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CONSTANTINE, DIVINE EMPEROROF THE CHRISTIAN GOLDEN AGE

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Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age offers a radical reassess-ment of Constantine as an emperor, a pagan, and a Christian. The bookexamines in detail a wide variety of evidence, including literature, secular andreligious architectural monuments, coins, sculpture, and other works of art.Setting the emperor in the context of the kings and emperors who precededhim, Jonathan Bardill shows how Constantine’s propagandists exploited thetraditional themes and imagery of rulership to portray him as elected by thesupreme solar God to save his people and inaugurate a brilliant Golden Age.The author argues that the cultivation of this image made it possible for Con-stantine to reconcile the long-standing tradition of imperial divinity with hismonotheistic faith by assimilating himself to Christ.

Jonathan Bardill has held fellowships at Oxford University, Dumbarton Oaks,Newcastle University, and Koc University’s Research Center for AnatolianCivilizations, Istanbul. He has contributed articles to numerous archaeolog-ical and historical journals, including the American Journal of Archaeology, theJournal of Roman Archaeology, and Dumbarton Oaks Papers, as well as severaledited volumes, including Social and Political Life in Late Antiquity and TheOxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. He is the author of the reference workBrickstamps of Constantinople.

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CONSTANTINE,DIVINE EMPEROR OF THECHRISTIAN GOLDEN AGE

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Jonathan Bardill






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Bardill, Jonathan.Constantine, divine emperor of the Christian golden age / Jonathan Bardill.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.

isbn 978-0-521-76423-0 (hardback)1. Constantine I, Emperor of Rome, d. 337. 2. Byzantine Empire – History – To 527.

3. Emperors – Rome – Biography. 4. Rome – History – Constantine I, the Great, 306–337.5. Rome – Kings and rulers – Religious aspects – History. 6. Kings and rulers in literature.

7. Kings and rulers in art. 8. Rome – Antiquities. 9. Christianity – Rome – History.10. Christianity and politics – Rome – History. I. Title.

dg315.b334 2011937′.08092 – dc22

[B] 2010046932

isbn 978-0-521-76423-0 Hardback

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Publication of this book has been aided by a generous grant from the Vehbi Koc Foundation.






For my parents again






CONTENTS

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Illustrations page ixAcknowledgements xixAbbreviations xxiChronology xxvMap of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchs and Constantine xxviiiThe Families of the Tetrarchs and Constantine xxx

introduction 1

1 a change of image 11

2 emperors and divine protectors 28

3 the saving ruler and the logos-nomos 126

4 the hippodrome procession 151

5 the symbol from the sun, the standard, andthe sarcophagus 159

6 the roman colossus 203

7 constantine and christianity 218

8 sol and christianity 326

9 constantine as christ 338

Epilogue 397Bibliography 401Index 425

vii






ILLUSTRATIONS

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1a–d. The First Tetrarchy. (a) Diocletian asAugustus. Obverse of gold coin mintedin Nicomedia. A.D. 295. (b) Maximianas Augustus. Obverse of gold coinminted in Nicomedia. A.D. 294. (c)Galerius as Caesar. Obverse of gold coinminted in Antioch. A.D. 294–295. (d)Constantius Chlorus as Caesar. Obverseof gold medallion minted in Trier. A.D.297. page 12

2. Constantine as Caesar. Obverse of goldcoin minted in Rome. A.D. 307. 13

3. Constantine as Caesar. Obverse of goldcoin minted in Trier. A.D. 306–307. 13

4. Constantine as Augustus. Obverse ofgold solidus minted in Trier. A.D.319–320. 13

5. Constantine wearing plain diadem, hishead turned to heaven. Obverse of goldcoin minted in Ticinum. A.D. 326. 14

6. Constantine wearing diadem decoratedwith small jewels and leaves, his headturned to heaven. Obverse of goldmedallion of 11/2 solidi minted in Siscia.A.D. 326–327. 14

7. Constantine wearing heavily jewelleddiadem, his eyes turned up to heaven.Obverse of gold coin minted inThessaloniki. A.D. 335. 15

8. Alexander wearing the diadem and thehorns of Zeus Ammon. Silver

tetradrachm issued by Lysimachos.306–281 B.C. 16

9. Victory standing on a sceptre andbreaking a diadem. Reverse of silverdenarius minted by Marcus JuniusBrutus. 43–42 B.C. 17

