continuous washing parameters and their effects on pre

Chemistry and Materials Research www.iiste.org

ISSN 2224- 3224 (Print) ISSN 2225- 0956 (Online)

Vol.6 No.6, 2014

23

Continuous Washing Parameters and Their Effects on Pre-

Treatment Results

Muhammad Moosa Abdul Rehman and Muhammad Awais Imran

Department of Textile Science, Indus University, Karachi, Pakistan

ABSTRACT

This paper presents some practical hints of an efficient washing in a continuous process for pre-treated fabrics.

The work was performed in a well known Textile mill in Karachi, Pakistan. The study was done to determine

effect of some important parameters to save on water and energy (steam and electricity) consumption. Important

variable washing parameters such as temperature, water flow rate and speed (which are based on hydrodynamics

& mass transfer principles) of the continuous washing range have been discussed & and their effects on

TEGEWA, absorbency, pH & whiteness results have been reported with reference of standardize testing

methods. Especially, this paper includes; the washing theory & principles & effective & efficient washing factors;

which are explained in the simplest way with industrial standard calculations & experiments.

Key Words: TEGEWA, Diffusion Washing, Water Flow rate, Absorbency, Cold Pad Batch, Turbulence

(Mechanical Agitation).

1. INTRODUCTION

An old saying states that “with a good pretreatment, half of the dyeing or printing is made. For a good

pretreatment, an efficient washing is half pretreatment. Washing of the pretreated textile substrate is an essential

part of the preparation or pretreatment processes where all the impurities and non-cellulosic or greasy

components of the material are removed by a continuous rinsing process.

Use of excessive quantities of water in textile wet processing is a common practice and this adds to the running

cost of preparatory processes. Consumption of water in the wet processing of the cotton fabric is shown in Chart

1[1] and one can notice an excessive proportion of it is used at the pretreatment stage.

Chart I

Many research papers and reports have been reported on washing efficiency [5, 8, 11 & 13] with washing

principles & theory in diversified aspects, in which complex calculations and equations are explained. However,

the major gap in these research papers and reports is insufficiency of practical data & conditions in the washing

process of Textiles. Therefore, in this paper, specifically washing principles & efficient washing factors are

discussed by performing several experiments at industrial level.

The present study has been done to study effect of various washing parameters such as speed, water flow rate

and temperature which are based on hydrodynamics & mass transfer principles; at a constant pressure of a

padder on the washing efficiency in a Cold-Pad-Batch (CPB) bleaching process for some fabrics including

polyester/cotton blend, CVC (Chief value cotton) and CVC denier. The washing efficiency was determined by

parameters of absorbency, Tegewa rating and whiteness and effort has been made to determine the optimum

conditions. It may however, be pointed out that the results of the findings are not confined to washing in the CPB

process but are also applicable in general to all the washing off processes including desizing, scouring, bleaching,

mercerizing, dyeing, printing and even some finishing processes.



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Many world renowned companies BENNINGER, KUSTER & GOLLER have given high-tech & efficient

washing machines to Textile industry, the major problem in the textile industry is lack of knowledge to use

effectively the washing parameters and this leads high cost of the washing process and creates hurdles to get

desired pretreatment results. In the washing process, complete removal of impurities after scouring and

bleaching of the textile substrate is very important because their inadvertent presence is detrimental for

subsequent processing. Even for the white fabrics, it affects absorbency, colour and handle of the fabric. Along

with these considerations one has to keep in mind the quantity of water used for getting the optimum results

because firstly it is not free of cost and more importantly the effluent has to be treated to achieve certain

standards of purity at a considerable cost.

1.1 Background Theory

After a fabric has undergone several different treatments during pretreatment, desizing, scouring and bleaching,

impurities and residual chemicals must be removed from it. The washing process after pretreatment discussed

here is the one which is carried out in the open width washing machine.

The washing process is consist of three steps or phases [3]; (a) loosening of extraneous matter, (b) transfer of

extraneous matter and (c) removal of extraneous matter. In first step, the dirt / impurity or oil/grease is swollen

and loosen as much as possible, depending on the surrounding conditions. The second step is based on diffusion

(this is important step & this is discussed in detail below). In this step, the impurity is transported onto the

surface of textile substrate from the core of the substrate. In third step, the extraneous impurity is carried away

by flow of the washing liquor and movement of goods. In actual practice all the three phases are found to overlap. The optimum washing is characterized by maximum

efficiency combined with significant savings in water, electricity, heat and chemicals. The efficiency of the

washing action is promoted by mechanical movement (speed), water flow rate and counter-flow to the run goods.

