1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 . General 1.2. History of geological studies

1.2. 1. Thailand 1.2 .2 . M ya nmar

Contents

1.2 .3 . Indochina (Ca mbodi a, Laos , Vietn am) 1.2.4. Indones ia 1.2 .5 . Philippines 1.2 .6. Peninsu lar Mala ysia and Singapo re 1.2.7. Sarawak, Saba h, and Brunei

1.3 . T he Modern Era of Geo logica l Co-opera ti on

2. LATE MESOZOIC AN D CAINOZOIC TECT ONIC FEATURES 2 .1 . Genera l 2 .2. Wa llace's Line and its mea ning 2. 3. T he Indian Ocean and margina l seas

2.3 .1. Okinawa Tro ugh 2.3.2 . Western Philippine Sea Bas in 2. 3.3 . Pa lau Ridge and Ayu T rough 2.3 .4. Banda Sea 2 .3.5. Celebes Sea Bas in 2 .3 .6. Su lu Sea Bas in

2 .3 .6.1. North-west Sulu Sea 2 .3.6.2. Cagaya n Ridge 2 .3.6.3. Sulu- Zamboa nga- Negros subducti on system 2.3 .6.4. Rela ted rift events on-land Sa bah

2.3.7. South China Sea Basin 2.3 .7.1. Abyssa l p la in 2.3 .7.2. M idd le Eocene - ea rl y M iddle M iocene 2.3 .7.3. Cru sta l nature and thi ckn ess 2. 3.7.4. Sunda Shelf 2. 3.7.5 . Cont inenta l slope and ri se (Da ngerous Grounds) 2 .3.7.6. Rock form at ion identificat ion 2 .3.7.7. Western Dange rous Grounds 2.3.7.8. Sea-fl oor edifices 2 .3.7.9 . M idd le M iocene to Recent 2.3.7.10 . Tectonic interpreta tion of the M id-Miocene unconformi ty

2.3.8. Indian Ocean Basin 2 .3.9 . Anda man Sea Basin

2.4. T he Benga l and N icoba r Abyssa l Fans 2.5 . G rav ity Meas urements 2 .6. Act ive Plate Margins

2 .6.1. R yukyu island a rc 2 .6.2 . Ta iwa n 2 .6.3. Philippine sector

2.6 .3 .1. Region between Luzon and Ta iwa n 2.6.3 .2. M anil a Trench sys tem 2. 6 .3.3 . Negros island a rc

1 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 6 6

8 8

10 10 10 12 13 13 13 13 14 17 17 20 23 23 23 26 28 28 30 33 33 34 36 38 38 42 43 43 46 47 47 47 48

X

2.6.3.4 . Cotabato island arc 2. 6.3 .5 . Philippine Fau lt

CONTENTS

2.6.3.6. East Luzon Trough system 2 .6.3.7. Philipp ine Trench system

2.6.4 . Molucca Sea collis ion zone 2.6.4.1. Halmahera island arc 2.6.4.2. Sangihe island arc 2. 6.4.3. Ta la ud-May u Ridge collision zone 2.6.4.4. North Sulawes i island arc

2.6.5. Banda Sea 2.6.5.1. Sorong Fa ult system 2.6 .5.2. Seram Trough system 2.6.5.3. Banda arc

2.6 .6. Collision between the Austra lian continent and the Banda arc 2.6.6.1. Timor Island 2.6.6.2. Seram Island

2.6. 7. Sunda arc-trench system 2.6.7.1. Sumba area 2 .6.7.2. Java province 2.6.7.3. Sunda Stra it 2.6. 7.4. South and central Sumatra 2.6.7.5. North Sumatra-N icobar province 2.6.7.6. Andaman province

2.6.8. The Myanmar arc-trench system 2.6.8.1. Present seismici ty 2.6.8.2. The Indo-Burman Ranges 2.6.8.3. The Burman central lowlands 2 .6.8.4. The Pegu Yoma volcan ic arc 2.6.8.5. The Saga ing-Namyin Fa ult

2.7. The Main Continental Plates and Microcontinents 2.7.1. Sundaland 2. 7.2. Australia 2.7.3. Continental fragments between Sundaland and Austra li a

2 .7.3.1. South China Sea northern margins 2.7.3.2. Evolution of the Sou th China Sea region 2.7.3.3. South China Sea southern margins 2. 7.3.4 . Blocks rifted from Sundaland 2.7.3.5. Blocks rifted from northern Austra lia