10. Alexander the Great. Marble portraithead from Kyme. Hellenistic,third–second century B.C. 20

11. Commodus. Marble portrait head witheyes raised towards heaven. End secondcentury A.D. 21

12. Bronze head of the statue of a Tetrarchfrom Adana, Turkey. Height: 37.8 cm. 21

13. Constantine. Marble portrait head witheyes raised heavenwards. Ca. A.D.324–337. 22

14. Philosopher Carneades. Marble portraithead. Late third century A.D. 23

15. Constantine’s porphyry column as in2010. Built ca. A.D. 324–330. 29

16. Constantine’s porphyry column. Builtca. A.D. 324–330. 30

17. Reconstruction of the imperial statueand the porphyry column inConstantine’s Forum at Constantinople.Ca. A.D. 324–330. 31

18. Reconstruction of the imperial statueon the porphyry column inConstantine’s Forum at Constantinople.Ca. A.D. 324–330. 32

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x ILLUSTRATIONS

19. Detail of a reconstruction of theimperial statue on the porphyry columnin Constantine’s Forum atConstantinople. Ca. A.D. 324–330. 33

20. Sol wearing crown of vertical rays.Reverse of silver denarius minted inRome by C. Coelius Caldus. 51 B.C. 34

21. Sol, wearing a chiton, rides in four-horsechariot and radiates angled rays of light.Reverse of silver denarius minted inRome by M. Aburius Geminus. 132B.C. 34

22. Drawing of the base of Constantine’sporphyry column by Melchior Lorck.A.D. 1561. 35

23. Drawing of head of Constantinewearing crown with vertical rays. Detailof Figure 22. 36

24. Constantine’s statue upon the porphyrycolumn beside the enthroned Tyche(Fortune) of Constantinople. PeutingerMap. Twelfth-century copy of fourth-or fifth-century original. 37

25. Colossal bronze head, left hand, andglobe from a statue of Constantine orConstantius II. 38

26. Colossal bronze head, from a statue ofConstantine or Constantius II. 39

27. Colossal bronze head, from a statue ofConstantine or Constantius II. 40

28. Ptolemy III Euergetes wearing radiatecrown. Gold coin of Ptolemy IVPhilopator minted in Alexandria.Ca. 222–205 B.C. 41

29. Silver denarius minted in Rome forSepullius Macer. Obverse shows head ofCaesar with star behind. Reverse showsVenus with Victory in right hand, andwith a sceptre resting on a star in theleft. 44 B.C. 43

30. Octavian adorning Caesar’s statue witha star. Reverse of silver denarius mintedin Rome by L. Lentulus. 12 B.C. 44

31. Statue of Apollo Actius holding acithara and sacrificing on a high podiumdecorated with ships’ prows. Reverse of

silver denarius minted in Rome by C.Antistius Vetus. 16 B.C. 45

32. Portrait head of Augustus fromPergamum. 27 B.C.–A.D. 14. 45

33. Silver denarius of Augustus minted inSpain. Obverse shows head of Augustuswearing oak wreath. Reverse showscomet with inscription referring to thedivine Julius Caesar. Ca. 17 B.C. 47

34. Divus Augustus wearing radiate crown.Obverse of copper alloy as minted inRome under Tiberius. Ca. A.D. 15. 48

35. Radiate statue of Octavian on a columndecorated with ships’ prows. Reverse ofsilver denarius minted in Rome underVespasian. A.D. 79. 48

36. The divine Augustus enthronedwearing radiate crown. Obverse ofcopper alloy sestertius minted in Romeunder Tiberius. A.D. 21/22. 48

37. Copper alloy as minted in Rome.Obverse shows head of Nero. Reverseshows Nero wearing flowing robes ofApollo and playing the cithara. A.D. 62. 49

38. Nero wearing radiate crown. Obverseof copper alloy dupondius minted inRome. A.D. 64. 50

39. Nero wearing toga and crown of angledrays holds patera in right hand and longsceptre in left. To the right stands theempress (probably Poppaea), veiled anddraped, holding patera in right hand andcornucopia in left. Reverse of aureus ofNero minted in Rome. A.D. 64–65. 51

40. Amethyst intaglio probably showing theColossus of Nero in Rome. Romanimperial period. 52

41a. Titus wearing radiate crown. Obverse ofcopper alloy dupondius minted in Rome.A.D. 80–81. 53

41b. Trajan wearing radiate crown. Obversecopper alloy dupondius minted in Rome.A.D. 104–111. 53

41c. Hadrian wearing radiate crown.Obverse of copper alloy dupondiusminted in Rome. A.D. 118. 53






ILLUSTRATIONS xi

42. Caracalla wearing radiate crown.Obverse of silver antoninianus(double denarius) minted in Rome.A.D. 215. 54

43. Aureus minted in Rome. Obverse showsbust of Septimius Severus. Reverseshows Severus wearing the crown andcloak of Sol, riding in Sol’s chariot.A.D. 197. 55