Fig. 1: Open-width Continuous Washing Compartments

Continuous Open Width Washing Machine: The classic open-width washing machine consist (Figure 1) of a

series of top and bottom parallel rollers, the lower set being immersed in the liquor [8]. The fabric passes

alternatively between top and bottom rollers, being subjected to a series of immersion in the liquor. The top

rollers are driven usually by chains or V-belts in a bank of five or six, which make up a compartment or unit.

The bottom rollers free-wheel and the bearings are sealed and self-lubricating. The bearing of the top rollers are

usually mounted outside the wash box to permit ease of maintenance and lubrication. Both top and bottom

rollers should be of the largest practicable diameter, say 12-13 cm, and the distance between top and bottom

roller kept to a minimum to reduce the tendency for fabric creasing or edge curling [8]. The developments in continuous washing have given by many scientists which are [5];

1 Increase in number of washing units; for water saving & repeated impregnation in fresh water in each unit,

(see Table I)

2 Improvement in fabric dewatering between units; to increase the liquor exchange

3 Universal use of counter-current liquor flow; for mechanical agitation

4 Matching of wash water flow rate to impurity exchange rate



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Table I

It shows typical water savings obtained by counter-current washing [7]

Number of Washing Tank

Water Saving (%)

2 50

3 67

4 75

5 80

Source:(US EPA, 1995)

1.2 Washing Efficiency

Washing process is characterized by its washing efficiency that is the amount of the impurities that are removed

divided by the total amount that could have been removed. Parish has given the concept about performance of

any washing machine; he concluded that effective washing is based on water flow rate and efficiency of each

washing unit. For any given set of conditions an efficiency parameter, which is characteristic of the machine and

independent of the flow of water, can be determined. The performance of a single unit C1/C0, i.e. the ratio of

impurity concentrations in the fabric after and before the wash, is given by following Eqn 1 [5]:

…… (1)

Where, K is the efficiency parameter (equal to C1/C0 for a wash in clean water) and F is the flow of wash water

per unit mass of solution in the fabric that enters in unit time. The use of this relationship allows the calculation

of water flow required for a machine of known K value or of the K value required when the water available is

limited. The value of K can be varied by changing the temperature of the wash liquor, so that energy may be

saved by using a temperature no higher than necessary. The washing performance of a series of units is given by

multiplying together the values of each separate unit. If, for example, C1/C0 were 0.3 for each of four units, then

the overall performance would be 0.34 = 0.0081, i.e. a 99.2% removal of impurity. The value of K is determined

by time of contact, temperature, amount of interchange and properties of the impurity.

Diffusion Washing: This is second step of washing process, which has much important for efficient & effective

washing process. Diffusion washing is a complex process. With reference to Figure 2 there may be up to 4 steps

in sequence [11] :

I. Diffusion of impurity out of the substance of the fibre into the aqueous phase.

II. Interfilamentary diffusion in the aqueous phase within a yarn structure.

III. Interyarn diffusion bringing impurity to the macroscopic surface of the fabric.

IV. Diffusion through the hydrodynamic boundary layer into the water bulk. This boundary layer may be

laminar or turbulent, depending on fabric

speed through the water and length of immersion.

In practical term, the washing efficiency depends on the following factors [13];

• Machine Design

• Nipping roll

• Roll configuration



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• Numbers of roll

• Roll diameter

• Simulator height

• Water flow rate

• Fresh water addition techniques

• Water temperature

• Impurities & chemical concentration

• Counter-current flow

• Water flow pattern

• Water bath design

• Fabric speed

• Fabric GSM (Areal Density) /GLM (Linear Density)

• Fabric contamination

• Fabric tension

• Fibre content

• Yarn twist

• Last process efficiency

All parameters/factors mentioned above play very important role for efficient washing of textile substrate.

All parameters can be control but some parameters would be out of control if not consider before choosing

the washing equipment, for example Machine design, Roll configuration, water bath design etc.

Fig: 2: Diffusion Washing Pathways in Textile Fabric [11]

1.3 COUNTER-CURRENT FLOW PRINCIPLE

The countercurrent washing principle is now common in textile washing process due to its efficient and

economical factors. Basically, the least contaminated water from the final wash is reused for the next-to-last

wash and so on until the water reaches the first wash stage [2], after which it is discharged. This technique is

useful for washing after continuous bleaching, dyeing and printing, see fig 3 & 4. As purpose of washing is to



Vol.6 No.6, 2014

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reduce the amount of impurities in the substrate, as much water as possible must be remove between sequential

washing steps in multistage washing operations. Water containing contaminants that are not removed are

“carried over” into the next step, contributing to washing inefficiency. Proper draining in the batch drop/fill

washing and proper extraction between steps in the continuous washing process are important. Often, 350

percent water on weight of goods is carried over in typical drop/fill procedures.

