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Contents

Part 1 Primitive Society 1

Part 2 The Xia, Shang and Western Zhou Dynasties 9

Part 3 The Spring and Autumn and the Warring States Periods 29

Part 4 The Qin Dynasty 55

Part 5 The Han Dynasty 67

Part 6 The Three Kingdoms Period 85

Part 7 The Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties 97

Part 8 The Sui Dynasty 108

Part 9 The Tang Dynasty 112

Part 10 The Song Dynasty 127

Part 11 The Yuan Dynasty 141

Part 12 The Ming Dynasty 149

Part 13 The Qing Dynasty 165

Appendices 184

Glossary

Guide to Reading

History at a glanceKey events of each period

Questions & AnswersAdditional information

ComicsEasy reading

QuotationsMemorable quotesby historical figures

Illustrations

1

Primitive Society

01-Prehistory (1-8) rev.pmd 24/09/2013, 10:21 AM1

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A Map of Sites of Primitive Society

Yangshao Culture(5000-4300 BC): Alarge number of potteryarticles were made, alsoknown as “PaintedPottery Culture.”

Peking Man(circa 500,000-700,000 years ago): Hegathered fruits and nuts,engaged in hunting, andused and controllednatural fire.

Lantian Man (circa700,000 years ago):The stone implementshe made were roughand large, but showedsigns of being usedfor different purposes.

Upper Cave Man(ShandingdongMan, about 18,000years ago): He wasable to make finerstone implementsand decorations,and weave animal-skin garments.

LongshanCulture (circa2500 BC): A kindof glossy blackpottery wasdiscovered. It wasalso called the“Black Pottery”Culture.

Yuanmou Man(circa 1.7 million yearsfrom now): He was ableto make stoneimplements and usenatural fire.

Liangzhu Culture(5300-4300 BC):The peopleachieved a lot infarming, weavingand spinning, jade-making and pottery-making.

Hemudu Culture:(5000-3300 BC): Ricewas planted and woodenhouses built.

YellowRiver

Yangtze River

A large number of human traces in remote antiquity have been discovered in thereaches of the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. The map below shows thetraces found, and the manner of livelihood led by early Chinese people.


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The Paleolithic Age was from one million years ago to around 25,000 years ago. Letus look at how the Peking Man and the Upper Cave Man lived as they represent twodifferent periods in evolution.

Peking ManThe Peking Man lived in the Longgu Hill atZhoukoudian in Beijing some 500,000 years ago andbelonged to the period of Homo Erectus. Their headretained some features of the ape, such as flat nose,protruded mouth, heavy brow bone, while their feetand hands were close to modern human beings. Theystill could not build houses and lived in natural caves.They could not make clothes either. They gatheredfruits and nuts and hunted animals for food. PekingMan made stone tools through chipping. At the site ofthe Peking Man, over 100,000 pieces of stone workedby man were discovered.

Flat stone toolswith sharp edges

were used forcutting trees

and fashioningwooden hunting

clubs.

Three-edgedsharp tools

were used fordigging plant rootsand cutting animal

skins.

Men in this period had already learnthow to use fire. They brought fire intotheir caves to preserve it. Whenever theywanted to use it, they would put inbranches and animal bones to makethem catch fire.

The use of fire enabled mankind to bring the natural forces under control for thefirst time. Fire was useful in the following ways:Cooking food — eating raw animal flesh caused men to become ill easily. Cookedfood could improve human health and increase men’s expected lifespan;Dispelling cold — fire could keep men warm in cold time and reduce mortality;Lighting — men could still move around in the dark;Keeping beasts away — fire was another “effective weapon” against fierce animals.

Life in the Paleolithic Age


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The Upper Cave Man lived in the Upper Cave of Longgu Hill in Beijing some18,000 years ago, belonging to the late period of homo sapiens. Their physicalmake-up was hardly different from that of modern man.They were able to make animal skin clothing with bone needles; they also startedto appreciate beauty by wearing ornaments made from animal teeth, bones andclam shells and pebbles.