44. Septimius Severus, wearing radiatecrown, and Julia Domna with acrescent. Reverse of aureus of Caracallaminted in Rome. A.D. 202. 55

45. Diocletianic copper alloy radiate.Obverse shows bust of Diocletian withradiate crown. Reverse shows theemperor receiving a Victory-toppedglobe from Jupiter. Mint of Alexandria.Ca. A.D. 296–297. 56

46. Copper alloy nummus minted inLondon. A.D. 312. Obverse showsConstantine wearing radiate crown overhelmet. Reverse shows Sol radiate withchlamys, whip, and globe. 57

47. Gold medallion showing Constantinewearing a radiate crown. Minted inAntioch in A.D. 326. 57

48. Aureus minted in Antioch. A.D.218–219. Obverse shows bust ofElagabalus. Reverse shows triumphalcar carrying the conical black stone ofEl-Gabal and an eagle shaded byparasols. 60

49. Sol wielding Zeus’ thunderbolt.Reverse of aureus of Elagabalus mintedin Antioch. A.D. 218–219. 60

50. Copper alloy radiate minted in Rome.Obverse shows Aurelian wearing radiatecrown. Reverse shows Sol with his footon the back of a captive. A.D. 274. 61

51. Fides handing two standards to Sol.Reverse of copper alloy radiate mintedin Siscia. A.D. 274. 62

52. Aurelian (left) receiving the globe fromJupiter. Reverse of copper alloy radiateminted in Serdica. A.D. 271–272. 63

53. Aurelian (left) holding sceptre or spearand receiving globe from Sol holdingwhip. Reverse of copper alloy radiateminted in Cyzicus. A.D. 273–274. 63

54. Diocletian and Maximian as Augusti inconsular dress. Aureus minted in Rome.A.D. 287. 64

55. Two of the porphyry Tetrarchs in theVatican Museums. 68

56. Two of the porphyry Tetrarchs in theVatican Museums. 69

57. Porphyry sculptures of the Tetrarchs.South side of San Marco, Venice. 70

58. Two of the porphyry Tetrarchs on thesouth side of San Marco, Venice. 71

59. Heads of two of the porphyry Tetrarchson the south side of San Marco,Venice. 72

60. Heads of two of the porphyry Tetrarchson the south side of San Marco, Venice. 73

61. Arch of Galerius, Thessaloniki,southern pier (Pier B) from the east. Ca.A.D. 299–303. 74

62. Arch of Galerius, Thessaloniki,northern pier (Pier A) from the east.Ca. A.D. 299–303. 75

63. Detail of the frieze showing theTetrarchs enthroned. Arch of Galerius,Thessaloniki, Pier B, north side. Ca.A.D. 299–303. 76

64. The Rostra and Five-ColumnMonument in the Roman Forum inRome. Reconstruction drawing. 77

65. Line drawing of frescoes depicting theeagle of Jupiter above the four Tetrarchs.Apse of room dedicated to the cult ofthe emperors. Temple of Ammon,Luxor, Egypt. Ca. A.D. 308/9. 78

66. Gold medallion of Maximian minted inTicinum. Obverse shows MaximianAugustus wearing the lion-skinheaddress of Hercules. Reverse showsthe seated Diocletian being crowned byJupiter (left) and the seated Maximianbeing crowned by Hercules (right).A.D. 286–305. 79






xii ILLUSTRATIONS

67. The Basilica of Maxentius (right) andthe temple of Romulus (left) in theRoman Forum. 85

68. Aureus minted in Ostia. Ca. A.D.308/9–October 312. Obverse showsfrontal bust of Maxentius. Reverseshows Mars handing a Victory-toppedglobe to Maxentius. 86

69. Copper alloy nummus minted inLondon. Ca. A.D. 310. Obverse showsbust of Constantine with laurel wreath.Reverse shows Sol, naked except for achlamys, with globe in left hand andright arm raised with open hand. 87

70. Aureus minted in Ticinum. A.D.312–313. Obverse shows bust ofConstantine with laurel wreath.Reverse shows Victory crowning Sol asthey both ride in a four-horse chariot. 89

71. Constantius Chlorus as Caesar wearingthe lion-skin headdress of Hercules.Obverse of gold medallion (5 aurei)minted in Trier. A.D. 297. 90

72. Constantius on horseback approachesthe fortified city of London, in front ofwhich kneels a personification ofBritannia. Reverse of electrotype copyof gold medallion (10 aurei) minted inTrier. A.D. 297. 90

73. Sculptured frieze showing a Caesarmaking a libation. The radiate head ofSol and the headless body of Romareclining appear to the right of thescene. Decennalia base of theFive-Column Monument in theRoman Forum. 91

