i n e d o n o t g o

h a n d i n h a n d , a s m a n y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s m i st a k e n ly

a s s u m e . I n r e a l i t y , e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l a n d b i o m e d i c a l

m o d e l s o f d i s e a s e a n d d i s e a s e c a u s a t i o n a r e q u i t e

d i f f e r e n t , i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n t u n i t s o f a n a l y s i s , l e v e l s

o f a b s t r a c t i o n a n d m o d e l s o f c a u s a l i ty [3 9]. I n d e e d , a s

G i f f o r d [ 1 7] h a s s o c o n v i n c i n g l y a r g u e d , t h e d i v e r g e n t

e p i s t e m o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s o f e p i d e m i o l o g y a n d

c l i n i c a l m e d i c i n e c a n l e a d t o s e v e r e d i l e m m a s in t h e

t r a n s l a t i o n o f e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l k n o w l e d g e t o c l i n i c al

p r a c t i ce . A l t h o u g h m o r e a n d m o r e p h y s i c i a n s ( a s w e l l

a s m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ) a r e r e c e i v in g e p i d e m i o -

l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g i n p a r t t o g r a p p l e w i t h s u c h d i l e m m a s

f r o m a n i n f o r m e d p e r s p e c t i v e , e p i d e m i o l o g y , in r e a l -

i t y , r e m a i n s q u i t e m a r g i n a l i z e d i n t h e b i o m e d i c a l

s c h e m e o f t h in g s , s i n c e e p i d e m i o l o g y is p o p u l a t i o n

a n d p u b l i c - h e a l t h - b a s e d a n d d o e s n o t i n v o l v e c l in i c a l

i n t e r v e n t i o n ( o r t h e M . D . d e g r e e ) . T h u s , e p i d e m i o l -

o g y , l i k e m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y , o p e r a t e s l a r g e l y

w i t h in i t s o w n s p h e r e - - o n e t h a t i s s o m e w h a t p e r i p h -

e r a l t o t h e d o m a i n o f b i o m e d i c i n e . I n t h i s r e s p e c t,e p i d e m i o l o g y a n d m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y s h a re

m a r k e d l y s i m i l a r s t r u c t u r a l p o s i t i o n s v i s a v i s

b i o m e d i c i n e - - a c o m m o n a l i t y t h a t s h o u l d s e rv e to

u n i t e r a t h e r t h a n d i v i d e th e m .

2. EPIDEMIOLOGY IS REDUCTIONISTIC AND

POSITIVISTIC; ANTHROPOLOGY IS HOLISTIC AND

HUMANISTIC

R e l a t e d t o t h i s p e r c e p t i o n t h a t e p i d e m i o l o g y a n d

a n t h r o p o l o g y a r e d i v i d e d by t h e i r s u b je c t m a t t e r a n d

a f fi n it ie s to b i o m e d i c i n e is t h e b e l i e f a m o n g m a n ym e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t h a t e p i d e m i o l o g y i s r e d u c -

t i o n i st i c a n d p o s i t iv i s t ic , w h e r e a s a n t h r o p o l o g y i s

h o l i s t i c a n d h u m a n i s t i c [ 1 4 - 1 7 , 3 8 ]. P u t m o r e c o n -

c r e t e l y , e p i d e m i o l o g y is s e e n a s a h i g h l y s c i e n ti f ic ,

c o m p u t e r - l a b o r a t o r y - b a s e d f o rm o f 'n u m b e r - c r u n c h -

i n g ' , d e v o i d o f r ea l h u m a n i n t e r a c t i o n , w h e r e a s m e d i -

c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y i s s e e n a s a h i g h l y i n t e r a c t i v e ,

i n t e r p r e t iv e , i n t e n si v e e n c o u n t e r w i t h r e a l p e o p l e o n

t h e i r o w n t e r m s a n d t u r f .

