Contents

Classification and Basic Metallurgy of Cast Iron ............. 3 .............................................. Gray Iron 12

............................................ Ductile Iron 33 ................................ Compacted Graphite Iron 56

.......................................... Malleable Iron 7 1 ........................................ Alloy Cast Irons 85

.............................. Cubw and Low-Alloy Steels 105

Steel Processing Technology ............................ 107 Microstructures. Processing. and Properties of Steels ...... 126 Classification and Designation of Carbon and Low-Alloy

Steels ............................................... 140 Physical Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ....... 195 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Sheet and Strip .............. 200 Precoated Steel Sheet .................................. 212

. Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Plate ....................... 226 Hot-Rolled Steel Bars and Shapes ....................... 240 Cold-Finished Steel Bars ................................ 248 Steel Wire Rod ........................................ 272 Steel Wire ....................................... : ..... 277 Threaded Steel Fasteners ............................... 289 Steel Springs .......................................... 302 Steel Tubular Products ................................. 327 Closed-Die Forgings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel Forgings .................. 358 Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Bearing Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 High-Strength Structural and High-Strength Low-Alloy

Steels ............................................... 389 Dual-Phase Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Ultrahigh-Strength Steels ............................... 430

Eardenability of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ............... 449

Hardenable Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ................ 45 1 Hardenability of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ............ 464 Hardenability Curves .................................... 485

Fabrication Characteristics of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels . . . . 571

Sheet Formability of Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bulk Formability of Steels 581

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machinability of Steels 591 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weldability of Steels 603

Service Characteristics of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ....... 615

Elevated-Temperature Properties of Ferritic Steels . . . . . . . . 617 . . . . . . . Effect of Neutron Irradiation on Properties of Steels 653

Low-Temperature Properties of Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . 662 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fatigue Resistance of Steels 673

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embrittlement of Steels 689 Notch Toughness of Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737

Specialty Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys ................... 755

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wrought Tool Steels 757 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P/M Tool Steels 780 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maraging Steels 793

Ferrous Powder Metallurgy Materials .................... 801 Austenitic Manganese Steels ............................ 822 Wrought Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cast Stainless Steels 908 Elevated-Temperature Properties of Stainless Steels . . . . . . . 930 Wrought and PIM Superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950

Appendix: P/M Cobalt-Base Wear-Resistant Materials ... 977 , Polycrystalline Cast Superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981 /Directionally Solidified and Single-Crystal Superalloys . . . . . 995

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Special Engineering Topics 1007

Strategic Materials Availability and Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009 Appendix: Manganese Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021

Recycling of Iron. Steel. and Superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023

Metric Conversion Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035

Abbreviations. Symbols. and Tradenames .................. 1038

................................................................ Index I043

Contents

Specific Metals and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

Introduction to Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Alloy and Temper Designation Systems for Aluminum and

Aluminum Alloys .............. : .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Aluminum Mill and Engineered Wrought Products . . . . . . . . . . 29 Properties of Wrought Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ..... 62 Aluminum Foundry Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Properties of Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Aluminum-Lithium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 High-Strength Aluminum PIM Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

Appendix: Conventionally Pressed and Sintered Aluminum PIM Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Introduction to Copper and Copper Alloys ................ 216 Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Sheet and Strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241 Tubular Products .................................... 248 Wire and Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Stress Relaxation Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Properties of Wrought Coppers and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . 265 Selection and Application of Copper Alloy Castings . . . . . . . 346 Properties of Cast Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Copper PIM Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Beryllium-Copper and Other Beryllium-Containing Alloys . . 403 Nickel and Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Selection and Application of Magnesium and Magnesium

Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 Properties of Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Tin and Tin Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 17 Zinc and Zinc Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527 Lead and Lead Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543 Refractory Metals and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Niobium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . 565 Tantalum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571 Molybdenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 Tungsten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Rhenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Refractory Metal Fiber-Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . . 582

Introduction to Titanium and Titanium Alloys ............. 586 Wrought Titanium and Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592 Titanium and Titanium Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Titanium PIM Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Zirconium and Hafnium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 Uranium and Uranium Alloys ........................... 670 Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 683 Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688

Precious Metals and Their Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 Precious Metals in Dentistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695

Properties of Precious Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 Silver and Silver Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 Gold and Gold Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 Platinum and Platinum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Palladium and Palladium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714

Rare Earth Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720 Germanium and Germanium Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Gallium and Gallium Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739 Indium and Bismuth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

Special-Purpose Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759 Magnetically Soft Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761 Permanent Magnet Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metallic Glasses 804 Electrical Resistance Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822 Electrical Contact Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840 Thermocouple Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869 Low-Expansion Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shape Memory Alloys 897 Metal-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 Ordered Intermetallics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913 Dispersion-Strengthened Nickel-Base and Iron-Base Alloys . 943

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cemented Carbides 950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cermets 978

Superabrasives and Ultrahard Tool Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 1008 Structural Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1019

Superconducting Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1027 Principles of Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1030 Niobium-Titanium Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 A15 Superconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 Ternary Molybdenum Chalcogenides (Chevrel Phases) . . . . I077 'Thin-Film Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 High-Temperature Superconductors for Wires and Tapes . . 1085

Pure Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1091 . . . . . . . . . Preparation and Characterization of Pure Metals 1093

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Periodic Table of the Elements 1098 Properties of Pure Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099

Properties of the Rare Earth Metals ................... 1178 .............. Properties of the Actinide Metals (Ac-Pu) 1189

Properties of the Transplutonium Actinide Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (Am-Fm) 1198

Special Engineering Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203 Recycling of Nonferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205

Recycling of Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1205 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling of Copper 121 3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling of Magnesium 1216 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RecyclingofTin 1218 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling of Lead 1221 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling of Zinc 1223

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling of Zinc From EAF Dust 1224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling of Titanium 1226

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recycling of Electronic Scrap 1228 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Toxicity of Metals 1233

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metric Conversion Guide 1270

Abbreviations. Symbols. and Tradenames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index I279

Contents

1 dion to Alloy Phase Diagrams ...................................... 1.1

<.,a . Common Terms ........................................................................ 1 1 1 Binary Diagrams ...................................................................... 1 *2 .

Ternary Diagrams ..................................................................... 1 *4 Thermodynamic Principles ...................................................... 1 *5 Features of Phase Diagrams ..................................................... 1 *7 Determination of Phase Diagrams ........................................... 1 16 Reading Phase Diagrams ....................................................... 1 17 Examples of Phase Diagrams ................................................... 1 a20 Practical Applications of Phase Diagrams ............................... 1 *24 Bibliography ............................................................................ 1 *27 Index of Terms ......................................................................... 1 *30

Section 2 Binary Phase Diagrams ............................................................. 2.1

Introduction ............................................................................. 2.3 Binary General References .................................................... 2.4 Key to Titles ......................................................................... 2 . 4 Binary Alloy Phase Diagrams Index ........................................ 2.5 References Cited in Index ...................................................... 2.22 Binary Phase Diagrams and Crystal Structure Data ................. 2.25

Section 3 Ternary Phase Diagrams ............................................................ 3*1

Introduction .............................................................................. 3.3 Ternary Alloy Phase Diagrams ................................................. 3.5 Ternary References ................................................................... 3.59

Section 4 Appendix ..................................................................................... 4 . 1

Symbols for the Chemical Elements ........................................ 4*3 Standard Atomic Weights of the Elements

(periodic chart) .................................................................. 4*4 Melting and Boiling Points of the Elements

at Atmospheric Pressure ....................................................... 4.5 Allotropic Transformations of the Elements at

....................................................... Atmospheric Pressure 4.7 ~a~netic-phase- rans sit ion Temperatures of the Elements ...... 4.9 Crystal Structures and Lattice Parameters of Allotroves

of the Metallic Elements ...................................................... 1 0 Crystal Structure NomenclatureArranged Alphabetically

by Pearson Symbol Designation ......................................... 4.13 Temperature Conversions (tables) ............................................ 4.17

Abbreviations ................................................................ 4 1 9 ................................................................................ Greek Alphabet 4.19

Section 5 .................................................................................................. Index 5.1

Contents

Heat Treating or Steel

Principles of Heat Treating of Steels Quantitative Prediction of Transformation Hardening in

Steels Stress-Relief Heat Treating of Steel Normalizing of Steel Annealing of Steel Continuous Annealing of Steel. Quenching of Steel Tempering of Steel '" Manempering of Steel. Austempering of Steel Induction Heat Treating of Steel. Cold Treating and Cryogenic Treatment of Steel Heat Treating of Ultrahigh-Strength Steels Heat Treating of Maraging Steels Heat Treating of Powder Metallurgy Steels Thermomechanical Processing of Steels

Surface Hardening of Steel

Introduction to Surface Hardening of Steels Flame Hardening Laser Surface Hardening Electron Beam Surface Hardening Gas Carburizing Pack Carburizing Liquid Carburizing and Cyaniding Vacuum Carburizing Plasma (Ion) Carburizing Microstructures and Propenies of Carburized Steels Carbonitriding Gas Nitriding Liquid Nitriding Plasma (Ion) Nitriding Gaseous and Plasma Nitrocarburizing ,

., Boriding (Boronizing) Thermoreactive DepositionIDiffusion Process Methods of Measuring Case Depth

Heat·Treating Equipment.

Types of Heat-Treating Furnaces Sail Bath Equipment Fluidized-Bed Equipment Heat Treating in Vacuum Furnaces and Auxiliary

Equipment Heat-Resistant Materials for Furnace Pans, Trays, and

Fixtures Energy-Efficient Furnace Design and Operation

Process and Quality Control Considerations

Temperature Control Furnace Atmospheres

1 Furnace Atmosphere Control. 568 Control of Surface Carbon Content in Heat Treating 3 of Steel 573 Evaluation of Carbon Control in Processed Pans 58720 Defects and Distonion in Heat-Treated Pans 60133 Statistical Process Control of Heat-Treating Operations 62035 Computerized Propenies Prediction and Technology Planning 42 in Heat Treatment of Steels 63856 Furnace Safety 65767

121 Heat Treating or Cast Irons 665137 152 Introduction to Heat Treating of Cast Irons 667 164 Heat Treating of Gray Irons 670 203 Heat Treating of Ductile Irons 682 207 Heat Treating of Malleable Irons 693 219 Heat Treating of High-Alloy Irons 697 229 237 Heat Treating of Tool Steels 709

257 Introduction to Heat Treating of Tool Steels 711 Processes and Furnace Equipment for Heat Treating of Tool259 Steels 726268 Heat Treating of Specific Classes of Tool Steels 734286 Control of Distonion in Tool Steels 761297

312 Heat Treating or Stainless Steels and Heat·Reslstant ADoys 767325

329 Heat Treating of Stainless Steels 769 348 Heat Treating of Superalloys 793 352 Heat Treating of Refractory Metals and Alloys 815 363 376 Heat Treating of Nonferrou. Alloy 821 387 Principles of Heat Treating of Nonferrous Alloys 823410 Heat Treating of Aluminum Alloys 841420 Heat Treating of Copper Alloys 880425 Heat Treating of Magnesium Alloys 899437 Heat Treating of Nickel and Nickel Alloys 907448 Heat Treating of Titanium and Titanium Alloys 913454 Heat Treating of Tin-Rich Alloys 924 463 Heat Treating of Lead and Lead Alloys 925

Heat Treating of Uranium and Uranium Alloys 928465 Annealing of Precious Metals 939475 484 GI ry of Terms 948

Temper Colors for Steels 960492 Au.tenlt1zing Temperatures for Steel•..................... 961

510 Metrlc·Converslon Guide 963519 Temperature Conversion Table 966527 Abbreviations, Symbols, and Tradenames 969529

542 Index 973

Contents

Surface Cleaning Chairperson: Robert E . Luetje. Kolene Corporation

Classification and Selection of Cleaning Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AlkalineCleaning 18

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Solvent Cold Cleaning and Vapor Degreasing 21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Emulsion Cleaning 33

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Molten Salt Bath Cleaning 39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ultrasonic Cleaning 44

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acid Cleaning 48 Mechanical Cleaning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pickling and Descaling 67

Finishing Methods Chairperson: K . Subramanian. Norton Company

Classification and Selection of Finishing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 Finishing Methods Using Defined Cutting Edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Finishing Methods Using Multipoint or Random

CuttingEdges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nonabrasive Finishing Methods 110

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mass Finishing 118 Shotpeening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Topographyofsurfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 Microstructural Analysis of Finished Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Residual Effects of Finishing Methods 144 Thermal Aspects of Surface Finishing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Selection. Application. and Disposal of Finishing Fluids . . . . . . . 158 Influence of Work Material Properties on Finishing Methods . . . . 161

Plating and Electroplating Chairperson: Myron E . Browning. Matrix Technologies. Inc .

Electrodeposition Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Copper Plating 167

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industrial (Hard) Chromium Plating 177 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Decorative Chromium Plating 192

Nickelplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iron Plating 2 13

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cadmium Plating 2 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zinc Plating 227

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indium Plating 236 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tin Plating 239

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lead Plating 242 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Silver Plating 245

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gold Plating 247 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Platinum-Group Metals Plating 25 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Copper Alloy Plating 255 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tin Alloy Plating 258 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zinc Alloy Plating 264

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nickel Alloy Plating : . . . . . . 266 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chromium Alloy Plating 270

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple-Layer Alloy Plating 274

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selective (Brush) Plating 277 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pulsed-Current Plating 282

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electroforming 285

Nonelectrolytic Deposition Processes Electroless Nickel Plating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electroless Copper Plating 311 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electroless Gold Plating 323

Electroless Alloy Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical Plating 330

Dip. Barrier. and Chemical Conversion Coatings Chairperson: Alan Gibson. ARMCO Inc .