.8 . Fracture System of South-east Asia 2.8.1. Palaeomagnetic evidence

3. CAINOZOIC SEDIMENTARY BASINS 3.1. Basin classification

3.1 .1. Major river deltas 3.2 . Effect of global sea level cyc les 3 .3. Geothermal grad ients 3 .4. The basins of South-east As ia

3.4.1 . Basins of Sumatra and Java 3.4.2. Tertiary basins of Borneo 3.4 .3. Basins of the Sunda Shelf and Gu lf of T ha il and 3.4 .4. Basins o£ the Philippine archipelago 3.4.5. Basins of eastern Indonesia 3.4.6. Northern Australian shelf, margins and basins

48 48 49 49 51 51 51 52 53 53 53 54 54 57 57 59 59 60 60 61 61 65 65 67 67 67 69 69 69 70 70 72 72 74 74 75 81 82 83 88

90 94 96 96 98 98

103 115 124 128 131

CONTENTS

4 . PHANEROZOIC TECTONIC FRAMEWORK 4.1. Introduction 4.2. Ana lysis of the tectonic framework

4.2.1. Gondwana and Ca thays ia affinities 4.2.2. Method of ana lysis 4.2.3 . The information source

4.3. Tectono-stratigraphic evolution 4.3.1. Cambr ian2 to Silurian 1 (530-425 Ma) 4.3.2. Silurian2 to Devonian2 (425-380 Ma ) 4.3.3. Devonian 2 to Carboniferous 1 (3 80- 340 Ma) 4.3.4. Carboniferous1 to Permian 1 (340-255 Ma) 4.3.5. Permian2 to Triassic3 (255-220 Ma ) 4.3.6. Triassic3 to Jurassic2 (220-150 Ma) 4.3.7. Jurassic2 to Cretaceous2 (150- 80 Ma ) 4.3.8. Cretaceo us2 to Neogene, (80- 20 Ma ) 4.3.9. The recogn ized continental blocks and surures

4.4. Re-activation of suture zones 4.5. Palinspastic reconstruction

4.5 .1. Palaeo-latitudes 4.5 .2. Earliest Palaeozoic times 4.5.3. Late Devonian to Early Carboniferous 4.5 .4. Late Permian to Ear ly Triassic 4.5 .5. Late Triassic-Early Ju rassic 4.5 .6. Late Jurass ic-Early Cretaceous 4.5. 7. Late Cretaceous 4.5.8. Ca inozoic era

5. TERRAINS OF CATHAYSIAN AFFINITY 5.1. South China Block

5.1.1. Yangzi Platform basement 5 .2. Palaeogeographic position of Cathaysia 5 .3. NorrhViernamcomplexs utu re-fau lt zo n e

5.3.1. Cainozoic faulting 5.3.1.1. High grade metamorphic core complexes 5 .3.1.2. Stratigraphy

5.3.2. Area north of the Song Chay Fault 5.3.3. Area between the Song Chay and Song Ma faults 5.3.4. Area south-west of the Song Ma Fault 5.3 .5 . Palaeo position of Indosinia re lative to Cathaysia 5.3.6. The unanswered questions

5 .4. Indosinia Block 5.4.1. Kontum Massif 5.4.2. Other Precambrian massifs 5.4 .3 . The Phanerozoic sedimentary cover of Indos inia

5.5. Eastmal Block (East Penin sul ar Malaysia) 5.5.1. Terrain A 5.5.2. Terrain B 5 .5 .3 . Terrain C 5 .5.4. ~!estern platform of Eastmal 5.5.5. Indosinian Orogeny 5.5 .6. The major structures 5.5.7. Post-orogen ic rift tectonics

XI

134 134 136 138 138 141 141 141 145 146 146 149 150 153 153 153 156 158 158 160 161 161 162 162 163

165 165 173 174 176 176 177 179 181 184 185 185 186 186 186 187 198 198 201 203 205 212 21 3 216

Xll CONTENTS

5.6. West Borneo Basement Block 220 5.6.1. West Borneo basement 220 5.6.2. Kuching Zone 222 5.6.3. Sibu zone 225

5.7. Eastern Borneo 226 5.7.1. Miri Zone 226 5.7.2. Rajang Group flysch belt 227 5.7.3. Eastern ophio li te-me lange zone 230 5.7.4. Tectonic scenario 231

5.8. Sumatra 233 5.8 .1. Djambi overthrust mass 235 5.8.2 . Pe usangan Group 237 5.8.3. Woyla Group 237 5.8.4. Structural relationships with Peninsular Malaysia 239