In further work it has been argued that the single most important feature of an efficient washer is that it has a

very large number of effects in counter-flow. This makes it approach closely the ideal of a reversible

thermodynamic system [11].

The operations of counter-current flow are;

• Counter-current washing is often practiced by introducing raw water into the last wash of the washing

series.

• The wastewater is then circulated from the last step to the next preceding step and so on up the line.

• The cleanest product is washed with the cleanest water and the most contaminated product is washed

with dirtiest water. The system leads to huge savings in water use.

Fig. 3: Counter-Current Flow [6] Fig. 4: Material & Water Flow Mechanism

2. EXPERIMENTAL

2.1 MATERIALS

Table II

Fabric

Construction (Warp/inch x Weft/inch / Warp Count x

Weft Count Blend Ratio (Polyester:

Cotton)

Areal (g/m2) /

Linear (g/m)

Density Width PC 76 x 52/30 x 30 65:35 106/230 85’’

PC Denier 76 x 44/30 x150D* 80:20 94/180 75” CVC Denier 114 x 62/75D x30 75:25 92/219 94’’

*D = Denier Count

2.2 EQUIPMENT:

The Continuous washing range having 4 washing units (the schematic diagram of single washing unit can be

seen in fig. 3) was used to perform this work. The capacity



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of each unit was 3500 liters of water. Fabric Content was 20 meters/unit. Water Jet showering was installed in

first unit. The Washing unit specs were; -Stainless steel compartment with top cover and side large windows. Fabric entry and exit adopts water lock. -Each row of rollers at top and at below and with central distance 950mm (Simulator height), single thread. -All rollers covered with stainless steel and with mechanical sealing. -Guide rollers with external bearings, bottom roller with slide ring seals and top rollers with special steam

chamber seals. -Water blocks plate inside compartment for liquor zig-zag counter flow -1 indirectly steam heating system - Clothing guiding rollers inside compartment are distributed as 5 at top and 6 at below. The diameter of roller

was 180mm (Including compensator). -One Pneumatic compensator - Pneumatic drain valve for each washer There were high ton (5.5 tons) bowl squeezers after each unit for dewatering purpose & one bowl squeezer after

neutralizing bath (10 tons). 2.3 Method:

All experiments were carried out on Continuous washing machine by using counter-flow, up-and-down single

threading, without soaping method. Water flow pattern was, drain at first unit and water inlet flow was from 4th

unit. The range of machine speed was 30-80 meters/ min, and during experiments machine was run at different

speed within given range. These experiments were repeated multiple times to take average and valid results.

Each pretreated unwashed fabric via cold pad batch process was taken X length, length and weight of fabric (in

Areal (GSM) & Linear (GLM) density) is mentioned in the table II, the counter-current water flow was set

accordingly and water flow rate, speed and temperature were analyzed on the basis of results. The padder

pressure in each washing unit was set according to standard (depend on the construction of fabric i.e. light

padder pressure for light weight fabric), similarly the standard temperature was set according to quality of fabric,

see Table III.

2.4 Test Methods:

The weight (GSM) of each fabric was tested by ISO 3801 (g/m2) method. The Tegewa rating was taken from

Violet-blue scale. Absorbency was conducted by AATCC-79 method. The pH of each sample was conducted by

pH Extraction method, (ISO 3071). The whiteness was measured by CIE @ Spectrophotometer.

• For GLM calculation;

GLM = GSM x Fabric width

39.37

• The total amount of water (TW) required;

TW = FW x Pick-

up%

100

• To calculate the fabric weight (FW) passing

through the machine per minute;

FW = GLM x Machine Speed

1000

• The Water flow rate is expressed in l/kg (liters

per kg);