Surface Preparation for Continuously Applied Coatings . . . . . . . . 335 Continuous Hot Dip Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Continuous Electrodeposited Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Batch Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Babbitting 372 Phosphatecoatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Chromate Conversion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rust Preventive Compounds 412 Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Elastomeric Coatings for Automotive Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Porcelain Enameling 454 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ceramic Coatings and Linings 469

Anodizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

Vacuum and Controlled-Atmosphere Coating and Surface Modification Processes

Chairperson: Donald M . Mattox. IP Industries

Thermal Spray Coating Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermal Spray Coatings

Chemical Vapor Deposition Coating Processes . . . . Chemical Vapor Deposition of Nonsemiconductor Materials

. . . . . . . Chemical Vapor Deposition of Semiconductor Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition

Physical Vapor Deposition Coating Processes Growth and Growth-Related Properties of Films Formed

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by Physical Vapor Deposition vacuum Deposition. Reactive Evaporation. and

GasEvaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sputter Deposition

Ionplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ion-Beam-Assisted Deposition

Arc Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ion Implantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other CoatingIModification Processes Diffusion Coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pulsed-Laser Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contents

Fundamentals of Joining

Fundamentals of Welding Chairperson: Thomas W . Eagor. Massachusetts Institute

of Technology

............................................ Energy Sources Used for Fusion Welding 3 ........................................................... Heat Flow in Fusion Welding 7

............................................ Fluid Flow Phenomena During Welding I9 Transfer of Heat and Mass to the Base Metal in Gas-Metal Arc

Welding ................................................................................ 25 Arc Physics of Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding ......................................... 30 Power Sources ............................................................................ 36

................................................. Fundamentals of Weld Solidification 45 ................................. Nature and Behavior of Fluxes Used for Welding 55

Shielding Gases .......................................................................... 64 Solid-state Transformations in Weldments .......................................... 70 Cracking Phenomena Associated With Welding .................................. 88

.............................................................. Characterization of Welds 97

hdamentals of Brazing and Soldering Chairperson: Me1 M . Schwartz. Sikorsky Aircraft

Introduction to Brazing and Soldering .............................................. I09 Fundamentals of Brazing ............................................................. 114 Fundamentals of Soldering ........................................................... I26

Fundamentals of Solid-State Welding Chairperson: Ray Dixon. Los Alamos National Luboratory

................................................ Introduction to Solid-state Welding I41 ' Fundamentals of Metal and Metal-to-Ceramic Adhesion ....................... 143 : Fundamentals of Friction Welding .................................................. 150

Fundamentals of Diffusion Bonding ................................................ 156 Fundamentals of Explosion Welding ................................................ I60 Mechanical Properties of Soft-Interlayer Solid-state Welds .................... 165

Joining Processes

Fusion Welding Processes Chairperson: Howard Cary. Hobart Brothers Company

Shielded Metal Arc Welding ......................................................... 175 Gas-Metal Arc Welding ............................................................... I80 Flux-Cored Arc Welding .............................................................. I86 Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding ........................ ... ............................ I90 Plasma Arc Welding ................................................................... I95 Carbon Arc Welding ................................................................... 200 Submerged Arc Welding .............................................................. 202 Stud Arc Welding ...................................................................... 2 10 Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding .................................................. 22 I Plasma-MIG Welding ................................................................. 223 Resistance Spot Welding .............................................................. 226 Projection Welding ..................................................................... 230 Resistance Seam Welding ............................................................ 238 Flash Welding ......................................................................... 247 Upset Welding .......................................................................... 249 High-Frequency Welding ........................................................... 252 Electron-Beam Welding ............................................. ;. ................ 254 Laser-Beam Welding .................................................................. 262 Electroslag and Electrogas Welding ................................................ 270 Oxyfuel Gas Welding ................................................................. 28 I

Thermite Welding ...................................................................... 291

Solid-State Welding. Brazing. and Soldering Processes Chairperson: Randy Roper. EG&G Rocky Flats

Solid-State Welding Processes ............................................ High-Temperature Solid-state Welding 297 ............................................. Low-Temperature Solid-state Welding 300

..................................................................... Explosion Welding 303 .......................................................................... Forge Welding 306

........................................................................... Cold Welding 307 ................................................................ Coextmsion Welding I

............................................................................ Roll Welding 312 ....................................................................... Friction Welding 315

............................................................... Radial Friction Welding 318 Friction Surfacing .............................. ... .................................. 321 Ultrasonic Welding .................................................................... 324

Brazing Processes Torch Brazing ........................... .. ............................................. 328 Furnace Brazing ........................................................................ 330

................................ ................................... Induction Brazing .. 333 Dip Brazing ............................................................................. 336

..................................................................... Resistance Brazing 339 ...................................................................... Diffusion Brazing 343

Exothermic Brazing .................................................................... 345 Brazing With Clad Brazing Materials .............................................. 347

Soldering Processes Iron Soldering ........................................................................... 349 Torch Soldering ........................................................................ 351 Furnace and Infrared Soldering ...................................................... 353 Dip Soldering ........................................................................... 356 Resistance Soldering .................. .... ........................................ 357 Laser Soldering ......................................................................... 359 Hot Gas Soldering .................... .. ........ ... ................................ 361 Induction Soldering .................................................................... 363 Wave Soldering .......... .... ....................................................... 366 Vapor-Phase Soldering ................................................................ 369

Materials Selection for Joined Assemblies

Material Requirements for Service Conditions Chairperson: R . David Thomas. Jr .

Material Requirements for Service Conditions .................................... 373

Selection of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels Chairperson: Bruce R . Somers. Lehigh University

Introduction to the Selection of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ................ 405 Influence of Welding on Steel Weldment Soundness ........................... 408 Influence of Welding on Steel Weldment Properties ..................... .. .... 416

SeIection of Stainless SteeIs Chairperson: John C . Lippold. Edison Welding Institute

Introduction to the Selection of Stainless Steels .................................. 431 Selection of Wrought Martensitic Stainless Steels ............................... 432 Selection of Wrought Femtic Stainless Steels ................... .. .............. 443 Selection of Wrought Austenitic Stainless Steels .............. .. ................ 456 Selection of Wrought Duplex Stainless Steels .................................... 471

Selection of Wrought Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels ................ 482 Selection of Cast Stainless Steels ................................................... 495 Dissimilar Welds With Stainless Steels ....................................... 3

Selection of Nonferrous Low-Temperature Materials Chairperson: William A . Baeslack 111. The Ohio State Universiw

Selection and Weldability of Conventional Titanium Alloys ................... 507 Selection and Weldability of Advanced Titanium-Base Alloys ................ 524 Selection and Weldability of Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys ............... 528 Selection and Weldability of Non-Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys ......... 537 Selection and Weldability of Dispersion-Strengthened

Aluminum Alloys ................................................................... 541 Selection and Weldability of Aluminum-Lithium Alloys ....................... 549

........... Selection and Weldability of Aluminum Metal-Matrix Composites 554

Selection of Nonferrous High-Temperature ~ a t k r i a l s Chairperson: Raymond G . Thompson . Universiry of Alabama

............. General Welding Characteristics of High-Temperature Materials 563 Welding Metallurgy of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials .............. 566 Postweld Heat Treatment of Nonferrous High-Temperature Materials ....... 572 Special Metallurgical Welding Considerations for Nickel and

.................................................... Cobali Alloys and Superalloys 575 Special Metallurgical Welding Considerations for Refractory Metals ........ 580

Selection of Nonferrous Corrosion-Resistant Materials Chairperson: S.J. Matthews. Haynes International Inc .

Introduction to the Selection of Nonferrous Corrosion-Resistant Materials .. 585 Selection of Nickel. Nickel.Copper. Nickel.Chromium. and Nickel-

Chromium-Iron Alloys ............................................................. 586 Selection of Nickel-Base Corrosion-Resistant Alloys

......................................................... Containing Molybdenum 593 Selection of Cobalt.. Titanium.. Zirconium.. and

..................................... Tantalum-Base Corrosion-Resistant Alloys 598

Weldability Testing Chairpersons: Richard D . Campbell. Joining Services Inc .

Daniel W . Walsh. California Polytechnic State Universiry

.................................................................... Weldability Testing 603

Brazeability and Solderability of Engineering Materials Chairperson: Stephen Liu. Colorado School of Mines

Brazeability and Solderability of Engineering Materials ........................ 617

Consumable Selection. Procedure Development. and Practice Considerations

Practice Considerations for Arc Welding Chairperson: Damian Kotecki . Lincoln Electric Company

Welding of Carbon Steels ............................................................ 64 1 Welding of Low-Alloy Steels ........................................................ 662 Welding of Stainless Steels ........................................................... 677 Welding of Cast Irons ................................................................. 708 Welding of Aluminum Alloys ............................... .. .................... 722 Welding of Nickel Alloys ............................................................ 740 Welding of Copper Alloys ............................................................ 752 Welding of Magnesium Alloys ...................................................... 772

......................................................... Welding of Titanium Alloys 783 Welding of Zirconium Alloys ................................................. 787 Hardfacing. Weld Cladding, and Dissimilar Metal Joining .................... 789

Practice Considerations for Resistance Welding & High-Energy-Beam Welding

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Resistance Welding ................................................................. 833

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Electron-Beam Welding ............................................................................... 85 1

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Laser-Beam Welding ............................................................... 874

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for . Solid-state Welding

Chairperson: Dan Hauser. Edison Welding Institute

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for .................................................................. Diffusion Welding 883

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Inertia ............................................... and Direct-Drive Friction Welding 888

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Ultrasonic Welding ................................................................ 893

Procedure Development and Practice Considerations for Explosion Welding .................................................................. 896

Practice Considerations for Brazing and Soldering Chairperson: Anatol Rabinkin. Metglas Products

Selection Criteria for Brazing and Soldering Consumables ..................... 903 Brazing of Cast Irons and Carbon Steels .......................................... 906 Brazing of Stainless Steels ........................................................... 911 Brazing of Heat-Resistant Alloys. Low-Alloy Steels. and Tool Steels ....... 924 Brazing of Copper. Copper Alloys. and Precious Metals ....................... 931

........................................................ Brazing of Aluminum Alloys 937 ..................................... Brazing of Refractory and Reactive Metals 941

.................................... Brazing of Ceramic and Ceramic-Metal Joints 948 Application of Clad Brazing Materials ............................................. 961 General Soldering ...................................................................... 964

.................... ......................... Soldering in Electronic Applications .. 985

Special Welding and Joining Considerations

Special Welding and Joining Topics Chairperson: Hendrikus H . Vanderveldt . American Welding lnstitute

Introduction to Special Welding and Joining Topics ........................... 1003 Thermal Spray Coatings ............................................................. 1004 Underwater Welding ................................................................. 1010 Welding for Cryogenic Service .................................................... 1016 Welding in Space and Low-Gravity Environments ............................. 1020 Joining of Organic-Matrix Composites .......................................... 1026 Joining of Oxide-Dispersion-Strengthened Materials ........................... 1037 Composite-to-Metal Joining ................................ -1 Welding of Plastics ................................................................... 1048 Intelligent Automation for Joining Technology ................................. 1057 Corrosion of Weldments ............................................................. 1065

Joint Evaluation and Quality Control Chairperson: Robin Gordon. Edison Welding lnstitute

Overview of Weld Discontinuities ................................................. 1073 Inspection of Welded Joints ........................................................ 1081 Weld Procedure Qualification ...................................................... 1089 Residual Stresses and Distortion ..................... .. ........................... 1094 Repair Welding ....................................................................... 1103 Fitness-for-Service Assessment of Welded Structures ......................... 1108 Evaluation and Quality Control of Brazed Joints ............................... 1117 Evaluation and Quality Control of Soldered Joints ............................. 1124

Modeling of Joining Processes Chairperson: Kim Mahin . Sandia National Laboratories

Numerical Aspects of Modeling Welds ......................................... 1131 Characterization and Modeling of the Heat Source ............................. 1141 Validation Strategies for Heat-Affected Zone and Fluid-Flow

Calculations ......................................................................... 1147

Cutting Processes Chairperson: Lance R . Soisson. Welding Consultants Inc .

Oxyfuel Gas Cutting ................................................................. 1155 Plasma Arc Cutting ................................................................... 1166 Air-Carbon Arc Cutting ............................................................. 1172 Mechanical Cutting for Weld Preparation ........................................ 1178

Safe Practices ......................................................................... 1189

Glossary of Terms ................................................................... 1206

Metric Conversion Guide .......................................................... 12 16

Temperature Conversion Table .................................................. 12 18

Abbreviations. Symbols. and Tradenames .................................... 1221

Index ................................................................................... 1225

Contents

Introduction .............................................. 1

History of Powder Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Powder Metallurgy Methods and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Advances in Powder Metallurgy Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process Modeling and Design 23

Metal Powder Production and Characterization ............... 31

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 33 Powder Producrion Merhodr Atomization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Milling of Brittle and Ductile Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Chemical and Electrolytic Methods of Powder Production . . . . . . . 67 Ultrafine and Nanophase Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Mechanical Alloying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Spray Drying and Granulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Rotating Electrode Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 Blending and Premixing of Metal Powders and Binders . . . . . . . . 102 Effect of Blending Techniques on Properties of

Metal Powder Mixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 Production of Meral Powders Production of Iron Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10 Production of Steel Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Production of Copper Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Production of Copper Alloy Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Production of xn Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Production of Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Powder . . . . . . . . 148 Production of Titanium Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Production of Nickel-Base Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 Production of Cobalt-Base Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Production of Precious Metal Powders: Silver, Gold.