The use of bone needles andornaments showed that the Upper CaveMan had already mastered grindingand drilling techniques. (The boneneedle became shiny and round throughcutting and scraping; the needle eye wasdrilled with sharp objects.)

Men in this period had already learnt howto make fire through artificial means(drilling wood). From then on mankindwas able to use fire freely.Apart from fruit gathering and hunting,the Upper Cave Man was also good atfishing and his food supply becamemuch richer. He also startedto venture out and his scope ofdaily activities expandedgradually.

Upper Cave Man


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The Neolithic Age extends from around 6000 BC to 2000 BC. The means of productionavailable to men became much more diversified. The living standard also improvednotably. Roughly in this period there appeared two distinct cultures in the valleys ofthe Yellow River and the Yangtze River.

Banpo Culture(Yangshao Culture)Located in Banpo Village to theeast of Xi’an City of ShaanxiProvince, the Banpo Culture wasthe epitome of the NeolithicPeriod in the Yellow River valley.A large number of paintedpottery articles were unearthedat its site. The primitive menused pottery articles to containwater, cook food and storethings. Pottery articles includedbasins, pots and bottles. On theirsurface were painted geometricdesigns, human faces, fish anddeer in black or brown.

Residents of Banpo raised pigs, dogs, oxen,sheep and poultry. They also grew millet. Theylived in subterranean houses.

The pottery spindle whorlsunearthed at the site revealed thatprimitive weaving and sewing wasalready in existence. People thenwove flax and wore clothes madeof flax or animal skins.

Life in the Neolithic Age


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Hemudu CultureHemudu Culture was located at Hemudu Village of Yuyao in Zhejiang Province.Abundant traces of rice cultivation have been found. This is the earliest humangrown rice so far discovered around the world.Bone plough was a representative farming tool of the Hemudu Culture. The ploughwas made of animal’s blade bone.Over 1,800 bone arrowheads were found at thesite, indicating that hunting remained the majorproduction activity then.

Wooden structuresat the Hemudu site.

Differences in life between the Paleolithic Age and the Neolithic Age at a glance

Paleolithic Age Neolithic AgeFishing, hunting, gathering fruits and nuts Starting to engage in farming, growing

millet and rice, and raising livestock

Making tools through chipping stone and Knowing how to make sharp tools andgrinding aesthetic painted pottery articles

Living in natural caves Knowing how to build houses and livingin subterranean residences (YangshaoCulture) or raised wooden structures(Hemudu Culture)

Inventing the way of making fire throughdrilling


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The Three August Ones and Five Model RulersThe legendary “Three August Ones and Five Model Rulers” had played significantroles in promoting the development of Chinese culture. They also representeddifferent periods of prehistorical human society.

The Three August Ones

Fuxi taught people how toweave fishing nets, and howto fish and hunt.He represents the periodof fishing and hunting.

Shennong, also known asYandi, invented farming toolsand taught men how to growgrains. He also distinguishedherbs and made potteryarticles.He thus represents theperiod of agriculturalcultivation.

The Five Model RulersThey were five rulers who built states in China for the first time.

Huangdi or the Yellow EmperorIn the distant past, there were many tribes in the reaches of the Yellow River and inter-tribalconflicts occurred from time to time. Huangdi conquered all other tribes except one headed byChiyou in the east which refused to bow to him. Therefore a full-scale battle broke out inZhuolu (today’s Xie County of Shanxi Province) between the troopsled by Huangdi and those commanded by Chiyou. The latter wasdefeated and Huangdi became the widely respected leader in theCentral Plains (the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River).After becoming the ruler of China, Huangdi invented many thingssuch as carts, boats, houses and the calendar. His wife, Leizu, rearedsilkworms and made clothes with silk. His subordinate Cangjieinvented Chinese characters. Under his rule the people’s livingstandards improved significantly.