74. Sculptured frieze showing Maxentius’troops drowning in the River Tiber.Detail from the south facade of the Archof Constantine, Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 92

75. Gold medallion minted in Ticinum inA.D. 313. Obverse shows bust ofConstantine overlapping a bust of Solwearing a radiate crown. Reverse showsConstantine on horseback raising hisright hand as Victory walks ahead. 93

76. Arch of Constantine, Rome. Southfacade. Ca. A.D. 315. 94

77. Arch of Constantine, Rome. Northfacade. Ca. A.D. 315. 95

78. Sculptured frieze showing Constantineand his troops at the siege of Verona.Detail from the south facade of the Archof Constantine, Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 96

79. Sculptured frieze showing Constantine(headless) standing on the rostra in theRoman Forum. Detail from the northfacade of the Arch of Constantine,Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 96

80. Sculptured frieze showing Constantine(headless) enthroned distributingmoney. Detail from the north facade ofthe Arch of Constantine, Rome. Ca.A.D. 315. 97

81. Head of Constantine with nimbus.Roundel showing a boar hunt on thenorth face of the Arch of Constantine.Hadrianic, reworked ca. A.D. 315. 98

82. Frontal portrait of Constantine withnimbus. Obverse of gold solidus mintedin Ticinum. A.D. 316. 99

83. Sol wearing chlamys and radiate crown,with right arm raised. West side of theeast passage of the Arch of Constantine.Ca. A.D. 315. 100

84. Constantine, with right arm raised inimitation of Sol, is crowned by Victory.East side of the east passage of the Archof Constantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 100

85. Column-base relief from the Arch ofConstantine showing soldiers carryingpoles topped by small statues of thegods. The god held by the soldier onthe right is Sol. Ca. A.D. 315. 101

86. Sol ascending from the ocean in afour-horse chariot. Roundel, east sideof Arch of Constantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 102

87. Luna descending in two-horsechariot. Roundel, west side of Arch ofConstantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 103

88. A personification of the emperor’seternity (Aeternitas Augusti) holds a bust






ILLUSTRATIONS xii i

of Sol in her right hand and a bust ofLuna in her left. Silver denarius mintedin Rome under Hadrian. A.D. 118. 104

89. Roundel showing Sol ascending fromthe ocean in a four-horse chariot abovefrieze of Constantine’s entry intoRome. East side of Arch ofConstantine. Ca. A.D. 315. 105

90. Nero’s colossal radiate statue viewedfrom the south through the Arch ofConstantine. 105

91. Sol Invictus presenting the globe toConstantine. Reverse of gold coinminted in Arles. A.D. 317. 106

92. Sol Invictus crowning Constantine.Reverse of gold coin minted inSirmium. A.D. 321. 106

93. Frieze on the west side of the centralpassage of the Arch of Constantine. Theemperor on horseback crushesbarbarians. Trajanic, reworked ca.A.D. 315. 130

94. Frieze on the east side of the centralpassage of the Arch of Constantine. Theemperor, standing with Roma to hisright, is crowned by Victory. Trajanic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 131

95. Rare copper alloy nummus minted inConstantinople. Obverse shows head ofConstantine. Reverse shows serpentpierced by a standard topped by thechi-rho monogram. A.D. 327. 143

96. Remains of the Serpent Column inthe hippodrome in Istanbul. After479 B.C. 145

97. Reconstruction drawing of thehippodrome in Constantinople duringConstantine’s reign, showing southernturning-post (left), masonry obelisk(centre), starting gates (distance), andkathisma (right). 153

98. Reconstructed plan of the hippodromein Constantinople showing survivingremains. 155

99. The masonry obelisk in thehippodrome in Istanbul. 156

100. Nielloed and gilded silver dish showingan emperor, possibly Constantius II, onhorseback. Discovered in a necropolis inKerch. Mid-fourth century A.D. 162

101. Funerary plaque of Beratius Nicatorasnow in the Vatican Museums. Thirdcentury A.D. 163

102. Staurogram used as part of mint mark.Reverse of gold solidus minted inAntioch, A.D. 336–337. 164

103. Bronze steelyard weight filled with lead,in the form of the emperorConstantine. Height: 12.5 cm. 165

104. Late antique intaglios (red jasper andgreen jasper) with anchor symbols anddolphins. Third–fourth century A.D. 166

105. Carved ivory panel from casket made inRome showing nimbate Christ on thecross. Ca. A.D. 420–430. 167

106. Reverse of copper alloy nummus mintedin Aquileia in A.D. 334–335. 169

107. The Great Cameo. Agate cameoshowing Constantine, Fausta, andCrispus in a chariot drawn by twocentaurs. Ca. A.D. 315. 171