Palladium, and Platinum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Production of Refractory Metal Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 Production of Beryllium Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 Powder Characrerizarion and Tesring Sampling and Classification of Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Bulk and Surface Characterization of Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Particle Size and Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Sieve and Fisher Subsieve Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Sedimentation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Electric and Optical Zone Sensing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Light Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 TimeofFlight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Particle Image Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Surface Area, Density, and Porosity of Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Bulk Properties of Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Compressibility and Compactibility of Metal Powders . . . . . . . . . 302

Shaping and Pressing Technologies Mechanical Behavior of Metal Powders and Powder

Compaction Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powder Metallurgy Presses and Tooling 343

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powder Injection Molding 355

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Binder-Assisted Extrusion 365 Warm Compaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Cold Isostatic Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Roll Compacting of Metal Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 SprayForming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Thermal Spray Forming of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408 Slip Casting of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Powder Metallurgy Methods for Rapid Prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Sinrering Technologies and Techniques Consolidation Principles and Process Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Sintering Furnaces and Atmospheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production Sintering Practices 468 Consolidation of Ultrafine and NanocrystaUine Powder . . . . . . . . 504 Reactive Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Combustion Synthesis of Advanced Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523 Infiltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 Liquid-Phase Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Cold Sintering-High Pressure Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 Field-Activated Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583 Hor Consolidurion and Higher-Density Applicarions Principles and Process Modeling of Higher-Density

Consolidation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 Hot Isostatic Pressing of Metal Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605 Extrusion of Metal Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Forging and Hot Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632 Pneumatic Isostatic Forging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638

Secondary Operations and Quality Control .................. 643

Hear Treatment of Ferrous Powder Metallurgy Parts . . . . . . . . . . . 645 Welding and Joining Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 Techniques Improving Dimensional Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663 Machinability of P/M Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Machining of Powder Metallurgy Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Resin Impregnation of Powder Metal Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688 Quality Conrrol and Evaluarion Planning and Quality Control of Powder Metallurgy

Parts Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 Quality Control and Inspection of Secondary Operations . . . . . . . 705 Testing and Evaluation of Powder Metallurgy Parts . . . . . . . . . . . 710 Metallography of Powder Metallurgy Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719

.............. Materials Systems. Properties. and Applications 749

Shaping and Consolidation Technologies ..................... 311 Ferrous Powder Metallurgy Materials Ferrous Powder Metallurgy Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751

Powder Shaping and Consolidation Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 13 Copper-Infiltrated Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769 Powder Treatments and Lubrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 Powder Metallurgy Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774

Particle Metallurgy Tool Steels ............................ 786 Powder Forged Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803 High-Temperatwe Sintering of Ferrous Powder

Metallurgy Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828 Nonferrous and Nonmetallic P M Materials Conventional Aluminum Powder Metallurgy Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 834 Advanced Aluminum Powder Metallurgy Alloys and

Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840 Copper Powder Metallurgy Alloys and Composites . . . . . . . . . . . 859 Titanium Powder Metallurgy Alloys and Composites . . . . . . . . . . 874 Powder Metallurgy Superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887 Rekactory Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903 lhngsten Heavy Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 14 Cermets and Cemented Carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922 Powder Metallurgy Beryllium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941 Properties and Special PMApplicarions Mechanical Properties of High-Performance Powder

Metallurgy Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 Fatigue and Fracture Control for Powder Metallurgy

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957 Wear Resistance of Powder Metallurgy Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Corrosion-Resistant Powder Metallurgy Alloys 978

Magnetic Materials and Properties for Part Applications ....... 1006 Powder Metallurgy Elecuical Contact Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1021 Porous Powder Metallurgy Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1031 Metallic Foams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043 Friction Powder Metallurgy Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 Powder Metallurgy Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051 Powder Metallurgy Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058 Metal and Alloy Powders for Welding. Hardfacing.

Brazing. and Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065 Specialty Applications of Metal Powders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083

Appendices ............................................ 1093

Appendix 1: Mechanical Properties of Ferrous Powder Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1095

Appendix 2: Powder Metallurgy Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1098 Appendix 3: Examples of Powder Metallurgy Parts . . . . . . . . . . 1101

Metric Conversion Guide ................................ 1109 Abbreviations and Symbols ............................... 1111 Index ................................................. 1114

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page x . Creep and Stress-Relaxation Testing ........................ 359 Chairperson: James C . Earthman. University of California/lrvine

Introduction to Mechanical Testing and Evaluation ............. 1 Chair~erson: Todd M . O s w n . U.S. Steel Research Introduction to Creev and Stress-Relaxation

Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Introduction to the Mechanical Behavior of

Nonmetallic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Mechanical Testing of Polymers and Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Overview of Mechanical Properties and Testing for

Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Mechanical Testing for Metalworking Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Testing Machines and Strain Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Accreditation of Mechanical Testing Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Tension. Compression. Bend. and Shear Testing ............... 97 Chairperson: Howard Kuhn. Concurrent Technologies Corporation

Mechanical Behavior under Tensile and Compressive Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Stress-Strain Behavior in Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Fundamental Aspects of Torsional Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Uniaxial Tension Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Uniaxial Compression Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 43 Hot Tension and Compression Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Tension and Compression Testing at Low

Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 BendTesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Shear. Torsion. and Multiaxial Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

HardnessTesting ........................................ 195 Chairperson: Gopal Revankar. Deere & Company

Introduction to Hardness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 Macroindentation Hardness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Microindentation Hardness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 1 Instrumented Indentation Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Indentation Hardness Testing of Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Miscellaneous Hardness Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Selection and Industrial Applications of Hardness Tests . . . . . . . . 260 Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility in

HardnessTesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Hardness Conversions for Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Friction. Wear. and Surface Testing ......................... 289 Chairperson: Peter Blau . Oak Ridge National Laboratoly

Introduction to Adhesion. Friction. and WearTesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Adhesion Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Testing Methods for Solid Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Scratch Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 17 Abrasive Wear Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 Solid Particle Erosive Wear Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . 338 Sliding Contact Damage Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361 Creep Deformation of Metals. Polymers. Ceramics.

andcomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Creep and Creep-Rupture Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Assessment and Use of Creep-Rupture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Stress Relaxation Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Influence of Multiaxial Stresses on Creep and

Creep Rupture of Tubular Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Superplastic Deformation at Elevated

Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412

.................................. High Strain Rate Testing 425 Chairperson: Sia Newt.Nasser. University of Calijbrnia. Sun Diegn

Introduction to High Strain Rate Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 High Strain Rate Tension and Compression Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 High Strain Rate Shear Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Classic Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 Recovery Hopkinson Bar Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar Testing of

Soft Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bar Testing of Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Torsional Kolsky Bar Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Triaxial Hopkinson Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516 Dynamic Indentation Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 Shock Wave Testing of Ductile Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530 Low Velocity Impact Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

Impact Toughness Testing and Fracture Mechanics ........... 561 Chairperson: Peter K . Liaw. University of Tennessee

Fracture Toughness and Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Fracture Toughness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Creep Crack Growth Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586 Impact Toughness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596 Evaluation of Environmentally Assisted

CrackGrowth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Fracture Resistance Testing of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649 Fracture Toughness of Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix

Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 ~racture Resistance Testing of Brittle Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665

FatigueTesting .......................................... 679 Chairperson: Robert Ritchie. University of' California at Berkeley

Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Fatigue. Creep Fatigue. and Thermomechanical

Fatigue Life Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 Ultrasonic Fatigue Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717 Fretting Fatigue Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730 Fatigue Crack Growth Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740 Fatigue Testing and Behavior of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fatigue Testing of Brittle Solids 768 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiaxial Fatigue Testing 779

...................................... Component Testing 787 Chairperson: Brian Klotz. General Motors Corporation

. . . . . . . . . . Introduction to Mechanical Testing of Components 789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing for Deformation Modeling 798

Mechanical Testing of Threaded Fasteners and Bolted Joints . . . 81 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Testing of Adhesive Joints 836

Mechanical Testing of Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 TestingofBearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanical Testing of Gears 861

Testing of Pressure Vessels. Piping. and Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873 Residual Stress Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88C Mechanical Testing of Fiber Reinforced Composites . . . . . . . . . 905

................................... Reference Information 9X

Property Comparison Tables: Hardness and Tensile Properties . . 935 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GlossaryofTerms 935

................................. Metric Conversion Guide 952

Abbreviations and Symbols ............................... 955

Index .................................................. 95!

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page ix . Introduction ..................................................................... 1

Metallography: An Introduction ............................................... 3

Metallurgy and Microstructure ............................................ 21

Introduction to Structures in Metals .......................................... 23 Crystal Structure ................................................................ 29 Physical Metallurgy Concepts in Interpretation of Microstructure ...... 44

Solid$cation Structures Fundamentals of Solidification ................................................ 7 1

..................................... Solidification Structures of Pure Metals 93 Solidification Structures of Steels and Cast Iron ........................... 97 Solidification Structures of Aluminum Alloys ............................ 107 Solidification Structures of Titanium Alloys .............................. 1 16 Computer Modeling of Solidification Structures ......................... 127

Solid-State Transformation Structures Introduction to Transformation Structures ................................ 132 Structures by Precipitation from Solid Solution .......................... 134 Spinodal Transformation Structures ........................................ 140 Ordered Structures ............................................................ 144 Massive Transformation Structures ........................................ 148 Invariant Transformation Structures ........................................ 152 Martensitic Structures ...................................................... 165 Bainitic Structures ............................................................ 179

I $ O@erStructures

Interdiffusion Structures .................................................... 186 Plastic Deformation Structures .............................................. 192 Recovery. Recrystallization. and Grain Growth Structures ............. 207 Textured Structures ......................................................... 2 15

Metallographic Techniques ................................................ 227

Metallographic Sectioning and Specimen Extraction .................... 229 Mounting of Specimens ...................................................... 242 Mechanical Grinding and Polishing ........................................ 257 Chemical and Electrolytic Polishing ....................................... 281 Contrast Enhancement and Etching ........................................ 294 Macroetching .................................................................. 3 13

Microscopy and Image Analysis Light and Electron Microscopy ............................................. 325 Light Microscopy ............................................................. 332 Scanning Electron Microscopy .............................................. 355 Digital Imaging ................................................................ 368 Quantitative Image Analysis ................................................ 403 Quantitative Characterization and Representation of Global . Microstructural Geometry ................................................ 428 Three-Dimensional Microscopy ............................................ 448

Special Applications and Methods Metallography of Archaeological Alloys .................................. 468 Field Metallography Techniques ............................................ 478

Color Metallography .......................................................... 493 Selected Color Images ........................................................ 513

Metallography and Microstructures of Ferrous Alloys ............. 563

Cast Iron ........................................................................ 565 Low-Carbon and Coated Steels ............................................. 588 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ............................................... 608 Case-Hardening Steel ......................................................... 627 Tool Steels ..................................................................... 644 Stainless Steels and Maraging Steels ...................................... 670 Austenitic Manganese Steel Castings ...................................... 701

Metallography and Microstructures of Nonferrous Alloys ......... 709

Aluminum and Its Alloys .................................................... 711 Beryllium. Copper.Beryllium. and Nickel-Beryllium Alloys .......... 752 Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys .................................................... 762 Copper and Its Alloys ........................................................ 775 Lead and Its Alloys ........................................................... 789 Magnesium and Its Alloys ................................................... 801 Nickel and Nickel-Copper Alloys .......................................... 816 Heat-Resistant Alloys ........................................................ 820 Precious Metals and Precious Metal Alloys .............................. 860 Refractory Metals and Their Alloys ........................................ 877 Tin and Tin Alloys ............................................................ 889 Titanium and Its Alloys ...................................................... 899 Uranium and Its Alloys ...................................................... 918 Zinc and Its Alloys ........................................................... 933 Zirconium. Hafnium. and Their Alloys .................................... 942

Metallography and Microstructures of Ceramics. Composite-Metal Forms. and Special-Purpose Alloys ................................... 959

Metallography of Biomedical Orthopedic Alloys ........................ 961 Microstructure and Domain Imaging of Magnetic Materials ........... 969 Metallography and Microstructures of Powder Metallurgy Alloys .... 994 Metallography and Microstructures of Semisolid Formed Alloys .... 1021 Microstructural Characterization of Thermal Spray Coatings ......... 1038 Metallography and Microstructures of Weldments ..................... 1047 Preparation and Microstructural Analysis of High-Performance

Ceramics .................................................................... 1057 Metallography of Cemented Carbides .................................... 1067

Laboratory Safety .......................................................... 1079

Laboratory Safety in Metallography ...................................... 1081

Reference Information ..................................................... 1091

Grit Sizes and Grain Size Conversions ................................... 1093 Tables of Chemicals and Etchants ......................................... 1094 Glossary of Terms ........................................................... 1115 Metric Conversion Guide ................................................... 1135 Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................ 1138 Index ........................................................................... 1140

................................................ ................................................................. Introduction 1 Optical Metallography 299 ........................................................ Image Analysis 309

How To Use the Handbook ............................................. 2 .................................................... Sampling 12 Diffraction Methods 323 ...................................................................