A g a i n , t h e s e a r e s te r e o t y p e s th a t d o m o r e t o i n h i b i t

i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o f i el d s t h a n t o p r o m o t e

u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A s a n y o n e w h o i s f a m i l i a r w i t h t h eo n g o i n g d e b a t e s i n a n t h r o p o l o g y i s a w a r e , t h e a r g u -

m e n t o v e r w h e t h e r o r n o t a n t h r o p o l o g y s h o u l d b e

' s c i e n t i f i c ' c o n t i n u e s [ 4 0 - 4 3 ] , w i t h n u m b e r - c r u n c h i n g

' p o s i t i v i s t s ' o n o n e s i d e o f t h e d i v i d e a n d h u m a n i s t i c

' i n t e r p r e t i v i s t s ' o f v a r i o u s k i n d s o n t h e o t h e r . T h u s ,

a n t h r o p o l o g y i t s e lf i s b y n o m e a n s s e t tl e d o n t h e i s su e

o f p o s i t iv i s m v s h u m a n i s m , w i t h m a n y d i f f e re n t p e r -

s p e c ti v e s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h i n a n t h r o p o l o g y a s a w h o l e ,

w i t h i n t h e s u b f i e l d o f s o c i o c u l t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y ,

a n d w i t h i n t h e s u b s p e c i a li t y o f m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g y .

S i m i l a r ly , e p i d e m i o l o g y i s n o t a m o n o l i t h i c e n t e r -

p r i se , a n d n o t a l l e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s a r e ' r e d u c t i o n i s t s ' ,n a r r o w l y f o c u s e d o n l i m i te d c o n c e p t i o n s o f d i s e a se s ,

r i s k f a c t o r s , a n d t h e i r n u m e r i c a l i n t e r p l a y . E p i d e m i -

o l o g y i s n e i t h e r l a c k i n g i n b r e a d t h , i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y

v i g o r , a n d c r i t i c a l r e f l e x iv i t y , n o r n a r r o w l y f i x a t e d o n

l i m i te d n o t i o n s o f d i s e a se , r is k a n d c a u s a t i o n . I n d e e d ,

i t is q u i te f a i r t o s t a te t h a t e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s ' c o n c e r n e d

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Medical anthropology and epidemiology 287

d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e i r o w n f o r m s o f ' b i a s ' [ 4 4 ] a n d t h e

p i t f a l l s o f c u r r e n t m e t h o d o l o g i e s [ 4 5 - 4 6 ] a r e m u c h

m o r e s o p h i s t ic a t e d t h a n t h o s e o f a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s,

w h o , u n t i l th e v e r y r e c e n t e r a o f h e i g h t e n e d ' re f l ex i v -

i t y ' [ 4 2 ] , h a d b e e n s t r a n g e l y s i l e n t o n t h e p o t e n t i a l

l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c e n t e r p r i s e .

I n a s i m i l a r v e i n , o n e n e e d o n l y r e v i e w T r o s t l e ' s

[ 6 , 1 0 ] c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e v i e w s o f t h e h i s t o r i e s o f a n -

t h r o p o l o g y a n d e p i d e m i o l o g y t o r e a l iz e t h a t a t l e a s t

s o m e e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s h a v e b e e n q u i te b r o a d a n d

h o l i s t i c - - e v e n ' a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l ' - - i n th e i r t h in k i n g

f o r a p e r i o d o f t i m e l o n g e r t h a n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

p r o f e s s i o n a l a n t h r o p o l o g y i n t h e W e s t . N i n e t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l st u d i e s, r o o t e d i n g e o g r a p h i -

c a l a n d s o c i a l m e d i c i n e , a t t e n d e d t o b o t h b e h a v i o r a l

a n d s o c i a l fa c t o r s , p r e s a g i n g t h e c o l l a b o r a t i v e ef f o rt s

b e tw e e n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d e p i d e m i o l o g is t s t h a t

w e r e t o b e g i n i n t h e m i d - t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y [ 1 0 ]. I nf a c t, t h e c r i ti q u e o f e p i d e m i o l o g y a s a p u r p o r t e d l y