108. Sol radiating light in four directions.Reverse of copper alloy nummus mintedin Thessaloniki. A.D. 319. 172

109. Eight-pointed star in wreath.Reverse of bronze coin minted inhonour of Helena in ThessalonicaA.D. 318–319. 172

110a–f. Copper alloy nummi showing aprofile bust of Constantine wearing ahelmet decorated with a variety ofdesigns. a–d: Minted in London, ca.A.D. 319–320; e–f: Minted in Siscia, ca.A.D. 318–320. 173

111. Bronze statuette of St. Peter carryingstaurogram. Fourth–fifth century A.D. 176

112. Gold medallion minted in Sisciadiscovered in Borca, a suburb ofBelgrade. Obverse shows Constantinewith diadem looking towards heaven.Reverse shows Constantine in militarydress holding a standard bearing a






xiv ILLUSTRATIONS

chi-rho symbol on its banner in hisright hand. A.D. 326. 176

113. Constantius II, being crowned byVictory, holds a standard bearing thechi-rho monogram on its banner andlooks towards the powerful sign.Reverse of bronze medallion minted inSiscia. A.D. 350. 177

114. Bust of Constantine carrying standard orsceptre over left shoulder, and wearinghelmet with chi-rho monogram increst. Obverse of silver medallionminted at Ticinum in A.D. 315. 178

115. Valentinian II (A.D. 375–392) carrying asceptre or standard over his rightshoulder. Obverse of copper alloymedallion. 178

116. Silver coin of Seleucus I Nicator mintedin Ecbatana. The reverse shows Zeusholding an eagle, a horse grazing at hisfeet, and monograms and an anchor inthe field. After 306 B.C. 180

117. The pharaoh Akhenaten, his wifeNefertiti, and their three daughtersreceive ankhs from hands at the ends ofthe rays of the sun’s disc. Limestonestele, 1351–1334 B.C. 181

118. The pharaoh Tutankhamun in a chariottrampling his enemies, with solar discand ankhs overhead. Painted woodenchest, ca. 1333–1323 B.C. 182

119. Porphyry sarcophagi displayed outsidethe Istanbul Archaeological Museums.Inventory nos. 3154 (left), 3155(centre), and 3157. 183

120. Cupids harvesting grapes. Fragment ofthe flank of a highly decoratedporphyry sarcophagus. 184

121. Highly decorated porphyry sarcophagusfrom the mausoleum on the ViaNomentana in Rome. 185

122. Cupids harvesting grapes. Detail ofFigure 121. 185

123. Porphyry sarcophagus. 188124. Porphyry sarcophagus in the atrium of

Hagia Eirene, Istanbul. 189

125. Detail of the holes on the north side ofthe lid of the porphyry sarcophagus inHagia Eirene. Reconstructed designsuperimposed. 190

126. Detail of the holes on the south side ofthe flank of the porphyry sarcophagusin Hagia Eirene. Reconstructed designsuperimposed. 191

127. The combined ankh and chi-rho designcarved on the eastern gable end of thelid of the porphyry sarcophagus inHagia Eirene. 192

128. Scenes from the trial of Christ withcentral cruciform standard topped by achi-rho monogram within a wreath.Sarcophagus found near catacomb ofDomitilla. Mid-fourth century A.D. 193

129. Two groups of six Apostles approacha central cruciform standard topped bya chi-rho monogram within a wreath.Sarcophagus from cemetery of SanSebestiano. Left and right sections arecasts; central section is original. End offourth or beginning of fifth century A.D. 193

130. Fragments of the colossal statue ofConstantine from the Basilica ofMaxentius. Musei Capitolini, Rome. 204

131. Reconstruction of the colossal statue ofConstantine integrated into areconstruction of the Basilica ofMaxentius, Rome. 205

132. Reconstruction of the Basilica ofMaxentius as remodelled byConstantine, showing the colossal statuein the northwest apse. 206

133. The Basilica of Maxentius. Exteriorview showing the northwest apse (farright) and northeast apse (left of centre). 207

134. Head of the colossal statue ofConstantine from the Basilica ofMaxentius. 208

135. Head of the colossal statue ofConstantine from the Basilica ofMaxentius. 209

136. Closed right hand of the colossal statueof Constantine. 210






ILLUSTRATIONS xv

137. Closed right hand of the colossal statueof Constantine. View of hole in top offist. 210

138. Right bicep, elbow, and forearm ofcolossal statue of Constantine. 211

139. Statue, probably of Constantius II, inthe narthex of St. John Lateran, Rome. 211

140. Closed right hand found at the Capitolin 1744, probably from the colossalstatue of Constantine. 213

141. Closed right hand found at the Capitolin 1744, probably from the colossalstatue of Constantine. View of hole inbottom of fist. 213