Suzanne . Weissman. Sandia National Laboratories Co-chairman: Raymond P . Goehner . Siemens Corporation Co-chairman: Monte C . Nichols. Sandia National Laboratories

Optical and X-Ray Spectroscopy ..................................... 19 Chairman: Thomas M . Niemczyk. University of New Mexico

...................................... Optical Emission Spectroscopy 2 1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission

......................................................... Spectroscopy 3 1 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry .................................... 43 UltravioleUVisible Absorption Spectroscopy ...................... 60 Molecular Fluorescence Spectroscopy .............................. 72

................................................... X-Ray Spectrometry 82 .................................. Particle-Induced X-Rav Emission 102

............................................................ Introduction 325 X-Ray Powder Diffraction ........................................... 333 Single-Crystal X-Ray Diffraction .................................. 344 Crystallographic Texture Measurement and Analysis ........... 357

................................................... X-Ray Topography 365 X-Ray Diffraction Residual Stress Techniques .................. 380 Radial Distribution Function Analysis ............................. 393 Small-Angle X-Ray and Neutron Scattering ..................... 402 Extended X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure ...................... 407

................................................... Neutron Diffraction 420 ................................................ Infrared Spectroscopy 109

Raman Spectroscopy ................................................ 126 Optical Methods ............................................ 427 Chairman: Alton D . Romig, Jr . , Sandia National Laboratories

..................................................... Mass Spectroscopy 139 ................... Chairman: Joel A . Carter. Oak Ridge National Laboratory Analytical Transmission Electron Microscopy 429 ..................................... Scannine Electron Microscoov 490 . .

Spark Source Mass Spectrometry .................................. 141 ~lectron-probe x - R ~ ~ Microanalysis 516 .............................. Gas ~na lys i s by Mass Spectrometry .............................. 15 1 LOW-Energy Electron Diffraction 536 ..................................

Classical. Electrochemical. and Radiochemical Analysis ..... 159 Co-chairman: Dean A . Flinchbaugh. Bethlehem Steel

Qrporation Co-chairman: Carolyn McCrory.Joy. AT&T Bell Laboratories

Classical Wet Analytical Chemistry ............................... 161 Potentiometric Membrane Electrodes .............................. 181

........................................................... Voltammetry 188 ..................................................... Electrogravimetry 197

............................................... Electrometric Titration 202 ................................... Controlled-Potential Coulometry 207

Elemental and Functional Group Analysis ........................ 2 12 High-Temperature Combustion ..................................... 221

....................................................... Inert Gas Fusion 226 Neutron Activation Analysis ........................................ 233

.......................................................... Radioanalysis 243

.................................................... Resonance Methods 25 1 Chairman: Larry H . Bennett. National Bureau of Standards

............................................ Electron Spin Resonance 253

............................................ Ferromagnetic Resonance 267 ....................................... Nuclear Magnetic Resonance 277

............................................. Mossbauer Spectroscopy 287

Electron or X-Ray Spectroscopic Methods ....................... 547 Chairman: Harris L . Marcus. University of Texas

Auger Electron Spectroscopy ....................................... 549 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy ................................ 568

Methods Based on Sputtering or Scattering Phenomena ..... 581 Chairman: James A . Borders. Sandia National Laboratories

Field Ion Microscopy and Atom Probe Microanalysis ......... 583 Low-Energy Ion-Scattering Spectroscopy ......................... 603

................................. Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy 610 Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry .......................... 628

........................................................ Chromatography 637

Gas ChromatographyIMass Spectrometry ......................... 639 Liquid Chromatography .............................................. 649

.................................................. Ion Chromatography 658

...................................................... Glossary of Terms 668

............................................. Metric Conversion Guide 685

...................................... Periodic Table of the Elements 688

Metallographic Techniques ........................................... 297 Abbreviations and Symbols 689 .......................................... Chairman: Maclntyre R . Louthan, Virginia Polytechnic Institute

....................................................................... and State University Index 693

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page x . Engineering Aspects of Failure and Prevention ......................... 1 Chairperson: James Scutti

introduction to Failure Analysis and Prevention ............................ 3 Materials Selection for Failure Prevention .................................. 21 Design Review for Failure Analysis and Prevention ...................... 40 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis ......................................... 50 Reliability-Centered Maintenance ............................................ 60 Products Liability and Design ................................................. 7 1

Manufacturing Aspects of Failure and Prevention ..................... 79

Failures Related to Metalworking ............................................ 81 Failures Related to Casting .................................................. 103 Failures Related to Welding ................................................. 156 Failures Related to Heat Treating Operations ............................ 192

Structural Life Assessment Methods .................................... 225 chair per sot^: Dan Benac

Failure Analysis and Life Assessment of Structural Components and Equipment .............................................................. 227

Failure Assessment Diagrams ............................................... 243 Analysis Methods for Probabilistic Life Assessment .................... 250 Nondestructive Evaluation and Life Assessment ......................... 269 Fatigue-Life Assessment ..................................................... 276 Elevated-Temperature Life Assessment for Turbine Components,

Piping. and Tubing ......................................................... 289

Principles and Practice of Failure Analysis ............................ 313 Chairpersons: Debbie Aliyu. Aaron Tanzer. and Steve McDanels

The Failure Analysis Process: An Overview ............................. 3 15 Organization of a Failure Investigation .................................... 324 Conducting a Failure.Examination ......................................... 333 Determination and Classification of Damage ............................. 343 Examination of Damage and Material Evaluation ....................... 351 Modeling and Accident Reconstruction ................................... 371 Finite Element Modeling in Failure Analysis ............................. 380

Took and Techniques in Failure Analysis ............................. 391

Practices in Failure Analysis ................................................ 393 Photography in Failure Analysis ............................................ 418 Chemical Analysis of Metals in Failure Analysis ........................ 429 Characterization of Plastics in Failure Analysis .......................... 437 Stress Analysis and Fracture Mechanics .................................. 460 X-Ray Diffraction Residual Stress Measurement

in Failure Analysis ......................................................... 484 Metallographic Techniques in Failure Analysis .......................... 498 Scanning Electron Microscopy .............................................. 5 16 Chemical Characterization of Surfaces .................................... 527 Quantitative Fractography ................................................... 538

........................................................................ Fracture 557 Chairperson: William Becker

Fracture Appearance and Mechanisms of Deformation ................................................................. and Fracture 559

Mechanisms and Appearances of Ductile and Brittle Fracture in MetaIs .................................................................... 587

Fatigue Fracture Appearances ............................................... 627 Intergranular Fracture ........................................................ 641 Fracture of Plastics ............................................................ 650 Fracture Modes and Appearances in Ceramics ........................... 662 Overload Failures ............................................................. 671 Fatigue Failures ............................................................... 700 Creep and Stress Rupture Failures ......................................... 728 Thermomechanical Fatigue: Mechanisms and Practical

................................................................ Life Analysis 738

Corrosion-Related Failures .............................................. 7 4 7 Chairperson: Ron Purrington

Analysis and Prevention of Corrosion-Related Failures ................ 749 Forms of Corrosion ........................................................... 761 Effect of Environment on the Performance of Plastics .................. 796 Corrosion Failures of Industrial Refractories and Technical

Ceramics ..................................................................... 800 Hydrogen Damage and Embrittlement ..................................... 809 Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... 823 Liquid Metal and Solid Metal Induced Einbrittlement .................. 861 High-Temperature Corrosion-Related Failures ........................... 868 BioIogical Corrosion Failures ............................................... 881

Wear Failures ................................................................ 899 Chairpersons: Jeff Hawk and Richard Wilson

Fundamentals of Wear Failures ............................................. 901 Abrasive Wear Failures ...................................................... 906 Fretting Wear Failures ........................................................ 922 Rolling Contact Fatigue ...................................................... 941

...................................... Rolling-Contact Fatigue of Ceramics 957 Impact Wear Failures ......................................................... 965 Spalling from Impact Events ................................................ 975

..................................................... Corrosive Wear Failures 989 Erosive Wear Failures ........................................................ 995 Cavitation Erosion ........................................................... 1002 Liquid-lmpact Erosion ...................................................... 1013 Wear Failures of Plastics ................................................... 1019 Wear Failures of Reinforced Polymers ................................... I028

Distortion ..................................................................... 1045 Analysis of Distortion and Deformation .................................. 1047

Reference Information .................................................... -1059 Glossary ....................................................................... 1061 Metric Conversion Guide ................................................... 1078 Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................ 1081 Directory of Examples of Failure Analysis .............................. 1084 Index ........................................................................... 1090

Contents

History of Fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Modes of Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Preparation and Preservation of Fracture Specimens . . . . . . . . 72 Photography of Fractured Parts and Fracture Surfaces . . . . . . 78

Visual Examination and Light Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Scanning Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Transmission Electron Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Quantitative Fractography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Fractal Analysis of Fracture Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Atlas of Fractographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 16

Pure Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 19 Gray Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Ductile Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 Malleable IronsIWhite Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 Low-Carbon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Medium-Carbon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 High-Carbon Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 AISIISAE Alloy Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1 ASTWASME Alloy Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Austenitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 1 Martensitic Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366

Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Tool Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Maraging Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Iron-Base Superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Nickel-Base Superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 Nickel Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Cobalt Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Copper Alloys 399 Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Wrought Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 PIM Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Miscellaneous Metals and Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456 Metal-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 Cemented Carbides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471 Concrete and Asphalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472 Resin-Matrix Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Polymers 479 Electronic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481

Metric Conversion Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

Abbreviations and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page xii . Fundamentals of Corrosion .................................................. 1

............................. Introduction to the Fundamentals of Corrosion 3

Fundamentals of Corrosion Thermodynamics ............ Introduction to Fundamentals of Corrosion Thermodynamics 5

Electrode Processes .............................................................. 6 Electrode Potentials .............................................................. 8 Potential Measurements with Reference Electrodes ....................... 13 Potential versus pH (Pourbaix) Diagrams ................................... 17 Molten Salt Corrosion Thermodynamics .................................... 3 1

......................................................... Geochemical Modeling 34

Localized Corrosion Pitting Corrosion .............................................................. 236 Crevice Corrosion ............................................................. 242 Filiform Corrosion ............................................................ 248

Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion Introduction to Metallurgically Influenced Corrosion ................... 257 Effects of Metallurgical Variables on Aqueous Corrosion ............. 258 Effects of Metallurgical Variables on the Corrosion

of Stainless Steels .......................................................... 266 Effects of Metallurgical Variables on the Corrosion

of Aluminum Alloys ....................................................... 275 Effects of Metallurgical Variables on the Corrosion

of High-Nickel Alloys ..................................................... 279 Fundamentals of Aqueous Corrosion Kinetics Effects of Metallurgical Variables on Dealloying Corrosion ........... 287 Kinetics of Aqueous Corrosion ............................................... 42 Corrosion of Carbon Steel Weldments .................................... 294 Aqueous Corrosion Reaction Mechanisms .................................. 52 Corrosion of Stainless Steel Weldments ................................... 301 Passivity .......................................................................... 6 1 Corrosion of Nonferrous Alloy Weldments ............................... 317 Methods for Determining Aqueous Corrosion Reaction Rates ........... 68

Fundamentals of Gaseous Corrosion Introduction to Fundamentals of Corrosion in Gases ...................... 87 Thermodynamics of Gaseous Corrosion ..................................... 90 Kinetics of Gaseous Corrosion Processes ................................... 97 Gaseous Corrosion Mechanisms ............................................ 106 Methods for Measuring Gaseous Corrosion Rates ....................... 115

Fundamentals Applied to Specific Environments Corrosion in Molten Salts ................................................... 117 Corrosion in Molten Nitrates . Nitrites. and Fluorides ................... 124 Corrosion by Liquid Metals ................................................ 129

Fundamentals of Corrosion for Constructive Purposes Introduction to Corrosion for Constructive Purposes .................... 135 Electropolishing ............................................................... 139 Electrochemical Machining .................................................. 143 Electrochemical Allied Processes ........................................... 153 Electrochemical Hybrid Processes .......................................... 157 Electrochemical Refining .................................................... 160 Chemical-Mechanical Planarization for Semiconductors ............... 164 Anodes for Batteries .......................................................... 170 Fuel Cells ...................................................................... 178

Forms of Corrosion ........................................................ 187

Introduction to Forms of Corrosion ........................................ 189

Uniform Corrosion Aqueous Corrosion ........................................................... 190 Atmospheric Corrosion ..................................................... 196 Galvanic Corrosion ........................................................... 2 10 Stray-Current Corrosion ...................................................... 2 14 Molten Salt Corrosion ........................................................ 216 Liquid Metal Corrosion ................................. ., ................... 220 High-Temperature Gaseous Corrosion ..................................... 228

Mechanically Assisted Degradation Forms of Mechanically Assisted Degradation ............................ 322 Aqueous Corrosion-Wear Interactions ..................................... 331 Gaseous Corrosion-Wear Interactions ..................................... 338

Environmentally Induced Cracking Introduction to Environmentally Induced Cracking ..................... 345 Stress-Corrosion Cracking ................................................... 346 Hydrogen Damage ............................................................ 367 Liquid Metal Induced Embrittlement ...................................... 381 Solid Metal Induced Embrittlement ........................................ 393

Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion ................................... 398