p o s i t i v i s t i c d i s c i p l i n e , w h i c h i s i n h e r e n t l y a p o l i t i c a l ,

a h i s t o r i c a l , a n d a c u l t u r a l [ 1 2 ] , a p p e a r s t o v i e w e p i-

d e m i o l o g y , i r o n i c a l l y e n o u g h , f r o m a h i s t o r i c a l ly

d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d p e r s p e c ti v e . A s t h e h i s t o r y o f e p i-

d e m i o l o g y s h o w s , s i n c e i t s i n c e p t i o n m o r e t h a n a

c e n t u r y a g o , e p i d e m i o l o g y h a s c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o l i ti -

c a l - e c o n o m i c n a tu r e o f n u m e r o u s h e a l th p r o b l e m s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f d i s e a s e s

r o o t e d i n e c o l o g i c a l ly d i s r u p t i v e d e v e l o p m e n t

s c h e m e s . T h u s , f o r a t l e a s t s o m e b r o a d - m i n d e d e p i -

d e m i o l o g i s t s , p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c a n a l y s e s o f h e a l t hp r o b l e m s a r e n o t h i n g n e w - - d e s p i t e t h e i r ' r e i n v e n -

t i o n ' w i t h i n t h e s o - c a l l e d ' c r i t i c a l ' s o c i a l s c ie n c e s .

3 . E P I D E M IO L O G Y A N D A N T H R O P O L O G Y E M P L O YD I F F E R E N T M E T H O D S

B e c a u s e e p i d e m i o l o g y is v i e w e d b y a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s

a s a f o r m o f s c i e n c e , i t i s s a i d t o e n g a g e i n a f o r m o f

n a r r o w ' s c i e n t i s m ' [ 15 ], b a s e d l a r g e l y o n a n i n f l a t e d

c o n c e r n w i t h s c ie n t if i c m e t h o d o l o g y - - - o r w h a t m i g h t

b e s t b e c a l l e d ' m e t h o d o l a t r y ' . T h u s , i t s p u r p o r t e d l y

' s c ie n t i f ic ' m e t h o d s a r e d e e m e d i n c o m p a t i b l e w i tht h o s e o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , w h i c h a re b a s e d o n n a t u r a l i s -

t i c i nqu i ry [47] .

T h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l s tu d i e s ,

h o w e v e r , a r e n o t ' e x p e r i m e n t a l ' , a n d a r e c o n s i d e r e d

i n s t e a d t o b e ' o b s e r v a t i o n a l ' [ 48 ], j u s t a s a n t h r o p o l o g -

i c a l s t u d i e s a r e ' p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n a l ' . I n f a c t ,

p e r h a p s t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d o f d a t a c o l l ec t io n

e m p l o y e d i n e p i d e m i o l o g y i s t h e s a m e o n e e m p l o y e d

i n a n t h r o p o l o g y : i . e . t a l k i n g w i t h p e o p l e . E p i d e m i o l -

o g i s t s g a t h e r d a t a t h r o u g h c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h t h e

w e l l , t h e i l l a n d t h e i r c a r e t a k e r s , j u s t a s m e d i c a l

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s d o . A l t h o u g h t h e i n t e rv i e w i n g t e c h -n i qu e s o f e p i d e m i o l o g y te n d t o b e m o r e ' f o r m a l ' t h a n

t h o se o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , s in c e th e y r e l y o n s t a n d a r d -

i z e d i n t e r v i e w s c h e d u l e s , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s m a y b e

q u i t e i n - d e p t h .