Water Flow Rate = Liters/min x 1000

GLM x Speed



Vol.6 No.6, 2014

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Table III

Washing Unit # Temperature Padder Pressure

1st 95

oC 2 Bar

2nd 85

oC 3 Bar

3rd 75

oC 3 Bar

4th 65

oC 4 Bar

Table IV

The requirements of pretreatment results for pigment printing are,

Fabric pH Tegewa Absorbency CIE Whiteness

Cotton 6-7 >3 5mm-20mm 67-72

PC 6-7 >3 5mm-20mm 67-72

PC denier 6-7 >3 5mm-20mm 67-72

CVC 6-7 >3 5mm-20mm 67-72

CVC denier 6-7 - 5mm-20mm 67-72

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table V

Material Details

Material # 01 CVC Denier Fabric

Fabric/Const. Padder

Pressure GS

M GLM Width Total Meters

114 x 62/75D x

30 Std 92 219 94’’ 5000

Parameters & Results Temp. 1,2,3,4 Whiteness

Flow

Rate

(l/kg

)

Tegew

a Absorbenc

y p

H Speed

(m/min)

Normal Operation 95,85,80,70 70-80 6-7 7-8 5 mm 6.5 70

Recommended

Operation 80,75,70,60 70-80 3-4 7-8 5 mm 6.5 70

Material # 02 PC Denier Fabric

Material Details

Fabric Const. Padder

Pressure GS


76 x 44/30 x

150D Std 94 180 75” 5650

Parameters & Results Temp. 1,2,3,4 Whiteness Flow

Rate

(l/kg

Tegew

a Absorbenc

y p

H Speed

(m/min)



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)

Normal Operation 95,85,80,70 65-72 8.5 2 15mm 6.5 65

Recommended

Operation 95,90,85,70 65-72 6-7 3 15mm 6.5 50-55

Material # 03 PC Fabric

Material Details Fabric/Const.

Padder

Pressure GS


76 x 52/30 x 30 Std 106 230 85” 6000

Parameters & Results Temp. 1,2,3,4 Whiteness

Flow

Rate

(l/kg

)

Tegew

a Absorbenc

y p

H Speed

(m/min)

Normal Operation 95,85,80,70 65-72 6-7 3-4 10mm 6.5 65

Recommended

Operation 90,80,70,60 65-72 5-6 3-4 10mm 6.5 70-75

The three materials were taken under consideration to assess the desired pretreatment results such as tegewa,

absorbency, pH & whiteness by keeping in the view saving on water and energy consumption. The normal

operation was conventional operation at that mill; recommended operation was result of multiple experiments on

continuous washing machine which were conducted at same Textile mill. Comparisons with respect to

parameters & results have been reported. The required pretreatment results for subsequent processes are given

above in Table IV.

3.1 Material 01:

In washing of this material, water and steam consumption were saved by reducing water flow rate and by

lowering the temperature (as mentioned in recommended operation), because there is no concept of sizing

material (so called Tegewa) in given material due to denier polyester is interlaced in warp direction. Secondly,

this material was processed in low recipe during cold pad bleaching thus fewer amounts of chemicals were

present within the fabric structure. As a result, there was no need to high water flow rate & high water

temperature. As far as, concern with absorbency, because of very fine structure of the fabric & it did not create

any problem during pigment printing & generally, in case of pigment printing very low absorbency rating is

required in to avoid flushing problem. An important idea is here, the major advantage is that we can superimpose

the CVC filament fabric in washing machine because fabric thickness is comparatively low but this is a little bit

complicated and needs an extra winder for batching.

3.2 Material 02:

In the Normal operation of this material, the flow rate was high but one can see the Tegewa rating is not

improved. It was observed that the same tegewa result on water flow rate at 6.5 l/kg; it shows that improvement

is required to get desired Tegewa rating by;

• Alteration in cold pad batch recipe

• To improve desizing results

• Increment in washing temperature



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The quantity of sodium hydroxide in Cold Pad Batch bleaching should be increased to optimum level; to

improve the desizing efficiency, so called alkaline desizing [12]. In addition, the desizing results can be

improved by using of sodium/potassium per persulfate in cold pad batch bleaching, because it is mild oxidizing

agent and increase the rate of oxidation combine with hydrogen peroxide [10]. After increased the caustic soda

recipe & introducing the sodium persulfate in cold bleach process, as a result the Tegewa rating was increased

from 3 to 4; in connection to this, the continuous water jet showering was operated in first washing tank &

washing machine run at optimized speed (50-55 m/min) by keeping flow rate 6 or 6.5 l/kg ( to increase

interaction with hot water). The increment in temperature was set as given in table, because heating effect lower

the viscosity of water thus increase the water diffusion in the core of yarn [16].