Corrosion Testing and Evaluation ....................................... 417

Introduction to Corrosion Testing and Evaluation ....................... 419

Planning Corrosion Tests and Evaluating Results Designing. Planning. and Preparing Corrosion Tests .................... 420 Statistical Interpretation of Corrosion Test Results ...................... 425 Modeling Corrosion Processes .............................................. 430

Laboratory Corrosion Tests Electrochemical Methods of Corrosion Testing .......................... 446 Immersion Testing ............................................................ 463 Cabinet Testing ................................................................ 470 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion Testing ......................... 478

Simulated Service Corrosion Testing Simulated Service Testing in the Atmosphere ............................ 487 Simulated Service Testing in Water ........................................ 495 Simulated Service Testing in Soil .......................................... 497

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page xiii . Corrosion of Ferrous Metals ................................................................ 1

Introduction to Corrosion of Ferrous Metals ........................................ 3

Corrosion of Carbon and Alloy Steels Corrosion of Wrought Carbon Steels ...................................................... 5 Corrosion of Wrought Low-Alloy Steels .............................................. 11 Corrosion of Weathering Steels ....................................................... 28 Corrosion of Metallic Coated Steels .................................................... 35 Corrosion of Organic Coated Steels ...................................................... 40 Corrosion of Cast Irons ......................................................................... 43 Corrosion of Cast Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ................................. 51

Corrosion of Stainless Steels Corrosion of Wrought Stainless Steels ................................................. 54 Corrosion of Cast Stainless Steels ................................................... 78

Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty Products ................ 89

Introduction to Corrosion of Nonferrous Metals and Specialty Products 93

Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys ................................... 95

Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys Corrosion of Copper and Copper Alloys ............................................ 125

Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys Corrosion of Cobalt and Cobalt-Base Alloys ..................................... 164

Corrosion of LAW Melting Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Tin and Tin Alloys ......................................................... 177 Corrosion of Lead and Lead Alloys .................................................... 195

Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys Corrosion of Magnesium and Magnesium-Base Alloys ..................... 205

Corrosion of Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys Corrosion of Nickel and Nickel-Base Alloys ..................................... 228

Corrosion of Reactive and Refractory Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Titanium and Titanium Alloys ...................................... 252 Corrosion of Zirconium and Zirconium Alloys .................................. 300 Corrosion of Niobium and Niobium Alloys ....................................... 325 Corrosion of Tantalum and Tantalum Alloys ..................................... 337 Corrosion of Hafnium and Hafnium Alloys ....................................... 354 Corrosion of Beryllium and Aluminum-Beryllium Composites ........ 360 Corrosion of Uranium and Uranium Alloys ....................................... 370

Corrosion of Precious Metals and Alloys Corrosion of Precious Metals and Alloys ........................................... 385

Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys Corrosion of Zinc and Zinc Alloys ..................................................... 402

Corrosion of Specialty Products Corrosion of Brazed and Soldered Joints ............................................ 418 Thermal Spray Coatings for Corrosion Protection in

Atmospheric and Aqueous Environments ....................................... 422 Corrosion of Thermal Spray Coatings at High Temperatures ............ 430 Corrosion of Electroplated Hard Chromium ....................................... 434 Corrosion of Clad Metals .................................................................... 442 Corrosion-Resistant Powder Metallurgy Alloys ................................. 447 Corrosion of Amorphous Metals ......................................................... 476 Corrosion of Intermetallics .................................................................. 490 Corrosion of Cemented Carbides ........................................................ 513 Corrosion of Metal-Matrix Composites .............................................. 526

Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic Materials ................ 543

Introduction to Environmental Performance of Nonmetallic Materials 545 Performance of Refractories in Severe Environments ........................ 547 Performance of Ceramics in Severe Environments ............................ 565 Environmental Performance of Concrete ............................................ 579 Degradation of Protective Coatings .................................................... 589 Environmental Performance of Thermosetting Plastics and

Resin Matrix Composites .......................................................... 600 Environmental Performance of Rubber Linings ................................. 605 Environmental Performance of Elastomers ........................................ 608

Global Cost of Corrosion .................................................................. 619

Global Cost of Corrosion-A Historical Review ............................... 621

.......................................................... Gallery of Corrosion Damage 629

Gallery of Corrosion Damage ............................................................. 631

Reference Information ...................................................................... 647

Periodic Table of Elements ................................................................. 649 Crystal Structure .................................................................................. 651 Density of Metals and Alloys .............................................................. 658 Reference Electrodes ........................................................................ 662 Overpotential ....................................................................................... 663 Electrochemical Series ...................................................................... 665 Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys in Seawater ............................. 672 Compatibility Guide ............................................................................ 673 Corrosion Rate Conversion ................................................................. 675 Metric Conversion Guide .................................................................... 676 Abbreviations and Symbols ............................................................. 679 Index .................................................................................................... 682

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page xv

Corrosion in Specific Environments .................................................... 1

.............................. 1 I n ~ u c t i o n to Corrosion in Specific Environments 5

f Corrosion in Fresh Water Environments Corrosion in Potable Water Distribution and Building Systems ............ 8

................................ Corrosion in Service Water Distribution Systems 12 ................................. Rouging of Stainless Steel in High-Purity Water 15

Corrosion in Wastewater Systems ....................................................... 23

Corrosion in Marine Environments sion in Seawater ........................................................................... 27

........................................................ sion in Marine Atmospheres 42 sion of Metallic Coatings ............................................................. 6 1 rmance of Organic Coatings ...................................................... 69

.................................................................. e Cathodic Protection 73

sCorrosion in Underground Environments grated with Integrity

t ................................................................................... 79 ........................................................ Survey Techniques 84

............................................ 89 ................... dic Protection 97

in Underground Corrosion .......................................... 107 Probes for Soil Environments .................................... 1 15

......... ransmission Cables 122

! . Corrosion in Military Environments ! Corrosion in the Military ..................................................................... 126 i; 1" Military Specifications and Standards ................................................. 136 1' Corrosion Control for Military Facilities ......................................... 141 ... Ground Vehicle Corrosion ................................................................. 148

Armament Corrosion ........................................................................ 15 1 High-Temperature Corrosion in Military Systems ............................. 156

i Finishing Systems for Naval Aircraft ................................................. 171 4 Military Coatings ................................................................................ 180 ; U.S. Navy Aircraft Corrosion ......................................................... 184 ! Military Aircraft Corrosion Fatigue .................................................... 195

Corrosion of Electronic Equipment in Military Environments .......... 205 i.. Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion in Military

Environments ................................................................................... 21 1 . Service Life and Aging of Military Equipment .................................. 220

Corrosion in Specialized Environments Corrosion in Supercritical Water-Waste Destruction

Environments .................................................................................. 229 Corrosion in Supercritical Water-Ultrasupercritical

Environments for Power Production ............................................ 236 Corrosion in Cold Climates ................................................................. 246 Corrosion in Emissions Control Equipment ....................................... 25 1

Corrosion in Recreational Environments ............................................ 257 ................................ Corrosion in Workboats and Recreational Boats 265

Corrosion of Metal Artifacts and Works of Art in Museum and Collection Environments .......................................................... 279

.... Corrosion of Metal Artifacts Displayed in Outdoor Environments 289 ....................... Corrosion of Metal Artifacts in Buried Environments 306

Chemical Cleaning and Cleaning-Related Corrosion of Process ........................................................................................ Equipment 323

Corrosion in Specific Industries ....................................................... 331

Introduction to Corrosion in Specific Industries ................................. 337

Corrosion in the Nuclear Power Industry Introduction to Corrosion in the Nuclear Power Industry .................. 339 Corrosion in Boiling Water Reactors .................................................. 341

........................................... Corrosion in Pressurized Water Reactors 362 Effect of Irradiation on Stress-Corrosion Craclung and Corrosion

in Light Water Reactors ............................................................. 386 Corrosion of Zirconium Alloy Components in Light

................................................................................ Water Reactors 415 Corrosion of Containment Materials for Radioactive-Waste

........................................................................................... Isolation 421

Corrosion in Fossil and Alternative Fuel Industries Introduction to Corrosion in Fossil and Alternative

................................................................................. Fuel Industries 438 ........................................... High-Temperature Corrosion in Gasifiers 441

................................ Corrosion in the Condensate-Feedwater System 447 ................................. Corrosion of Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems 461 ................................. Corrosion of Steam- and Water-Side of Boilers 466

.............................................................. Corrosion of Steam Turbines 469 ............................. Fireside Corrosion in Coal- and Oil-Fired Boilers 477

................. High-Temperature Corrosion in Waste-to-Energy Boilers 482 .................................................. Corrosion of Industrial Gas Turbines 486

.............................. Components Susceptible to Dew-Point Corrosion 491 ...................................................................... Corrosion of Generators 497

.............................. Corrosion and Erosion of Ash-Handling Systems 499 ................................................ Corrosion in Portable Energy Sources 501

....................................................................... Corrosion in Fuel Cells 504

Corrosion in the Land Transportation Industries ............................................................... Automotive Body Corrosion 515

.............................................. Automotive Exhaust System Corrosion 519 ................................ Engine Coolants and Coolant System Corrosion 531 ................................. Automotive Proving Ground Corrosion Testing 538

Corrosion of Aluminum Components in the ........................................................................ Automotive Industry 545

Electric Rail Corrosion and Corrosion Control .................................. 548 ................................................... Corrosion in Bridges and Highways 559

Corrosion in the Air Transportation Industry Corrosion in Commercial Aviation ..................................................... 598

Corrosion in the Microelectronics Industry Corrosion in Microelectronics ........................................................... 61 3 Corrosion in Semiconductor Wafer Fabrication ................................. 623 Corrosion in the Assembly of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits ..... 629 Corrosion in Passive Electrical Components ...................................... 634 Corrosion and Related Phenomena in Portable

Electronic Assemblies ..................................................................... 643

Corrosion in the Chemical Processing Industry Effects of Process and Environmental Variables ................................ 652 Corrosion under Insulation .................................................................. 654 Corrosion by Sulfuric Acid ................................................................. 659 Corrosion by Nitric Acid ..................................................................... 668 Corrosion by Organic Acids ................................................................ 674 Corrosion by Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid .................. 682 Corrosion by Hydrogen Fluoride and Hydrofluoric Acid ................... 690 Corrosion by Chlorine ......................................................................... 704 Corrosion by Alkalis ........................................................................... 710 Corrosion by Ammonia ....................................................................... 727 Corrosion by Phosphoric Acid ............................................................ 736 Corrosion by Mixed Acids and Salts .................................................. 742 Corrosion by Organic Solvents ........................................................... 750 Corrosion in High-Temperature Environments .................................. 754

Corrosion in the Pulp and Paper Industry Corrosion in the Pulp and Paper Industry .......................................... 762

Corrosion in the Food and Beverage Industries Corrosion in the Food and Beverage Industries .................................. 803

Corrosion in the Pharmaceutical and Medical Technology Industries Material Issues in the Pharmaceutical Industry .................................. 8 10 Corrosion in the Pharmaceutical Industry ........................................... 8 13

Corrosion Effects on the Biocompatibility of Metallic Materials and Implants ................................................................. 820

Mechanically Assisted Corrosion of Metallic Biomaterials ............... 826 Corrosion Performance of Stainless Steels. Cobalt. and

Titanium Alloys in Biomedical Applications ................................. 837 Corrosion Fatigue and Stress-Corrosion Cracking in

Metallic Biomaterials ................................................................... 853 Corrosion and Tarnish of Dental Alloys .......................................... 891

Corrosion in the Petroleum and Petrochemical Industry Corrosion in Petroleum Production Operations .................................. 922 Corrosion in Petroleum Refining and Petrochemical

Operations .................................................................................. 967 External Corrosion of Oil and Natural Gas Pipelines ....................... 1015 Natural Gas Internal Pipeline Corrosion ........................................... 1026 Inspection. Data Collection. and Management ................................. 1037

Corrosion in the Building Industries Corrosion of Structures ................................................................. 1054

Corrosion in the Mining and Metal Processing Industries Corrosion of Metal Processing Equipment ....................................... 1067 Corrosion in the Mining and Mineral Industry ................................. 1076

Gallery of Corrosion Damage ........................................................ 1083

Selected Color Images .................................................................... 1085

Reference Information .................................................................... 1095

Corrosion Rate Conversion ........................................................... 1097 Metric Conversion Guide ................................................................. 1098 Abbreviations and Symbols ............................................................ 1101 Index ............................................................................................ 1105

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page ix Other Bulk Forming Processes ........................................................ 419

................................................................ Introduction .......................................................................................... 1 Conventional Hot Extrusion 421 Hydrostatic Extrusion of Metals and Alloys ....................................... 440 ................................................. Introduction to Bulk-Forming Processes 3 Wire. Rod. and Tube Drawing ........................................................... 448

Design for Deformation Processing ..................................................... 1 1 Flat. Bar. and Shape Rolling ............................................................. 459

Forging Equipment and Dies .............................................................. 21 Roll Forming of Axially Symmetric Components .............................. 480

Hammers and Presses for Forging ........................................................ 23 Selection of Forging Equipment ......................................................... 36

............................................... Dies and Die Materials for Hot Forging 47 Die Wear ................................................................................................ 62 Lubricants and their Applications in Forging ....................................... 84

......................................................... Die Manufacturing and Finishing 93

Forging Processes ................................................................................ 97

.................................................................................. Open-Die Forging 99 Closed-Die Forging in Hammers and Presses ..................................... 1 1 1 Hot Upset Forging ............................................................................... 119 Roll Forging ......................................................................................... 13 1 Ring Rolling ................................................................................... 136 Rotary Swaging of Bars and Tubes ..................................................... 156 Radial Forging ..................................................................................... 172 Rotary Forging ..................................................................................... 1 79 Isothermal and Hot-Die Forging ......................................................... 183 Precision Hot Forging ......................................................................... 193 Coining ................................................................................................ 198 Powder Forging .............................................................................. 205 Practical Aspects of Converting Ingot to Billet .................................. 227

Forging of Steels and Heat-Resistant Alloys ................................... 239

Forging of Carbon and Alloy Steels ................................................... 24 1 Forging of Stainless Steels .................................................................. 261 Forging of Heat-Resistant Alloys ...................................................... 269 Forging of Refractory Metals ....................................................... 284 Thennomechanical Processing for Ferrous Alloys ............................. 286

Forging of Nonferrous Metals .......................................................... 297

Forging of Aluminum Alloys ........................................................... 299 Forging of Copper and Copper Alloys .............................................. 3 13 Forging of Magnesium Alloys ........................................................... 3 18 Forging of Nickel-Base Alloys ......................................................... 324 Forging of Titanium Alloys ............................................................ 331 Bulk Forming of Intermetallic Alloys ................................................. 354 Forging of Discontinuously Reinforced Aluminum Composites ....... 366 Themomechanical Processes for Nonferrous Alloys ......................... 374

Cold Heading and Cold Extrusion ................................................... 381

....................................................................................... Cold Heading 383 Cold Extrusion ................................................................................. 405

Thread Rolling ..................................................................................... Coextrusion ..........................................................................................