I f e p i d e m i o l o g y a n d a n t h r o p o l o g y d o d i ff e r

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l l y , t h e d i f fe r e n c e m a y b e o n e o f sc o p e

r a t h e r t h a n k i n d . A n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t e n d t o h a v e a

g r e a t e r v ar i e ty o f m e t h o d s t o c h o o s e f r o m t h a n d o

e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s [ e. g. 4 9 - 5 1 ] a n d a r e m u c h l e s s c o n -

c e r n e d t h a n m o s t e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s i n e s ta b l i s h i n g n o r -

m a t i v e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l s t a n d a r d s [ 15 ]; h o w e v e r , a l l o f

t h e m e t h o d s u s e d b y e p i d e m i o i o g i s t s , i n c l u d i n g i n te r -

v i e w in g , a r c h i v a l r e s e a r c h a n d r e c o r d r e v i e w , a r e a l s o

c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l to o l k i t. C o n -

v e r s e l y , e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s t e n d t o d e a l w i t h l a r g e r

s a m p l e s iz e s t h a n d o a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d t o w o r k

w i t h p e o p l e w h o d o n o t v i e w t h e m s e l v e s a s n e c e s s -

a r i l y c o n n e c t e d i n a n y w a y [ 4] ; y e t , so m e e p i d e m i o l o g -

i c a l st u d i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e i n g e n e t i c e p i d e m i o l o g y ,

w o r k w i t h v e r y s m a l l s a m p l e s i z es o f i n d i v i d u a l s w h o

a r e o f t e n r e l a t e d . T h u s , t h e r e a r e n o f i x e d r u l e s t h a t

d i v i d e th e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e n t e r-

p r i se s o n a m e t h o d o l o g i c a l b a s is , a n d i t c o u l d b e

a r g u e d t h a t t h e i r s i m i la r i ti e s a r e p e r h a p s g r e a t e r t h a nt h e i r d i f f er e n c e s .

I t i s n o w o n d e r , t h e n , t h a t m o r e a n d m o r e m e d i c a l

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e b e e n a t t r a c t e d t o e p i d e m i o l o g y

b e c a u s e o f w h a t m i g h t b e c a l le d ' m e t h o d o l o g i c a l fi t' .

A l t h o u g h e p i d e m i o l o g y o ff e rs r e s e a r c h d e si g n s a n d

d a t a a n a l y s i s m e t h o d s t h a t a r e d i f f e re n t f r o m t h o s e o f

a n t h r o p o l o g y , d a t a c o l l e ct io n m e t h o d s t e n d t o b e

s o m e w h a t f a m i l i a r t o a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , a n d i t i s c l e a r

t o m o s t a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s w h o r e c ei v e e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l

t r a i n i n g t h a t t h e y c a n ' w e a r t w o h a t s ' q u i t e e a s il y . I t

i s s u r p r i si n g , t h e n , t h a t s o f e w a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s h a v e

a c t u a l l y c a r r i e d o u t s y n t h e t i c s t u d i e s , i n w h i c h a n -t h r o p o l o g i c a l a n d e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t

h u m a n b e h a v i o r a n d h e a l t h a r e c o m b i n e d i n o n e

s t u d y . J a n e s [ 5 2] , a n e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l l y t r a i n e d m e d i -

c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t a n d a p r o p o n e n t o f th e " e t h n o g r a -

p h y o f d i s ea s e r is k " , h a s p r o v i d e d o n e o f t h e f ew

e x a m p l e s o f w h a t c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d s y n t h e t i c ' e t h -

n o g r a p h i c - e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l ' r e s e a rc h [ 5 3] i n h i s s t u d y

o f r is k f a c to r s f o r h y p e r t e n s i o n a m o n g m i g r a n t

S a m o a n s . L i k e w is e , Z u n z u n e g u i a n d c o l l e a g u e s [ 54 ],

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l l y o r i e n t e d e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s , h a v e u n -

d e r t a k e n s u c h r e s e a r c h o n m a l e s e x u a l b e h a v i o r a s a

r i sk f a c t o r f o r c e r v ic a l c a n c e r a m o n g m i g r a n t H i s -p a n i c w o m e n i n s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a . Y e t , s u c h

e x a m p l e s a r e f e w a n d f a r b e t w e e n , w i t h m o s t c o m -

m e n t a t o r s a g i t a t i n g f o r m o r e collaborative e f f o r t s

b e t w e e n a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a n d e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s [ 2 ,4 ] ,

r a t h e r t h a n f o r syn the t ic e f f o r t s b y t h o s e t r a i n e d i n

both d i s c ip l i n e s. G i v e n t h a t t h e n u m b e r o f d u a l l y

t r a i n e d i n d i v i d u a l s is g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s i n g , s u c h s y n -

t h e t i c s t u d i e s c a n b e e x p e c t e d t o g r o w i n n u m b e r i n

t h e c o m i n g y e a r s .