3.3 Material 03:

The desired results were taken by altering the parameters as mentioned in recommend operation. Water Flow

rate could be set 4 l/kg or even at 3 l/kg but it was analyzed that the contamination, TDS remains in bath and

hence in fabric which have adverse effect on subsequent processes & it gives low whiteness, therefore water

flow rate 5-6 l/kg was effective. At the same time, it was also observed that efficiency of washing was increased

by increasing the speed e.g. 70-75 m/min (more turbulence of water, the turbulence in the liquor produces a high

liquor exchange [17], see also Graph I). At higher speed, the diffusion into the core of the fibers begins

immediately and makes additional penetration time superfluous [11].

Graph I

Temperature of each washing tank was lowered as given in recommended operation, it saves energy, and lower

temperature also increases life of the padder (pad mangle).

4. CONCLUSION

Our core focus was on water flow rate because the key factor of washing efficiency is turbulence, see the below

graph II; how water flow rate affects washing efficiency? The flow rate was set on the basis of results, such as

contamination in water and conductivity (less than 100µS/cm) parameters [4, 13], it was observed that water

flow rate had shown very efficient results in between 5-6 liters/kg. Therefore, we recommend the following

optimized water flow rate (S. No. 2) in Table VI which was found very efficient & effective water flow rate for

cold bleached CVC, PC, PC denier Fabrics.



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Graph II

Table VI

[Note for Table VI: Recommended water flow rate is only for cold pad bleached PC, CVC denier fabric not for

the desized and 100% cotton fabric. For 100% cotton materials, water flow rate may be increased to 8-9 liters

per kg].

This recommended water flow rate is set by considering the water properties as well such as turbidity,

conductivity, pH, TDS, TSS and colour, because these factors rigorously affect the pretreatments results [14].

In this work, it has been analyzed that washing process can be effective and efficient by considering &

controlling the simple parameters such as water flow rate, water temperature and speed of the machine [15]. It is

important to consider the fabric type, construction and level of impurities in the fabric.

Generally speaking, the parameters/factors which are given earlier in washing efficiency heading, we can use all

parameters/factors for available washing system or choosing new washing equipment, in this way we can save

on energy and water consumption by simply altering the discussed parameters.

Acknowledgement

We are very grateful to Deputy Manager Bleaching Mr. Faraz Farooqi, Gul Ahmed Textile Mills Ltd. who has

taken great interest in our work and given useful suggestions to make this work more valuable.

References

[1] Water conservation in textile industry, PTJ November 2009

[2] Report on Waster Efficiency, North Carolina Division of Pollution Prevention and Environmental Assistance

[3] Chemical Technology of Textile Pretreatment, by Karmakar, Elsevier Science, Chapter 7 page 263

[4] ASTM D1125 – 14, Electrical Conductivity by Technical Lab Report, Gul Ahmed Textile Mills

S.

No Water Flow

Rate (l/kg) Efficiency Tegewa Absorbency pH

1 3-4 Relatively low 2 5-10 mm 6.5

2 5-6 Optimum >3 10-15 mm 6.5

3 6-7 Normal >3 15-20 mm 6.5

4 >7.5 Normal >3 15-20 mm 6.5



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[5] Washing Theory & Practice, by W. S Hickman, Colourage Volume 28, 1998

[6] BENNINGER Report on Washing, Pakistan Textile Journal, A. Van Clewe –Gerhard van Clewe GmbH &

Co Kg., Dingden/Germany

[7] Assessment of Counter Current Washing and Change in Rope Route for Water Use Minimization in a Wet

Processing Textile Mill, Filiz MOROVAİzmir Development Agency

[8] Engineering in Textile Coloration, Edited by Duckworth, page 92

[9] Textile Printing, Edited By Leslie W.C Miles, Society of Dyers & Colourists, UK

[10] Textile Preparation and Dyeing By A K Roy Choudhury [11] Reduction of Energy Consumption in the Washing Process of Textile Fabrics By Advanced Technology,

Published by the Commission of the European Communities, © ECSC — EEC — EAEC, Brussels -

Luxembourg, 1992 [12] The Alkali Desizing of woven Cotton Fabrics, by C.K AU & I. Home Research Journal of Textile &

Apparel, May 1999, Vol. 03 No.1

[13] Rinsing Processes in Open-width Washing Machine, JSDC Volume 102 February 1986

[14] Efficient Water Utilization in Textile Wet Processing, Volume 89, August 2008 IE (I) Journal–TX

[15] BEN-WASH Literature provided by Swiss company Benninger

[16] Textile Finishing Edited by Derek Heywood, Chapter 2, page 35, 2003, SDC UK

[17] Hydrodynamics & Mass Transfer in Domestic Drum-Type Fabric Washing Machines, by L.D.M. van den

Brekel, page 56

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