142. Copper alloy medallion showingConstantine in the costume of Jupiterreceiving a phoenix-topped globe fromone of his Caesars. Mint of Rome.A.D. 326. 214

143. Augustus in the Jupiter costume,enthroned beside Roma. Detail of theGemma Augustea. Ca. A.D. 10. 215

144. Six-armed monogram with a dot at thetop serving as part of the mint mark ona copper alloy coin of ConstantineJunior as Caesar, minted in Ticinum.A.D. 319–320. 222

145a–c. Reverses of copper alloy nummiminted in Arles. Two soldiers stand oneither side of a single standard. Thesymbols on the banner (serving asparts of the mint mark) vary. Dates:December 333–September337. 223

146. Inscription on the Arch of Constantine,Rome. Ca. A.D. 315. 223

147. Sculptured frieze showing Roma(second from left) striding forwards onthe bridgehead alongside Constantine(lost) as Maxentius’ troops drown in theTiber. Detail from the south facade ofthe Arch of Constantine, Rome. Ca.A.D. 315. 225

148. Diagram of the Arch of Constantine toshow the positions and dates of thevarious sculptured elements. 229

149. Head of Constantine. Attic panelof profectio. Arch of Constantine,Rome. Aurelian, reworked ca. A.D. 315 230

150. Head of Constantius Chlorus. Roundelshowing a sacrifice to Apollo. Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Hadrianic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 231

151. Constantine on horseback during a boarhunt. Roundel, north facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Hadrianic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 232

152. Constantine after a successful lion hunt.Roundel, north facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Hadrianic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 233

153. Constantine addresses his troops. Atticpanel, south facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Aurelian, reworkedca. A.D. 315. 234

154. Constantine distributes money. Atticpanel, north facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Aurelian, reworkedca. A.D. 315. 235

155. Constantine sacrificing to Diana.Roundel, south facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Hadrianic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 236

156. Constantine sacrificing to Silvanus.Roundel, south facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Hadrianic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 236

157. Constantius Chlorus sacrificing toApollo. Roundel, north facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Hadrianic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 237

158. Constantius Chlorus sacrificing toHercules. Roundel, north facade, Archof Constantine, Rome. Hadrianic,reworked ca. A.D. 315. 237

159. Constantine sacrificing a bull, pig, andsheep. Attic panel, south facade, Arch ofConstantine, Rome. Aurelian, reworkedca. A.D. 315. 238

160. Reconstruction of the interior of theimperial audience hall (basilica) atTrier. 239






xvi ILLUSTRATIONS

161. Reconstruction of the interior of theBasilica Ulpia in Trajan’s Forum, Rome. 239

162. Basilica of St. John in the Lateran. Planand 3-D reconstruction. 240

163. Basilica of Sts. Marcellinus and Peterwith the Mausoleum of Helena. Planand 3-D reconstruction. 241

164. Basilica of the Apostles (now SanSebastiano). Plan and cut-away 3-Dreconstruction. 242

165. Basilica of St. Laurence. Plan and 3-Dreconstruction. 244

166. Basilica of St. Agnes and mausoleum ofConstantina. Plan and 3-Dreconstruction. 245

167. Basilica of St. Peter. Plan and 3-Dreconstruction. 246

168. Chapel in the Sessorian palace.Cut-away 3-D reconstruction and plan. 249

169. Map to show the locations ofConstantine’s Christian foundations inand around Rome. 250

170. Copper alloy medallion showing on theobverse a bust of the Tyche ofConstantinople, and on the reverseVictory standing on the prow of awarship with the legend VICTORIAAVGVSTI. Minted at Rome inA.D. 330. 253

171. Map of Constantinople in theConstantinian period. 254

172. Anastasis Rotunda and basilica of theHoly Sepulchre, Jerusalem. Cut-away3-D reconstruction and plan. 256

173. Anastasis Rotunda and apse of thebasilica of the Holy Sepulchre,Jerusalem. Cut-away 3-Dreconstruction. 257

174. Gold solidus minted in Sirmium.Obverse shows Helena as Augusta.Reverse shows a personification ofSecuritas. Ca. A.D. 324–325. 259

175. Church of the Nativity, Bethlehem.Plan and 3-D reconstruction. 260

176. Church at Mamre. Plan. 261177. Silver medallion minted in

Constantinople in 330. Obverse shows

Constantine as Maximus TriumphatorAugustus wearing a jewelled diadem.Reverse shows the Tyche ofConstantinople holding a horn ofplenty, wearing a turreted crown, andseated on a throne. A ship’s prow isvisible below her feet. 263