4 . E P I D E M I O L O G Y ' B L A M E S V IC T I M S ' F O R T H E I R ' R IS K Y '

B E H A V I O RS ; A N T H R O P O L O G Y E X A M IN E S T H EM A C R O - L E V E L C O N D I T IO N S G I V IN G R I S E T O T H O S E

B E H A V I O R S

B e c a u s e e p i d e m i o l o g y is i n t e r e s t e d in p a r t i n a s -

s e s si n g t h e r e l a t io n s h i p b e t w e e n h u m a n b e h a v i o r a n d

d i s e as e , s o m e m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a r e a l a r m e d b y

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2 8 8 M A R C I A C . I N HO R N

t h e p o s s i b i l i ty o f ' v i c t i m - b l a m i n g ' [ 1 6] : i .e . t h a t e p i -

d e m i o l o g y i d e n t if i e s a n d b l a m e s i n d i v i d u a l s f o r t h e i r

h e a l t h - d e m o t i n g b e h a v i o r s . Y e t , e p i d e m i o l o g y i s

p o p u l a t i o n - b a s e d a n d i s e x p l i c i tl y c o n c e r n e d w i t h a

l e v el o f a n a l y s i s a b o v e a n d b e y o n d t h a t o f t h e

i n d i v i d u a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , i d e n t i f y i n g p o p u l a t i o n -

b a s e d b e h a v i o r s t h a t a r e d e l e t e r i o u s t o h u m a n h e a l t h

i s n o t t h e s a m e a s ' b l a m i n g ' i n d i v i d u a l s - - o r th e

c u l tu r e s o f w h i c h t h e y a r e a p a r t - - f o r t h o se b e h a v -

i o r s . I n f a c t , i f e p i d e m i o i o g y i s t o b e f a u l t e d i n a n y

w a y , i t is f o r f a i l in g to g o b e y o n d m e r e i d e n t i f ic a t i o n

o f b e h a v i o r s t o a t t e m p t c u l t u r a l l y m e a n i n g f u l e x p l a -

n a t i o n s a n d c o n t e x t u a l i z a t i o n s o f t h o s e b e h a v i o r s

[ 2 , 4 , 5 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 6 , 3 8 ]. I n o t h e r w o r d s , e p i d e m i o l o g y

a s k s ' w h o ' , ' w h e n ' , ' w h e r e ' a n d ' h o w ' q u e s t i o n s ,

w i t h o u t p o s i n g t h e c r u c i a l a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l ' w h y '

que s t io n [5 , 14 , 26 , 55] . Th i s i s wh y, a s N a t i on s [13] so

c o g e n t l y a r g u e s , e p i d e m i o l o g y n e e d s a n t h r o p o l o g i c a la n d e s p e c i a ll y e t h n o m e d i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s to , a s s h e

p u t s i t, p r e v e n t " e p i d e m i o l o g i c r ig o r " f r o m b e c o m i n g

" r i g o r m o r t i s " .