Suiren taught men to getfire through drilling wood,bringing light and warmth.Men therefore started toeat cooked food.He represents theinvention of fire.


8

Zhuanxu, thegrandson ofHuangdi, wasgood at utilizingtalents andmaintaining socialorder.

Diku, the greatgrandson ofHuangdi, wonpopular trust withhis benevolentadministration.

Yao, reportedly theson of Diku,abdicated histhrone to Shuninstead of his sonDanzhu, initiatingthe system ofdeterminingsuccessors bytalent and virtue.

Shun, successorof Yao, was knownfor his filial pietyand sagacity.

A Diagram of Human EvolutionAncient Ape-man—Homo Habilis—Homo Erectus—Early Homo Sapiens—LateHomo Sapiens


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2070 BC Yu inherited the throne from Shun; following Yu’s death, his son Qiacceded to the throne, starting the hereditary system and foundingChina’s first dynasty — the Xia dynasty.

1600 BC Tang launched a punitive campaign against King Jie of Xia andthe Xia dynasty gave way to the Shang dynasty.

1300 BC King Pan Geng relocated the capital of Shang to Yin.1046 BC The Battle of Muye broke out in which King Wu overthrew the

Shang regime and ushered in the Western Zhou dynasty.1042 BC King Cheng inherited the throne with Duke of Zhou acting as his

regent; rebellion of Duke of Zhou’s three brothers.1035 BC Duke of Zhou returned the state power to King Cheng and passed

away in the same year.965-961 BC King Mu of Zhou went on a westward journey.841 BC King Li of Zhou provoked a widespread rebellion with his

tyrannical rule; Duke Zhouding and Duke Zhaomu joined hands inruling the state, known as “joint administration through peaceand harmony”.

771 BC Marquis Shen united with Quanrong for an attack on the capital ofHaojing. King You of Zhou was killed, spelling the end ofWestern Zhou.

The Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 BC)The Shang Dynasty (1600-1066 BC)

Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC)

Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties

02-XiaShangZhou (9-28) rev.pmd 24/09/2013, 10:27 AM9

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Shun put Yu in charge of water-control projects. Thanks to Yu’s good performance,Shun abdicated his throne to him. After Yu came to the throne, he dividedthe country into nine administrative regions and cast nine bronzecauldrons (ding) to represent “the land under the heaven.” Later,the term “nine regions” was used to signifyChina. Following Yu’s death, his son Qicame to the throne, initiating the hereditarysystem. Qi established the first dynasticregime in Chinese history — the Xiadynasty.

Yu’s successor should have been Boyi, a man who hadscored notable achievements by helping Yu tame the riverand inventing well-digging techniques.

Fall of the Xia DynastyFour hundred years later, Jie ascended the throne. He turnedout to be the first notorious despot in Chinese history. Hewas a ruler detested by the people. At that time, to the east ofthe Xia regime there was a kingdom called Shang which grewstronger day by day. Shang had a kind sovereign named Tang.He raised his army for a punitive attack on Jie and overthrewthe Xia dynasty. Since this military expedition led by Tangconformed to the mandate of Heaven and the people, it wascalled “the Revolution by Tang of Shang.” So Tang becameChina’s first political revolutionary.

CauldronsCauldrons were used for cooking food in the olden days. Later, they evolved into asymbol of royal power.Today we have the following phrases related to this cooking vessel:Wen ding (asking about the cauldron’s size and weight) means an attempt to seizestate power.Yi yan jiu ding (one word with the weight of nine cauldrons) means a solemn promise.

The Xia Dynasty


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Erlitou CultureThe lack of historical records about the Xia dynasty had led some scholars toquestion its existence. This controversy lasted until the discovery byarchaeologists of the dynasty’s site in Erlitou Village, Yanshi County of HenanProvince. As the site indicates, the Xia dynasty had already built fortresses andlarge palaces. Farming tools including stone sickles, stone hatchets, bronzeand pottery articles were also unearthed there.


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