178. Ivory diptych showing the Tychai ofRome (left) and Constantinople withturreted crown. Sixth century A.D. 265

179. Gold aureus of Licinius minted inNicomedia. Obverse shows frontalportrait of Licinius. Reverse showsJupiter enthroned. A.D. 321. 283

180. Radiant charioteer in a ceiling mosaicin the Tomb of the Julii (MausoleumM) beneath St. Peter’s basilica, Rome.Mid-third to early-fourth century A.D. 329

181. Christ as a bearded, long-hairedphilosopher preaching the Sermon onthe Mount and performing miracles(Cure of the Paralytic, Cure of theLeper). Sarcophagus, ca. 290–310. 346

182. Youthful Christ performing miracles.Detail from sarcophagus of MarcusClaudianus, 330–335. Centre: Miracleof Loaves and Fishes. Right: Raising ofLazarus and Cure of the Woman withIssue of Blood. 347

183. Christ teaching, seated among HisApostles. Fresco in the catacomb on theVia Anapo, Rome. Ca. A.D. 325. 348

184. Christ enthroned surrounded by theApostles. Fresco in cubiculum 74 of theCatacomb of Domitilla, Rome.Watercolour by Carlo Tabanelli overphotograph by Pompeo and RenatoSansaini, 1897–1903. Ca. A.D. 350–375. 349

185. Magi presenting their gifts to the babyJesus. Sarcophagus ca. 325–350. Fromthe Vatican Necropolis. 350

186. Constantine ascending in chariotreaching out to a divine hand emergingfrom the clouds. Reverse of gold solidusminted in Constantinople in 337. 350

187. The Ascension of Christ. Ivory diptych,ca. 400. 351






ILLUSTRATIONS xvii

188. Christ, beardless and with nimbus,hands the law to Peter, the first bishopof Rome. Apse mosaic from themausoleum of Constantina (SantaCostanza). Ca. A.D. 360–390. 352

189. Christ, bearded and with nimbus, sitson the globe of the cosmos. Apsemosaic from the mausoleum ofConstantina (Santa Costanza). Ca. A.D.360–390. 352

190. Reverse of silver denarius of Octavianminted in Italy, showing a naked statueof Octavian with his foot on the sphereof the cosmos. 36–31 B.C. 353

191. Beardless Christ seated above Caelus.Detail of plaster cast of sarcophagus ofJunius Bassus, A.D. 359. 353

192. Christ in military dress, carrying a cross,and standing upon a lion and a serpent.Mosaic in the Archiepiscopal Chapel,Ravenna. Sixth century A.D. 355

193. Reconstruction drawing of the churchof the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem,showing the basilica and AnastasisRotunda. 357

194. Copper alloy nummus in honour ofHelena Augusta. Reverse shows Paxholding an olive branch and sceptreMinted in Trier, June 337–April 340. 366

195. Copper alloy nummus in honour ofTheodora Augusta. Reverse showsPietas nursing a child. Minted in Trier,June 337–April 340. 366

196. Porphyry sarcophagus formerly in themausoleum of Helena, Via Labicana,Rome. 367

197. Comparative plans of the Pantheon anda number of late antique rotundas. 371

198. Frieze showing the Tetrarchs enthronedin the centre of a gathering of gods and

personifications. Arch of Galerius,Thessaloniki, Pier B, north side. Ca.A.D. 299–303. 374

199. Christ on the cross flanked by sixApostles on either side. Carnelianintaglio, British Museum. Third–fourthcentury. 374

200. Cross topped by wreath beingapproached from either side by sixApostles. Sarcophagus. Museedepartmental Arles antiques. Ca.A.D. 380. 375

201. Copper alloy nummus minted inLondon ca. 307–310. Obverse showsbust of the divus Constantius. Reverseshows lighted altar flanked byeagles. 377

202. Gold solidus minted in Constantinoplein 337. Obverse shows a veiled bust ofConstantine. Reverse shows theemperor ascending in a chariot reachingout to a divine hand emerging from theclouds. 378

203. Reverse of a 30-solidi gold medallion inhonour of the Caesar Constantius.Constantine is crowned by a handemerging from a cloud. A.D. 333. 378

204. Hercules, riding a chariot, is receivedinto heaven by Athena. Funerarymonument of the Secundinii from thevillage of Igel near Trier in Germany.Ca. A.D. 200–250. Photograph withdrawn outline overlaid. 379

205. Schematic diagrams showing threedifferent scenarios for the developmentof the Holy Apostles complex and itsinternal arrangements: 1. Rotundaprecedes church; 2. Church precedesrotunda; 3. Rotunda and church builtsimultaneously. 383






ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

S

This book has been long in gestation. It started in asmall way whilst I held a British Academy Postdoc-toral Research Fellowship at the Institute of Archae-ology and Linacre College in Oxford from 1994 to1997. Those readers interested in the curiously den-dritic ways in which scholarship develops may wishto know that it was the references to Constantine inPalatine Anthology 1.10 (the poem inscribed in AniciaJuliana’s sixth-century church of St. Polyeuktos) thatcaused me to look more closely at the first Christianemperor and the statue on his porphyry column.The work was a stimulating distraction from mymain research topics at the time – Constantinopoli-tan stamped bricks and the church of St. Polyeuktos.