H o w e v e r , i f e p id e m i o l o g i c a ll y a w a r e a n t h r o p o l o -

g i s ts " t a k e o v e r w h e r e e p i d e m i o l o g y l e av e s o f f " [ 16 ]

b y a t t e m p t i n g t o e x p l a i n w h y p e o p l e b e h a v e i n w a y s

t h a t a r e h a r m f u l t o t h e i r h e a l t h , a r e w e t h e g u i l t y

' v i c t i m - b l a m e r s ' ? A g a i n , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o d i s t i n g u i s h

b e t w e e n e x p l a i n i n g a n d b l a m i n g . J u s t b e c a u s e m e d i -

c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s s t u d y i s s u e s o f h u m a n m i s e r y - -

i n c l ud i n g m i s er y t h a t i s h u m a n l y c r e a t e d - - i t d o e s n o t

m e a n t h a t o u r i n t e n t io n i s o n e o f ' b la m i n g ' . O n t h eo t h e r h a n d , f ew m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s a re p r o b a b l y

t r u e c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s ts in a c c e p t i n g w i t h o u t r e p u g -

n a n c e o b v i o u s h e a l t h - d e m o t i n g p r a c t i c e s i n v o l v i n g

e x p l o i t a t i o n , d o m i n a t i o n , a b u s e o r i n f l ic t i o n o f

p a i n - - e v e n w h e n c u l tu r a l ly c o n d o n e d . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

b e c a us e m a n y o f u s a r e ' p r o b l e m - o r i e n t e d ' in o u r

s t u d i e s , w e a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e r e a r e ' p r o b l e m s '

t h a t n e e d t o b e s o l v e d o r a l l e v ia t e d . F o r e x a m p l e ,

i n f e r t il i t y i n E g y p t , t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n

' e t h n o g r a p h i c - e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l ' re s e a r c h [ 36 , 5 6] , i s

t r u l y a ' p r o b l e m ' f o r t h o s e a f f e c t e d b y i t [3 5 , 5 7 ]; y e t ,

c e r t a in p r a c t i ce s o n t h e p a r t o f E g y p t i a n m e n , w o m e na n d h e a l t h c a r e p r o v i d e r s c a n b e s h o w n e p i d e m i o l o g -

i c a l l y t o l e a d t o i n f e r t i l i ty . I d e n t i f y i n g s u c h c u l t u r a l l y

g r o u n d e d p r a c ti c e s i s n o t s y n o n y m o u s w i t h ' b l a m i n g '

t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w h o p e r f o r m t h e s e p r a c t i c e s, n o r t h e

c u l t u r e t h a t p r e s c r i b e s t h e m . R a t h e r , e t h n o g r a p h i c

i n s i g h t s f r o m l o n g - t e r m p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n i n

t h e c u l t u r e u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h e d l i g h t o n t h e

m e a n i n g a n d r e a s o n a b le n e s s o f v a r i o u s h e a lt h -

d e m o t i n g p r a c t i c e s w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r c u l tu r a l m i l i eu ,

a s w e l l a s t h e p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c f o r c e s t h a t c o n t r i b -

u t e t o t h e i r p e r p e t u a t i o n . F r o m a c u l t u r a l r e l a t i v i s t

p o s i t i o n , t h e n , t h e s e p r a c t i c e s a r e n e i t h e r ' r i g h t ' n o r' w r o n g ' a n d h e n c e b l a m e w o r t h y ; i n s t e a d , t h e y a r e

e i t h e r 'p r e s e n t ' o r ' a b s e n t ' a n d , w h e n p r e s e n t , m a y b e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o t e n t i a l l y p r e v e n t a b l e h e a l t h p r o b -

l e m t h a t m a y b e p e r c e i v e d a s h i g h l y p r o b l e m a t i c f o r

t h o s e a f f e c t e d b y i t .

I n d e e d , a n t h r o p o l o g y h a s a n e x t r e m e ly im p o r t a n t

r o l e t o p l a y i n e x a m i n i n g h e a l t h p r o b l e m s a n d t h e i r

b e h a v i o r a l a n t e c e d e n t s i n o r d e r t o c o n t r i b u t e t o

p o p u la t i o n - b a s e d h e a l t h p o l i c y a n d h e a l t h p r o t e c t i o n

r e s e a r c h . G i f f o r d [ 1 7 , p . 2 3 9 ] , w a r n i n g a g a i n s t t h e

i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g t e n d e n c i e s o f b i o m e d i c a l l y d e f i n e d