...................................................................................... Flow Forming Extrusion of Aluminum Alloys ........................................................... Equal Channel Angular Extrusion ......................................................

Microstructure Evolution. Constitutive Behavior. and Workability .................................................................................... 537

Plastic Deformation Structures ....................................................... 539 Recovery. Recrystallization. and Grain-Growth Structures ................ 552 Constitutive Equations ........................................................................ 563 Evaluation of Workability for Bulk Forming Processes ..................... 587

Modeling and Computer Aided Process Design for Bulk Forming 615

Finite Element Method Applications in Bulk Forming ...................... 617 Design Optimization for Dies and Preforms ....................................... 640 Rapid Tooling for Forging Dies .......................................................... 645 Workpiece Materials Database .......................................................... 651 Models for Predicting Microstructural Evolution ............................... 660 Polycrystal Modeling. Plastic Forming. and Deformation

Textures ..................................................................................... 671 Transformation and Recrystallization Textures Associated with Steel

Processing .................................................................................... 685

Forging Design ................................................................................... 701

Forging Design Involving Parting Line and Grain Flow .................... 703 Forging Design Involving Draft .......................................................... 727 Forging Design Involving Ribs and Bosses ........................................ 741 Design Involving Comers and Fillets ................................................. 759 Forging Design Involving Webs ....................................................... 775 Forging Design Involving Cavities and Holes .................................... 793 Forging Design Involving Flash and Trim .......................................... 812 Forging Design Dimensions and Tolerances ...................................... 820

Resource Information ....................................................................... 825

Useful Formulas for Deformation Analysis and Workability Testing 827 Glossary of Terms ............................................................................... 831 Steel Hardness Conversions ................................................................ 852 Nonferrous Hardness Conversions ...................................................... 858 Metric Conversion Guide .................................................................... 861 Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................................ 864 Index .................................................................................................... 868

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page ix

Introduction ........................................................................................... 1

Introduction to Sheet-Forming Processes ............................................... 3 Design for Sheet Forming .................................................................... 1 I

Shearing. Cutting. Blanking. and Piercing ....................................... 21

Cutting Operations ................................................................................ 23 Principles of Shearing. Blanking. and Piercing .................................... 28 Shearing of Sheet. Strip. and Plate ..................................................... 39 Flattening. Leveling. Slitting. and Shearing of Coiled Product ............ 46 Selection of Materials for Shearing. Blanking . and Piercing

Tools .................................................................................................. 57 Trimming Operations ........................................................................... 69

Other Cutting Methods Oxyfuel Gas Cutting ............................................................................ 74 Electric Arc Cutting .............................................................................. 96 Laser Cutting ................................................................................... I 1 I Abrasive Waterjet Cutting ................................................................... I20

Blanking and Piercing Blanking and Piercing ......................................................................... 130 Blanking of Low-Carbon Steel ........................................................... 144 Piercing of Low-Carbon Steel ............................................................. 158 Blanking and Piercing of Electrical Steel Sheet ................................. 171 Fine-Edge Blanking ............................................................................. 177

Equipment for Forming of Sheet Metal .......................................... 191

Presses and Auxiliary Equipment for Forming of Sheet Metal .......... 193 Press Brakes ....................................................................................... 2 12 Die Sets ................................................................................................ 22 1 Press Feeders ................................................................................. 226 Multiple-Slide Machines and Tooling ................................................ 232

Tooling and Lubrication for Forming of Sheet, Strip and Plate .. 239

Wear and Lubrication of Sheet-Metal Forming Dies ......................... 24 1 Selection and Use of Lubricants in Forming of Sheet Metal ............. 248 Selection of Materials for Press-Forming Dies ................................... 265 Selection of Materials for Deep-Drawing Dies ................................... 276 Die Manufacture by Electrical Discharge Machining ........................ 280 Progressive Dies .................................................................................. 287

Forming Processes for Sheet. Strip and Plate ................................ 293

Bending of Sheet Metal .................................................................... 295 Press-Brake Forming ....................................................................... 307 Deep Drawing ...................................................................................... 3 19 Stretch Forming ............................................................................. 337

................................................................ Superplastic Sheet Forming 345

............................................................................................... Spinning 367 ............................................ Rubber-Pad Forming and Hydrofcu-ming 375

............................................................................. Three-Roll Forming 386 ......................................................................... Contour Roll Forming 394

............................................................. High-Velocity Metal Forming 405 ....................................................................... Drop Hammer Forming 419

.................................................. Thermal Forming of Sheet and Plate 424 ....................................................................................... Peen Forming 429

Age Forming ........................................................................................ 438

Forming of Bar. Tube. and Wire .................................................... 443

...................................................... Shearing of Bars and Bar Sections 445

...................................................... Bending of Bars and Bar Sections 456 ......................................................... Bending and Forming of Tubing 461

. ................................... Straightening of Bars Shapes. and Long Parts 472 ...................................................................... Straightening of Tubing 483

.................................................................................. Forming of Wire 487

Sheet Forming of Specific Metals ..................................................... 493

................................................................... Forming of Carbon Steels 495 Forming of Advanced High-Strength Steels .................................... 530

............................................. Forming of Steel Tailor-Welded Blanks 539 ............................................................ Press Forming of Coated Steel 547

............................ Forming of Steel Strip in Multiple-Slide Machines 554 ................................................................... Forming of Stainless Steel 562

............................................................. Forming of Aluminum Alloys 583 ........................................................................ Flanging of Aluminum 600

.......................................................................... Forming of Beryllium 605 ............................................... Forming of Copper and Copper Alloys 609

........................................................... Forming of Magnesium Alloys 625 ....................................... Forming of Nickel and Cobalt Sheet Alloys 640

............................................................. Forming of Refractory Metals 652 ......................................... Forming of Titanium and Titanium Alloys 656

......................................................................... Formability Analysis 671

Formability Testing of Sheet Metals ................................................... 673 Troubleshooting Formability Problems Using Strain Analysis .......... 697

Process Design for Sheet Forming ................................................... 707

........................................................................ Constitutive Equations 709 Springback ........................................................................................... 733 CADICAM and Die Face Design in Sheet Metal Forming ................ 756

...................... Computer-Aided Engineering in Sheet Metal Forming 766 Modeling and Simulation of the Forming of Aluminum

..................................................................................... Sheet Alloys 792 .......................................... Statistical Analysis of Forming Processes 827

.............................. Process and Feedback Control for Manufacturing 840 ...................................... Rapid Prototyping for Sheet-Metal Forming 851

Reference Information ................................................................... 859 Nonferrous Hardness Conversions .................................................... 898 Metric Conversion Guide .................................................................... 901

Glossary of Terms ............................................................................... 861 Useful Formulas for Analysis and Workability Testing 887 Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................................ 904

Index .................................................................................................... 908 Steel Hardness Conversions ................................................................ 892

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Contents. see page xi . Applications and Specification Guidelines .................. 1 Peritectic Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 Raymond W . Monroe. Steel Forcnders' Society of America; Microsegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338 Thomas E . Prucha. American Foundry Society; Macrosegregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Daniel Twarog. North American Die Casting Association Interpretation and Use of Coolng

Curves-Thermal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . History and Trends of Metal Casting 3 X-Ray Imaging of Solidification Processes and

Metalcasting and the Purchasing Process . . . . . . . . . . . l 6 Microstructure Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357

Principles of Liquid Metal Processing .................... 29

Chemical Thermodynamics and Kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 Thermodynamic Properties of Iron-Base Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Thermodynamic Properties of Aluminum-Base

and Copper-Base Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Gases in Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Inclusion-Forming Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Melting and Remelting ............................... 85

Electric Arc Furnace Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Cupola Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 Induction Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Vacuum Induction Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Electroslag Remelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Vacuum Arc Remelting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Skull Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Electron Beam Melting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Plasma Melting and Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Crucible Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Reverberatory and Stack Furnaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

.................. Molten Metal Processing and Handling 171

Transfer and Treatment of Molten Metal-An Introduction . . . . . . 173 Degassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Molten-Metal Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 Steel Melt Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Aluminum Fluxes and Fluxing Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 Modification of Aluminum-Silicon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Grain Refinement of Aluminum Casting Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Refinement of the Primary Silicon Phase in Hypereutectic

Aluminum-Silicon Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Principles of Solidification ............................ 267 Diran Apelian. Worcester Poljltechnic Institute

Thermodynamics and Phase Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Nucleation Kinetics and Grain Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 Transport Phenomena During Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Plane Front Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 Non-Plane Front Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Eutectic Solidification-An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Solidification of Eutectic Alloys-Aluminum-Silicon . . . . . . . . . . 312 Solidification of Eutectic Alloys-Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

The Oxide Film Defect-The Bifilm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Shrinkage Porosity and Gas Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Castability-Fluidity and Hot Tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Semisolid Metal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Spray Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Rapid Solidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Solidification During Casting of Metal-Matrix Composites . . . . . . 390 Solidification Research in Microgravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Homogenization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Heat Treatment . . . . . . . . . . ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Hot Isostatic Pressing of Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

Modeling and Analysis of Casting Processes ............... 417 Srinath Viswanathan. Universio of Alahanla

Numerical Methods for Casting Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Modeling of Transport Phenomena and Electromagnetics . . . . . . . 425 Direct Modeling of Structure Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Modeling of Microsegregation and Macrosegregation . . . . . . . . . . 445 Modeling of Stress. Distortion. and Hot Tearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449 Practical Issues in Computer Simulation of

Casting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462 Therrnophysical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Principles and Practices of Shape Casting ................ 483

Shape Casting Processes-An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Patterns and Patternmaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488 Casting Practice-Guidelines for Effective Production

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of Reliable Castings 497 Filling and Feeding System Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 Processing and Finishing of Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513

Expendable Mold Casting Processes with Permanent Patterns ................................. 523 John L . Jorstad. J.L.J. Technologies. Inc .

Introduction-Expendable Mold Processes with Permanent Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Aggregates and Binders for Expendable Molds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 Green Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549 No-Bake Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Coremaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Shell Molding and Shell Coremaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598 Slurry Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 No-Bond Sand Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

Expendable Mold Casting Processes with ................................ Expendable Patterns 635

John L . Jorstad. J.L.J. Technologies. Inc .