6. GONDWANA AFFINITY TERRAINS 6.1. Introduction 240 6.2. The Tibet Plateau 240

6.2.1. T he Tanggula tectonic block 240 6.2.2 . T he Lhasa block 242

6.3 . The H imalayan Tectonic Te rr ain 245 6.3.1. Tethyan Himalayas 247

6.3.1.1. Central Crystallines infrastructure 247 6.3.1.2. Tethyan superstructural strata 247

6.3 .2 . Lesser Himalayas 249 6.3.2.1. The sedimentary sequence 250 6.3.2 .2. Lesser Himalayan Crysta llines 250

6.3.3. Siwalik Range 251 6.3.4. Structure of the Himalaya and Tibet 251 6.3 .5. Palaeomagnetic position 251

6.4. The Indi an Plate 254 6.4.1. Precambrian basement 255

6.4.1.1. Bihar and Orissa 255 6.4.1.2. Bengal 256 6.4.1.3. Assam 256

6.4.2. The Gondwanas 256 6.4.2.1. Implications for South-east As ia 256

6.4.3. Post-glacial Gondwa nas 258 6.4.3.1. Perm ian flu viatil e deposits 259 6.4.3.2. Mesozoic flu viatil e deposits 259

6.4.4 . The Godavari coasta l graben 260 6.4.5. The Ra jmahal Traps 260 6.4 .6. lndo-Gangetic Plains 260 6.4.7. West Bengal- Surma- Digboi Basin 261

6.5. West Myanmar Block 264 6.6. Sibumasu (Sinoburmalaya) 266

6.6.1. Precambrian basement 266 6.6 .1.1. Myanmar and China 267 6.6.1.2. Northern- central Thailand 267 6.6.1.3. The Ma lay Peninsula 267

6.6.2 . Machincha ung- Taruta u-Moloheim Formations 269 6.6.2 .1. Myanmar 269

6.6.2.2. The Malay Peninsula 6.6.2.3. Mainland Thailand

6.6.3. Ordovician platform 6.6.3.1. Myanmar 6.6.3.2. Thailand

CONTENTS

6.6.3.3. Southern Thailand and north-west Malaysia 6.6.3.4. Plate tectonic analysis

6.6.4. Silurian 6.6.4.1. Myanmar 6.6.4.2. Yunnan 6.6.4.3. Thailand 6.6.4.4. Malaysia

6.6.5. Devonian 6.6.5.1. Myanmar 6.6.5.2. Yunnan 6.6.5.3. Thailand 6.6.5.4. Malaysia

6.6.6. Carboniferous-Permian diamictite belt 6.6.6.1. Myanmar 6.6.6.2. Thailand 6.6.6.3. Malaysia

6.6.7. Carboniferous outside of the diamictite zone 6.6.7.1. Myanmar 6.6.7.2. Thailand 6.6.7.3. Yunnan 6.6.7.4. Malaysia

6.6.8. Permian 6.6.8.1. Myanmar 6.6.8.2. Thailand 6.6.8.3. Yunnan 6.6.8.4. Malaysia

6.6.9. Triassic 6.6.9.1. Myanmar 6.6.9.2. Thailand 6.6.9.3. Yunnan 6.6.9.4. Malaysia

6.6.10. Tectonic evolution 6.6.10.1. The Indosinian Orogeny

6.6.11. Jurassic 6.6.11.1. Myanmar 6.6.11.2. Yunnan 6.6.11.3. Thailand 6.6.11.4. Malaysia

6.6.12. Cretaceous 6.6.12.1. Myanmar 6.6.12.2. Thailand 6.6.12.3. Malaysia

6.6.13. Cainozoic continental basins of Sundaland 6.6.13.1. North-central Thailand 6.6.13.2. Peninsular Thailand 6.6.13.3. Peninsular Malaysia

Xlll

269 270 270 270 270 270 272 273 273 273 273 274 275 275 275 275 275 276 276 276 278 281 281 281 281 281 281 281 282 282 282 283 283 283 284 285 285 287 290 290 292 292 292 292 292 292 292 292 293 294 294