' h e a l th p r o m o t i o n ' , n o t e s :

' . . . here l ies an impo rtant caveat for medical anthropologis tswho are working within the discipline of epidemiology.M any o f us have been concerned with applying our anthro-polo gical understandings to epidemiologically defined socialand cul tural r i sk factors . And whi le our contr ibut ion isgreat ly needed, we should be wary tha t socia l and cul turalprocesses do not become reduced to factors which aret rans la ted only into individual heal th prom otion. Rathe r , wemust ensure that our unders tandings are more general inappl icat ion and have re levance to heal th protec t ion researchand heal th pol icy issues . I t i s here that our s t rength asmedical anthropologis ts l ie in that the appl icat ion of ourknowledge needs to be di rected prima ri ly toward s socio-cul-

tural solutions r athe r than medical interventions ' (em phasisin the original).

5 . E P 1 D E M I O L O G Y G E N E R A T E S ' R IS K ' A N D M E D I C A L I Z E S

L I F E ; A N T H R O P O L O G Y C R I T I Q U E S ' R I S K ' A N D

A T T E M P T S T O A L L E V I A T E H U M A N S U F F E R I N G

I n d e e d , i n h e r s t a t e m e n t , G i f f o r d p o i n t s t o a

r e l a t e d a r e a o f c o n c e r n r e g a r d i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f

e p i d e m i o l o g y o v e r a n t h r o p o l o g y : n a m e l y , t h a t i f

a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , l i k e e p i d e m i o l o g i s t s , b e c o m e h e a v i l y

i n v o l v e d i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f s o c i o c u l t u r a l ' r i s k ' d a t a ,

t h e n w e m a y u n w i t t i n g l y c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i n c r e a s in g

m e d i c a l i z a t i o n o f l i f e b y p r o v i d i n g d e f i n i t i o n s o f' r i s k y ' b e h a v i o r , ' a t - r i s k ' g r o u p s , a n d ' r i s k - r e d u c t i o n '

s t r a te g i e s w h i c h m a y b e u s e d i n u n d e s i r a b l e w a y s b y

t h e b i o m e d i c a l c o m m u n i t y . F o r m a n y m e d i c al a n -

t h r o p o l o g i s t s , w h o s e c u l t u r a l c r i t i q u e o f b i o m e d i c i n e

h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e i n s i d i o u s m e d i c a l i z a t i o n o f e v e r y -

d a y l if e [ 5 8 -6 0 ] , th e t h o u g h t o f s o m e h o w c o n t r i b u t i n g

t o t h i s p r o c e s s t h r o u g h t h e i d e n t i f i c a ti o n o f b i o m e d -

i c a ll y m o d i f i a b l e ' r i s k f a c t o r s ' i s e s p e c i a ll y a l a r m i n g .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , m o s t m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , a l o n g

w i t h m a n y e p i d e m i o l o g is t s a n d b i o m e d i c a l p r a c -

t i t i o n e r s , s h a r e a s o n e o f t h e i r m a j o r g o a l s t h e

p r o d u c t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e t h a t w i l l b e u s e f u l i n t h ea l l e v i a t i o n o f h u m a n s u ff e ri n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , m a n y

m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e i n -

v o l v e d i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p u b l i c h e a l t h r e s e a r c h , b e l i e v e

t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p r o d u c e s u c h k n o w l e d g e in t h e

h o p e t h a t i t w i ll s o m e d a y p r o v e u s e f u l in prevent ion .