Introduction-Expendable Mold Processes with . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expendable Patterns 637

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lost Foam Casting 640

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Investment Casting 646 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Replicast Molding 662

................................. Centrifugal Casting 665 John L . Jorstad. J.L.J. Tec.hnologies. Inc .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centrifugal Casting 667 Horizontal Centrifugal Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical Centrifugal Casting 680

Permanent Mold and Semipermanent Mold Processes ....... 687 John L . Jorstad. J.L.J. Technologies. Inc .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Permanent Mold Casting 689 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low-Pressure Die Casting 700

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Low Pressure Counter Gravity Casting 709

............................ High-pressure Die Casting 713 John L . Jorstad. J.L.J. Technologies. Inc .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . High-pressure Die Casting 7 15

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hot Chamber Die Casting 719 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cold Chamber Die Casting 724

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Squeeze Casting 727 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vacuum High-pressure Die Casting 732

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Die Casting Tooling 734 Automation in High-pressure Die Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747

.................................. Semisolid Casting 759 John L . Jorstad . J.L.J. Technologies. Inr . Semisolid Casting-Introduction and Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . 761

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thixocasting 764 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rheocasting 773 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thixomolding 777

Cast Irons ........................................ 783 Thomas E . Prucha. American Foundry Society

Introduction to Cast Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785 Cast Iron Foundry Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 12

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gray Iron Castings 835 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ductile Iron Castings 856

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compacted Graphite Iron Castings 872 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Malleable Iron Castings 884

White Iron and High-Alloyed Iron Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 High-Alloy Graphitic Irons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904

..................................... Steel Castings 909 Raymor~d W . Monroe. Sreel Founders' Society of America; Thomas E . Prucha. American Foundry Society

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steel Ingot Casting 911 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Steel Continuous Casting 918

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shape Casting of Steel 926 Steel Castings Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949 Selection and Evaluation of Steel Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975

Casting of Nonferrous Alloys .......................... 9871

Nonferrous Casting-An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989 Dross. Melt Loss. and Fluxing of Light Alloy Melts . . . . . . . . . . . 992 Aluminum Alloy Ingot Casting and Continuous Processes . . . . . . 1001

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aluminum Shape Casting 1009 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Copper Continuous Casting 1019

Casting of Copper and Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casting of Zinc Alloys 1049

........................... Nonferrous Alloy Castings 1057 Mahi Sahoo. CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory

Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059 Copper and Copper Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I085

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Zinc and Zinc Alloy Castings 1095 Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1100 Cobalt and Cobalt Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1114 Nickel and Nickel Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1119 Titanium and Titanium Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128 Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1143 Synthesis and Processing of Cast Metal-Matrix Composites

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . and Their Applications 1149

Quality Assurance. Nondestructive Evaluation. ............................... and Failure Analysis 1165

Babu DasGupta. National Science Foundation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approaches to Measurement of Metal Quality 1167 Nondestructive Testing of Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1174

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Casting Fracture Characteristics 1178 . . . . . . . . Casting Failure Analysis Techniques and Case Studies 1183

Common Defects in Various Casting Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1192 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Repair Welding of Castings 1203

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality Planning Tools and Procedures 1207 Maintenance. Repair. Alterations. and Storage of

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Patterns and Tooling 1213

.............................. Reference Information 1217

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metric Conversion Guide 1219 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abbrieviations and Symbols 1222

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index 1225

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspection Equipment and Techniques .I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visual Inspection 3

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Laser Inspection 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coordinate Measuring Machines 18

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Machine Vision and Robotic Evaluation 29

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methods of Nondestructive Evaluation 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . Guide to Nondestructive Evaluation Techniques 49

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Replication Microscopy Techniques for NDE 52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leak Testing 57

Liquid Penetrant Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic Particle Inspection 89

Appendix: Proprietary Methods of Magnetic Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inspection 122

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magnetic Field Testing 129 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric Current Perturbation NDE 136

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Magabsorption NDE 143 Electromagnetic Techniques for Residual Stress

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measurements 159 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eddy Current Inspection 164

Remote-Field Eddy Current Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microwave Inspection 202

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ultrasonic Inspection 23 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acoustic Emission Inspection 278

................................ Radiographic Inspection 295 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Industrial Computed Tomography 358

Appendix I : CT Reconstruction Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Appendix 2: Computed Tomography Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . 383

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Neutron Radiography 387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermal Inspection. 396 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optical Holography 405

Appendix: Selection of Holographic Systems ............. 429

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Speckle Metrology 432 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acoustical Holography 438

Strain Measurement for Stress Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 Digital Image Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acoustic Microscopy 465 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Color for NDE 483

Nondestructive Inspection of Specific Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Forgings 491 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Castings 512

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powder Metallurgy Parts 536 Steel Bar. Wire. and Billets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tubular Products 561 Weldments. Brazed Assemblies. and Soldered Joints . . . . . . . 582

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adhesive-Bonded Joints 610 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boilers and Pressure Vessels 641

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation 661 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction 663

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fracture Control Philosophy 666 Applications of NDE Reliability to Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NDE Reliability Data Analysis 689 Models for Predicting NDE Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702

....................................... Statistical Methods 717 Statistical Quality Design and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719

Metric Conversion Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abbreviations and Symbols 758

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Index 761

. Glossary of Terms ............................................................ 1

SolM Friction Chairman: Jorn Lursen.Basse. National Science Foundation

introduction to Friction .................................................... 25 Basic Theory of Solid Friction ........................................... 27 .Frictional Heating Calculations ........................................... 39 Laboratory Testing Methods for Solid Friction ........................ 45 Priction during Metal Forming ........................................... 59 Appendix: Static and Kinetic Friction Coefficients for Selected

p Materials .................................................................. 70 8: : Lubricants and Lubrication

Chairman: Herbert S . Cheng. Northwestern Universir?,

Introduction to Lubrication ................................................ 79

Liquid Lubrication . Liquid Lubricants ........................................................... 8 1 ....................................................... Lubrication Regimes 89

............................... j L ubricant Additives and Their Functions 98

Solid Lubricants and Greases Solid Lubricants ............................................................. 113 Grease ......................................................................... 1 23

.Applications of Lubrication Technology Lubricants for Rolling-Element Bearings ............................... 132

.................................................. Metalworking Lubricants 139 ............................. W Lubricants for High-Vacuum Applications 150 .

Internal Combustion Engine Lubricants ................................. 162

Wear Chairman: Kenneth C . Ludema. University

of Michigan

Introduction to Wear ....................................................... 175 Surface Damage ............................................................. 176

Wear by Particles or Fluids Abrasive Wear ............................................................... 184 Polishing Wear .............................................................. 191 Solid Particle Erosion ...................................................... 199 Cavitation Erosion .......................................................... 2 14 Liquid Impingement Erosion .............................................. 22 1 Sluny Erosion ............................................................... 233

Wear by Rolling. Sliding. or Impact Sliding and Adhesive Wear ............................................... 236 Fretting Wear ................................................................ 242 Rolling Contact Wear ...................................................... 257 Impact Wear ................................................................. 263

Wear Monitoring and Diagnosis ........................................................ Surface Examination 290

Vibration Analysis .......................................................... 293 Lubricant Analysis .......................................................... 299 Motor-Current Signature Analysis ....................................... 313 Radionuclide Methods ...................................................... 319

Laboratory Characterization Techniques Chairman: A . W . Ruff. NIST

Introduction to Laboratory Characterization Techniques ............. 333

Characterization of Roughness and Wear Scar Dimensions Surface Texture .............................................................. 334 Surface Topography and Image Analysis (Area) ...................... 346 Confocal Microscopy ....................................................... 357 Wear Measurement ......................................................... 362

Microscopy Techniques Light Microscopy ........................................................... 370 Electron Microscopy ........................................................ 376 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy ......................................... 393 Measurement of Surface Forces and Adhesion ........................ 399 Characterization of Surfaces by Acoustic Imaging Techniques ..... 406

Micromechanical Properties Techniques Microindentation Hardness Testing ...................................... 414 Nanoindentation ............................................................. 419 Scratch Testing .............................................................. 430

Thermal. Chemical. and X-Ray Methods Surface Temperature Measurement ...................................... 438 Surface Chemical Analysis ................................................ 445 X-Ray Characterization of Surface Wear ............................... 463

Systematic Diagnosis of Friction and Wear Test Data Chairman: H . Czichos. BAM. Germany

Basic Tribological Parameters ............................................ 473 Design of Friction and Wear Experiments .............................. 480 Presentation of Friction and Wear Data ................................. 489 Concepts of Reliability and Wear: Failure Modes .................... 493

Friction and Wear of Components

Bearings. Gears. and Seals Friction and Wear of Rolling-Element Bearings ....................... 499 Friction and Wear of Sliding Bearings .................................. 515 Friction and Wear of Gas-Lubricated Bearings ........................ 522 Friction. Lubrication. and Wear of Gears .............................. 535 Friction and Wear of Seals ................................................ 546

Transportation System Components Friction and Wear of Internal Combustion Engine Parts ............. 553 .

Chemically Assisted Wear Friction and Wear of Automotive and Truck Drive Trains .......... 563 Corrosive Wear .............................................................. 271 Friction and Wear of Automotive Brakes ............................... 569 . . Ox~dat~onal Wear ......................................................... 2 8 Friction and Wear of Tires ................................................ 578

Friction and Wear of Aircraft Brakes ................................... 582 Wear of Jet Engine Components ........................................ 588

Industrial and Mining Machinery Wear of Pumps .............................................................. 593 Friction and Wear of Compressors ....................................... 602 Friction and Wear of Cutting Tools and Cutting Tool Materials ... 609 Friction and Wear of Dies and Die Materials .......................... 621 Friction and Wear in the Mining and Mineral Industries ............ 649

Medical and Dental Materials Friction and Wear of Medical Implants and Prosthetic Devices .... 656 Friction and Wear of Dental Materials .................................. 665

Electrical Contacts and Semiconductors Friction and Wear of Electrical Contacts ............................... 682 Friction and Wear of Semiconductors ................................... 685

Materials for Friction and Wear Applications Chairman: William A . Glaeser. Battelle Memorial Institute

Introduction to Materials for Friction and Wear Applications ...... 693

Ferrous Metals and Alloys Friction and Wear of Cast Irons .......................................... 695 Friction and Wear of Carbon and Alloy Steels ........................ 702 Wear of Stainless Steels ................................................... 7 I0 Friction and Wear of Bearing Steels ..................................... 725 Friction and Wear of Tool Steels ........................................ 734

Nonferrous Metals and Alloys Friction and Wear of Sliding Bearing Materials ....................... 741

Friction and Wear of Hardfacing Alloys ................................ 758 Friction and Wear of Cobalt-Base Wrought Alloys ................... 766 Friction and Wear of Ordered Intermetallic Alloys of Ni, A1 ....... 772 Friction and Wear of Titanium Alloys .................................. 778

Ceramics and Composites Friction and Wear of Aluminum-Silicon Alloys ....................... 785 Friction and Wear of Cemented Carbides .............................. 795 Friction and Wear of Metal-Matrix Composites ....................... 801 Friction and Wear of Ceramics ........................................... 812 Friction and Wear of Carbon-Graphite Materials ...................... 816

...................... Friction and Wear of Thermoplastic Composites 820

Surface Treatments and Coatings for Friction and Wear Control Thermal Spray Coatings ...................................................... 829 Electroplated Coatings ........................................................ 834 PVD and CVD Coatings ...................................................... 840 Ion Implantation ................................................................ 850 Laser Surface Processing ..................................................... 861 Carburizing ...................................................................... 873

............................................... Nitriding and Nitrocarburizing 878

Metric-Conversion Guide ................................................... 884

........................................... Temperature Conversion Table 887

Abbreviations. Symbols. and Tradenames ............................. 890

Index ............................ .. .............................................. 897

Contents

Section 1: Introduction ..................................... 1 Industrial Significance of Fatigue Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Fracture and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Fatigue Properties in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Alloy Design for Fatigue and Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Micromechanisms of Monotonic and Cyclic Crack Growth . . . . . . 42

Section 2: Fatigue Mechanisms. Crack Growth. and Testing ..... 61 Fatigue Failure in Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Cyclic Stress-Strain Response and Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Fatigue Crack Nucleation and Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Fatigue Crack Growth under Variable-Amplitude Loading . . . . . . 110 Fatigue Crack Thresholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Behavior of Small Fatigue Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Effect of Crack Shape on Fatigue Crack Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Fatigue Crack Growth Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Appendix: High-Temperature Fatigue Crack Growth Testing . . . 181 Mechanisms of Corrosion Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Corrosion Fatigue Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Detection and Monitoring of Fatigue Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

Section 3: Fatigue Strength Prediction and Analysis ........... 225 Fundamentals of Modem Fatigue Analysis for Design . . . . . . . . . 227 Estimating Fatigue Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Multiaxial Fatigue Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 Factors Influencing Weldment Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Fatigue of Mechanically Fastened Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Statistical Considerations in Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Planning and Evaluation of Fatigue Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : 303 Surface Effects on Fatigue Effect of Surface Conditions and Processing

on Fatigue Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 14 Fretting Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 1 ContactFatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Fatigue of Special Forms or Components Fatigue and Fracture Control for Powder

Metallurgy Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Fatigue and Life Prediction of Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 Fatigue and Life Prediction of Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Fatigueofsprings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

Section 4: Fracture Mechanics. Damage Tolerance. and Life Assessment .................................... 369

An Introduction to Fracture Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 1 Fracture Resistance of Structural Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Fracture Toughness Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 Concepts of Fracture Control and Damage Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . 410 The Practice of Damage Tolerance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Residual Strength of Metal Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Fatigue and Fracture Control of Weldments . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . 434 Fracture Mechanics in Failure Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Stress Maps for Failure Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Failure Control in Process Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468

Environmental Effects . . . . . . . Stress Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen Embrittlement 483

Elevated-Temperature Crack Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507 High-Temperature Life Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520 Thermal and Thermo-Mechanical Fatigue of Structural Alloys . . 527 Damage Tolerance of Aircraft Systems Life Extension and Damage Tolerance of Aging Aircraft . . . . . . . 557 Damage Tolerance Certification of Commercial Aircraft . . . . . . . 566 The Air Force Approach to Aircraft Damage Tolerant Design . . . . 577

Section 5: Fatigue and Fracture Resistance of Ferrous Alloys ... 589 . . . . . . . . . . . Fracture and Fatigue Properties of Structural Steels 591

Fatigue Resistance and Microstructure of Ferrous Alloys . . . . . . . 605 . . . . . . Fracture Mechanics Properties of Carbon and Alloy Steels 614

Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Cast Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Cast Irons 665

Bending Fatigue of Carburized Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Contact Fatigue of Hardened Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Fatigue and Fracture Mechanics of Heat-Resistant (Cr-Mo)