XlV CONTENTS

7. OPHIOLITES AND SUTURES 7.1. Ophiolitic Sutures

7.1.1. Donqiao ophiolite of the Bangong-Dengqen-Nujiang suture 7.1.2. Indus-Yarlung-Zangbo ophiolite suture 7.1.3. Song Ma ophiolite 7.1.4. Song Da synclinorium 7.1.5. Taniky-Phuocson Trungson zone 7.1.6. Uttaradit-Luang Prabang-Dien Bien Phu line 7 .1. 7. Sra Kaeo ultramafics 7.1.8. Bentong-Raub line 7.1.9. Arakan Yoma-Chin-Naga Hills 7.1.10. Mandalay-Jade Mines 7.1.11. Meratus Mountains of south-east Borneo 7.1.12. Serabang line 7.1.13. Boyan melange 7.1.14. Lupar line 7.1.15. Tatau-Mersing line 7.1.16. Tjiletuh Bay-Lob Ulo, Java 7.1.17. Gumai, Garba Mountains, and Aceh Line 7.1.18. Andaman-Nicobar islands 7.1.19. Nias

7.2. Ophiolites of Cainozoic Island Arcs 7 .2.1. Darvel Bay-Labuk-Palawan 7.2.2. Taiwan 7.2.3. Philippines 7.2.4. Halmahera (Indonesia) 7.2.5. Sulawesi (Indonesia) 7.2.6. Timor (Indonesia) 7.2.7. Southern Banda Arc, east of Timor 7.2.8. Seram, north-east of Ambon 7.2.9. West Papua (West New Guinea)

8. THE GREAT SUNDA-PACIFIC VOLCANIC ARCS 8.1. Gandise Arc of the Indus-Zangbo-Yarlung System 8.2. Myanmar-Andaman Sea sector 8.3. Indonesia

8.3.1. Age of volcanism 8.3.2. Eruptive activity 8.3.3. Sumatra 8.3.4. Java to Flores 8.3.5. The extinct sector north of Timor 8.3.6. Banda arc 8.3.7. Molucca Sea collision zone 8.3.8. Source of the lavas

8.4. Borneo 8.4.1. Hose Mountains 8.4.2. Linau-Balui plateau 8.4.3. Usun Apau Plateau 8.4.4. Nieuwenhuis Mountains 8.4.5. Others 8.4.6. Tungku Formation, Dent Peninsula 8.4.7. Semporna Volcanic arc

295 295 298 301 301 301 302 303 303 304 306 306 307 308 308 311 311 311 312 312 312 312 316 316 318 318 320 320 320 320

321 323 323 323 325 326 326 328 328 329 329 330 330 330 330 330 330 331 331

CONTENTS

8.5. Philippines 8.5 .1. Cagayan Ridge of the Sulu Sea 8.5.2. Semporna- Sulu Archipelago arc 8.5.3. Mindanao 8.5 .4. Central islands of Negros to Leyte 8.5 .5. Luzon

8.6. Ta iwan 8.6.1. Eastern Coasta l Range 8.6.2 . North Taiwan 8.6.3. Penghu islands

8.7. R yukyu arc 8.8. Ca inozoic rift-related a lkaline basalt

8.8.1. Related to the Malay and Penyu basins 8.8.2. Related to the Ton ie Sap- Mekong basin 8.8.3 . Red River- Gulf of Bacbo

9. GRANITE AND ASSOCIATED PLUTONIC ROCKS 9.1. Tibet

9.1.1. Gandise or Transhi malayan batholith system 9 .1.2 . Lhagoi-Kangr i belt 9. 1.3. High Hima laya n belt 9 .1.4. Lesser Himalayan belt

9.2. Sanj iang fold system of Western Yunnan 9.3 . South-east China 9.4. Indochina region

9.4. 1. Precambrian magmatism 9.4.2. Ea rl y Palaeozoic magmatism 9.4.3 . Late Palaeozoic to Triassic 9 .4.4. Mesozo ic intrusions 9.4.5. Pa laeogene intrusions of North Vietnam

9.5. Sundaland gra nite belts 9.5 .1. Eastern calc-alkaline volcano-plu tonic arc 9.5.2. Centra l belt 9.5.3.

9.5 .4. 9.5.5 . 9.5.6. 9.5 .7. 9.5.8. 9.5 .9. 9.5 .10.

Gneissic grani tes and metamorphic complexes along the western margin of the Centra l Basin and eastern margin of the Main Range Ma in Range ba th o lith system South Peninsul ar Thailand North-west continental Thailand Late Cretaceous granites of weste rn Thailand-Myanmar Late Cretaceous rift-related granites Sumatra Borneo

9.6 . Eastern Indones ia granito ids 9.6 .1. Sula-Banggai islands 9.6 .2. Ambon 9.6.3. West Papua (New Guinea)

References

Index

XV

332 332 332 332 334 334 335 335 335 335 335 336 336 337 337

339 339 340 340 341 342 344 346 346 346 348 349 349 350 350 354

354 355 357 357 359 363 364 364 366 366 366 366

368

407