I n d e e d , a s R o b e r t H a h n s o a p t l y c o n c l u d e d in h is

d i s c u s s i o n a t a r e c e n t A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l

A s s o c i a t i o n a n n u a l m e e t i n g s e s s i o n [8 ] , t h e m a j o r

q u e s t i o n s t i ll f a c i n g us i s: " H o w d o w e t u r n t h e

c r i t i q u e o f r i s k i n t o a p r a c t i c a l p u b l i c h e a l t h a p -

p r o a c h ? "

F o r t h o s e o f u s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e g e n e r a t i o no f r is k d a t a t h r o u g h s y n th e t ic a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l -

e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h , H a h n ' s " c r i t i q u e o f t h e r i sk

c r i t i q u e " i s e s p e c i a ll y i m p o r t a n t . A l t h o u g h w e i n t h e

W e s t r e c o i l a t t h e t h o u g h t o f l i v i n g l iv e s ' a t r i s k ' a s

b i o m e d i c i n e m i g h t h a v e i t [ 17 , 6 1 ], i t is i m p o r t a n t t o

b e a r i n m i n d t h a t l i fe t h r o u g h o u t m u c h o f t h e w o r l d ,

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Med i ca l an t h ro p o l o g y an d ep i d emi o l o g y 28 9

W e s t e r n a n d n o n - W e s t e r n a l i k e , i s, i n d e e d , i n h e r e n t l y

~ r i s k y ' - - i f n o t f r o m t h e d e b i l i t a t in g e f fe c ts o f p o v e r t y ,

c h r o n i c m a l n u t r i t i o n , a n d i n f e c t io u s d is e a s e, t h e n

f r o m t h e n o x i o u s e f f e c ts o f o c c u p a t i o n a l t o x in s ,

e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e g r a d a t i o n , v i o l e n t c r i m e , a n d p o l i ti -

c a l tu r m o i l . A l t h o u g h t h e i n h e re n t l y E u r o c e n t r i c ,

p r i v i l e g e d c r i t i q u e o f r i s k is c o g e n t a n d w e l l - f o u n d e d ,

t h e r e i s c e r t a i n l y a n e e d f o r a n a l t e rn a t i v e d i sc o u rse o n

r i s k - - o n e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e v e r y r e a l r i s k s o f

d i s e a s e , d e b i l it y a n d d e a t h i n m a n y l e ss p r i v i l e g e d

a r e a s o f th e w o r l d .

CONCLUSION

S y n t h e t i c , i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l -

e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e , d u e i n

l a r g e p a r t t o p e r c e p t i o n s a m o n g m a n y m e d i c a l a n -

t h r o p o l o g i s t s t h a t a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d e p i d e m i o l o g yd i v e r g e c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e i r t o p i c s o f i n q u i r y , e p i s -

t e m o l o g i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s , m e t h o d s o f d a t a c o l l e c t i o n

a n d n o t i o n s o f r i s k a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r i ll n es s .

H a v i n g a r g u e d h e r e t h a t m a n y o f t h e s e a r e a s o f

p e r c e i v e d d i v e r g e n c e a r e m o r e i l lu s o r y t h a n r e a l, i t

s e e m s a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n c l u d e b y c o n c u r r i n g w i t h th e

e p i d e m i o l o g i c a l l y m i n d e d m e d i c a l a n t h r o p o l o g i s t,

W i l l i a m R . T r u e [ 3 , p . 2 9 9 ] , w h o s t a t e s :

W h i l e . . . an t h ro p o l o g i ca l co mm en t a r i e s emp h as i z e t h ed i f f e r en t me t h o d s o f ep i d emi o l o g y an d t h e n a t u re o f ep i -d emi o l o g i ca l d a t a , an t h ro p o l o g i s t s h av e n o t r eco g n i z ed th a t

the roo ts o f ep idem io logy p lace the f ield squarely in thean t h ro p o l o g i ca l t r ad i t i o n o f u n d er s t an d i n g h o w t h e w e l l -being of hum an beings i s d i rect ly affected by thei r physical ,social and cul tura l env i ronm ents . By no t avai l ing ourselvesof ep idem io log ical t ra in ing or perspect ives and b y engagingi n t h e a l l - t o o - fami l i a r o ccu p a t i o n a l h az a rd o f t a l k i n g t oourselves about the p roblem s of o ther d iscip l ines , w e lose avaluable oppor tun i ty to move our d iscip l ine in exci t ing newdirect ions .

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