FemticSteels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704 Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Stainless Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Fracture Toughness of Austenitic Stainless Steels

and Their Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733 Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Duplex Stainless Steels . . . . . . 757

Section 6: Fatigue and Fracture Resistance of Nonferrous Alloys .................................... 769

Selecting Aluminum Alloys to Resist Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . by Fracture Mechanisms 771

Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Cast Aluminum Alloys . . . . . . 813 Fatigue Strength of Aluminum Alloy Welds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823 Fatigue and Fracture Resistance of Titanium Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . 829 Fatigue and Fracture Properties of Superalloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854 Fatigue Properties of Copper Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869 Fatigue and Fracture Resistance of Magnesium Alloys . . . . . . . . . 874 Fatigue of Solders and Electronic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882

Section 7: Fatigue and Fracture of Composites. Ceramics. and Glasses ................................... 893

Fracture and Fatigue of DRA Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 Fatigue of Composite Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905 Residual Strength with Damage in Composite

Aircraft Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 Fatigue of Brittle Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 Toughening and Strengthening Models for 'Nominally

Brittle Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fatigue and Fracture Behavior of Glasses 955

Appendices ............................................. %1 Parameters for Estimating Fatigue Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963 Stress Intensity Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980

Metric Conversion Guide ................................ 1001 Abbreviations and Symbols .............................. 1003 Index ................................................. 1005

Contents

Section 1: The Design Process ............................... 1 Chairperson: John R . Dixon. Professor Erpritus. University

of Massachusens

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Role of the Materials Engineer in Design 3 Overview of the Design Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Conceptual and Configuration Design of

Roducts and Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conceptual and Configuration Design of Parts 33

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Creative Concept Development 39

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cross-Functional Design Teams 49

Section 2: Criteria and Concepts in Design ................... 55 Chairperson: Bruce Boardman. Deere and Company

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Concurrent Engineering 57 Designing to Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Statistical Aspects of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Reliability in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Lifecycle Engineering and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Design for Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Robust Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 10 Risk and Hazard Analysis in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Human Factors in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 Environmental Aspects of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 1 Safety in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Roducts Liability and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

Section 3: Design Tools .................................... 153 Chairperson: Kenneth H . Huebner; Ford Motor Company

Computer-Aided Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Mechanism Dynamics and Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Finite Element Analysis 176 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computational Fluid Dynamics 186

Computer-Aided ElectricaVElectronic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Design Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Dimensional Management and Tolerance Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 19 Documenting and Communicating the Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Rapid Prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 1

Section 4: The Materials Selection Process ................... 241 Chairperson: George E . Dieter; University of Maryland

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the Materials Selection Process 243 Techno-Economic Issues in Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Material Property Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Performance Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 1 Decision Matrices in Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 1 Relationship between Materials Selection and Processing . . . . . . 297 Computer-Aided Materials Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Value Analysis in Materials Selection and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of Failure Analysis in Materials Selection 322

Section 5: Effects of Composition. Processing. and Structure on Materials Properties ......................... 329

Chairperson: Richard U! Heckel. Michigan Technological University

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Fundamental Structure-Property Relationships in

Engineering Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336 Irons and Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Nonferrous Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 Ceramics and Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Engineering Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457 Effects of Surface Treatments on Materials Performance . . . . . . . 470

. . . . . . . . . Sources of Materials Properties Data and Information 491

......... Section 6: Properties versus Performance of Materials 507 Chairperson: David A . Woodford. Materials Pegonnance

Analysis. Inc .

. . . . . . . . . . Properties Needed for the Design of Static Structures 509 Design for Fatigue Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Fracture Toughness 533 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Corrosion Resistance 545

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for High-Temperature Applications 573 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Oxidation Resistance 589

Design for Wear Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Properties Needed for Electronic and Magnetic Applications . . . . 615 Design with Brittle Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 Design with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 Design with Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

Section 7: Manufacturing Aspects of Design .................. 667 Chairperson: Howard A . Kuhn. Concurrent Technologies Corporation

Introduction to Manufacturing and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669 Design for Manufacture and Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676 Manufacturing Processes and Their Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Modeling of Manufacturing Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 Manufacturing Cost Estimating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716 Design for Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Deformation Processes 730 Design for Powder Metallurgy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Machining 754 Design for Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Heat Treatment 774 Design for Ceramic Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Plastics Processing 793 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Composite Manufacture 804

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Control of Residual Stresses 811 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design for Surface Finishing 820

........................................ Glossary of Terms 828 Metric Conversion Guide ................................. 844 Abbreviations and Symbols ................................ 846 Index .................................................. 850

Contents

For a more detailed Table of Conterits. see page xiii . Introduction to Composites ................................................. 1 Chairpersons: Daniel B . Miracle and Steven L . Donaldson. Air Force Research Laboratory

Introduction to Composites ................................................... 3

Constituent Materials ....................................................... 19 Chairperson: Steven R . Nutt. University of Southern California

Introduction to Constituent Materials ..................................... 21 Introduction to Reinforcing Fibers ........................................ 23 .. ~ u

Glass Fibers ................................................................... 27 .................................................................. Carbon Fibers 35

Aramid Fibers .................................................................. 4 1 Ceramic Fibers ................................................................. 46

1 Discontinuous Reinforcements for Metal-Matrix Composites ....... 5 1 : Continuous Fiber Reinforcements for Metal-Matrix Composites ... 56 : Fabrics and Preforms ......................................................... 59

Braiding ......................................................................... 69 .................................................................. Epoxy Resins 78

Polyester Resins ............................................................. 90 Bismaleimide Resins ......................................................... 97 Polyimide Resins ............................................................. 105 Phenolic Resins ............................................................... 120 Cyanate Ester Resins ........................................................ 126 Thermoplastic Resins ........................................................ 132 Molding Compounds ........................................................ 14 1 Metallic Matrices ............................................................. 150 Ceramic Matrices ............................................................. 160

.............................................................. Carbon Matrices 164 . Interfaces and Interphases .................................................. 169 Lightweight Structural Cores ............................................... 180 Bio-Based Resins and Natural Fibers .................................... 184

Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing ........................... 366 Design, Tooling. and Manufacturing Interaction ...................... 373 Cost Analysis ................................................................. 379

............................................................ Rapid Prototyping 383 Design Guidelines ............................................................ 388 Engineering Mechanics and Analysis of Metal-Matrix

Composites ................................................................. 396 Fracture Analysis of Fiber-Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix

Composites ................................................................. 407

Manufacturing Processgs ................................................. 419 Chair~erson: B . Tomas Astrom . IFP SICOMP AB . Sweden

Introduction to Manufacturing of Polymer-Matrix Composites .... 421 Process Modeling ............................................................ 423

........................................................... Composite Tooling 434 Electroformed Nickel Tooling ............................................. 441 Elastomeric Tooling ......................................................... 445 Open Molding: Hand Lay-Up and Spray-Up ........................... 450 Custom Sailing Yacht Design and Manufacture ....................... 457 Prepreg and Ply Cutting .................................................... 466 Manual Prepreg Lay -Up .................................................... 470 Fiber Placement .............................................................. 477 Automated Tape Laying .................................................... 480 Curing .......................................................................... 486 Resin Transfer Molding and Structural Reaction Injection

Molding ..................................................................... 492 Vacuum Infusion ............................................................. 501 Compression Molding ....................................................... 516 Filament Winding ............................................................ 536 Pultrusion ...................................................................... 550 Tube Rolling .................................................................. 565 Thermoplastic Composites Manufacturing .............................. 570 Processing of Metal-Matrix Composites ................................ 579 Processing of Ceramic-Matrix Composites ............................. 589

Engineering Mechanics. Analysis. and Design ...................... 195 processing of Carbon-Carbon composites .............................. 600 Chairperson: Scott Reeve. National Composite Center

Post-Processing and Assembly .......................................... 613 Introduction to Engineering Mechanics. Analysis. and Design ..... 197 Chairperson: Flake C . Campbell. The Boeing Company Micromechanics .............................................................. 199 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ h ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~ i ~ of ~~~i~~~~ .................... 207 Introduction to Post-Processing and Assembly ........................ 615 Characterizing Strength from a Structural Design Perspective ..... 230 Trimming. and Routing of F~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~ h ~ ~ i ~ ~ of composite ~ ~ l ~ ~ i ~ ~ ~ i ~ ~ ...................... 24 1 Composites ................................................................. 616 Hygrothermal Behavior ..................................................... 246 Secondary Adhesive Bonding of Polymer-Matrix ti^^^ and if^ prediction ............................................ 5 Composites ................................................................. 620

................ Damping Properties .......................................................... 259 Processing and Joining of Thermoplastic Composites 633 .......................... Bolted and Bonded Joints .................................................. 27 1 Hole Drilling in Polymer-Matrix Composites 646

Instability Considerations ................................................... 290 Fastener ............................................ 651 Damage Tolerance ........................................................... 295 Protection and ................................... 659

............ Out-of-Plane Analysis ....................................................... 302 Extrusion of Particle-Reinforced Aluminum Composites 666 .... Analysis of Sandwich Structures .......................................... 308 Post-Processing and Assembly of Ceramic-Matrix Composites 668

Finite Element Analysis .................................................... 32 1 Quality Assurance ......................................................... -675 . . .......................................................... Computer Programs 334 chairperson: G Aaron H~~~~~ III. D~~~~~ Alternatives. Inc

Testing and Analysis Correlation ......................................... 344 . Design Criteria ................................................................ 353 Introduction to Quality Assurance ........................................ 677 Design Allowables ........................................................... 360 Resin Properties Analysis .................................................. 679

Tooling and Assembly Quality Control ................................. 682 Reinforcing Material Lay-Up Quality Control ......................... 685 Cure Monitoring and Control .............................................. 692 Nondestructive Testing ...................................................... 699 Quality Assurance of Metal-Matrix Composites ....................... 726

Testing and Certification ................................................. 731 Chairperson: Richard E . Fields . Lockheed Martin Missiles and Fire Corztrol

Introduction to Testing and Certification ................................ 733 Overview of Testing and Certification ................................... 734 Test Program Planning ...................................................... 74 1 Constituent Materials Testing .............................................. 749 Lamina and Laminate Nonmechanical Testing ........................ 759 Lamina and Laminate Mechanical Testing ............................. 766 Element and Subcomponent Testing ..................................... 778 Full-scale Structural Testing ............................................... 794

Properties and Performance ............................................. 801 Chairperson: Jeffrey Schafl United Techrzologies Research Center

Properties and Performance of Polymer-Matrix Composites ........ 803 Properties of Metal-Matrix Composites ................................. 838 Properties and Performance of Ceramic-Matrix and

Carbon-Carbon Composites ............................................. 859

Product ReliabiIity. Maintainability. and Repair .................. 869 Chairpersons: Michael J . Hoke. Abaris Training Resources. Inc . Rikard B . Heslehurst. Australian Defence Force Academy

Introduction to Product Reliability. Maintainability. and Repair .................................................................. 87 1

Designing for Repairability ................................................ 872 Repair Engineering and Design Considerations ....................... 885 Repair Applications. Quality Control. and Inspection ................ 893 Ship Structure Repairs ...................................................... 899 Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete Structures Using

Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites ............................... 906 Maintainability Issues ....................................................... 914 Bonded Repair of Metal Structures Using Composites .............. 922 Worldwide Repair Standardization ....................................... 931 Product Reliability. In-Service Experience. and

Lessons Learned ........................................................... 934

Failure Analysis ............................................................ -947 Chairperson: Patricia L . Stump8 Hartzell Propeller. Inc .

Introduction to Failure Analysis .......................................... 949 Failure Causes ................................................................ 951 Failure Analysis Procedures ............................................... 953 Visual Analysis. Nondestructive Testing. and Destructive

Testing ...................................................................... 958 Microscopy .................................................................... 964 Thermal Analysis ............................................................ 973

.................................................................. Fractography 977 ................................................................. Case Histories 988

Fatigue Properties and Quantitative Fractography of Metal-Matrix ................................................................. Composites 994

Failure Analysis of Ceramic-Matrix Composites .................... 1000

Recycling and Disposal .................................................. 1003 Chairperson: Nicholas J . Gianaris. Visteon Corporation

Introduction to Recycling and Disposal of Composites ............ 1005 Recycling and Disposal of Polymer-Matrix Composites ........... 1006 Recycling and Disposal of Metal-Matrix Composites .............. 1013

Applications and Experience ........................................ 1017 Chairpersons: Tia Benson Tolle. Air Force Research Laboratory Warren H . Hunt. Jr., Aluminum Consultants Group Inc .

Introduction to Applications ............................................. 1019 Automotive Applications ................................................. 1020 Automotive Applications of Metal-Matrix Composites ............ 1029 Space Applications ......................................................... 1033 Aeronautical Applications of Metal-Matrix Composites ........... 1043 High-Temperature Applications ......................................... 1050 Aircraft Applications ...................................................... 1057 Applications of Carbon-Carbon Composites ......................... 1067

..................... Sports and Recreation Equipment Applications 1071 Thermal Management and Electronic Packaging Applications ... 1078 Marine Applications ....................................................... 1085 Civil Infrastructure Applications ........................................ 1091 Applications of Ceramic-Matrix Composites ......................... 1101

Reference Information .................................................. 1111 Glossary of Terms ......................................................... 1113 Metric Conversion Guide ................................................. 1137 Abbreviations and Symbols .............................................. 1140 Index .......................................................................... 1143