I found the time to explore Constantine andkingship philosophy in greater depth whilst I was aResearch Fellow in the AHRB Centre for Byzan-tine Cultural History at the University of Newcas-tle upon Tyne from 2001 to 2003. The article that Iproduced during that time developed to become thisbook during a year of research undertaken with per-sonal resources in 2005–2006. In the following aca-demic year, 2006–2007, I was able to make significantadvances whilst holding a memorable Senior Fellow-ship at Koc University’s Research Center for Ana-tolian Civilizations in Beyoglu, Istanbul. I broughtthe book to completion by subsequently undertak-ing much further independent research and writingin precious spare time up to April 2011.

I am particularly grateful to Averil Cameron andJas Elsner for their detailed and thought-provokingcomments on my early article in 2004 – comments

that stimulated me to expand that text into this book.Cyril Mango generously took the time to read theentire typescript at a much later stage in compositionin 2007 and made helpful and encouraging remarks.Mary Whitby always took an interest and was happyto enter into discussion of knotty linguistic mat-ters. I would also like to thank Halil Arca, AssistantDirector of the Ayasofya Museum, and his colleagueSabriye Parlak for permission to study the sarcophagiin Hagia Eirene. In the very beginning there weremany long lunches in Oxford with Dimitris Plant-zos, who deserves thanks for patiently listening tomy vague plans to write, among other things, aboutConstantine’s Golden Age.

For generous grants towards the cost of theillustrations and of the extensive notes and bibli-ography, many thanks are due to the Vehbi KocVakfı and the Kress Foundation. I would liketo thank all of the institutions and individuals whohave provided or helped me obtain the images inthis book. Among them I must single out for spe-cial mention: Richard Abdy of the British Museum,who not only set me straight on certain numismaticmatters but also gave his assistance with obtainingimages of coins; the British Museum itself for pro-viding a marvellous online image database; FranzAlto Bauer for kindly helping me obtain articles andillustrations in works out of my reach; Sylvia Dieb-ner and Daria Lanzuolo for advice and for locatingimages at the German Archaeological Institute inRome; William Storage for allowing me to makefull use of his excellent photographs of the Arch

xix






xx ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

of Constantine after cleaning; and particularly Tay-fun Oner, who exceeded my expectations by pro-viding not only fresh plans of the monuments ofthe period but also excellent 3-D reconstructions.Brigitte Pitarakis kindly liaised with the Vehbi KocVakfı.

For seeing this book into print, I would liketo thank Beatrice Rehl and Amanda J. Smith atCambridge University Press in New York, and PeggyM. Rote at Aptara, Inc.

Finally, I thank my parents, Janet and PhilipBardill, for their patient encouragement. Without

their constant support it would not have been possi-ble to bring this project to completion.

A number of the topics discussed in the text werepresented in lectures at the Byzantium in the Northconference on Constantinople at Newcastle Univer-sity on 16 November 2002; at Late Antique Archae-ology 2003: The Social and Political Archaeology of LateAntiquity in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, on22 March 2003; at Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitatin Munich on 23 May 2006; and at Constantine and theLate Roman World in the Yorkshire Museum, York,on 19 July 2006.






ABBREVIATIONS

S

Reference Works

AE L’Annee epigraphique: revue despublications epigraphiques relatives al’antiquite romaine 1888–. Paris.

ANRW Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischenWelt. 1972–. Berlin–New York.

BMC H. Mattingly and others, Coins of theRoman Empire in the British Museum.6 vols. (London 1962–1976)

CAH2 Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed.14 vols. (in 19). (Cambridge 1971–2005)

CIL T. Mommsen and others, eds., CorpusInscriptionum Latinarum. 17+ vols.(Berlin 1862–)

DACL F. Cabrol and H. Leclercq, eds.,Dictionnare d’archeologie chretienne et deliturgie. 15 vols. (in 30). (Paris1924–1953)

FHG C. Muller and T. Muller, eds. FragmentaHistoricorum Graecorum. 5 vols. (Paris1848–1928)

ICVR G. B. de Rossi, ed., InscriptionesChristianae Urbis Romae (Rome1857–1861)

IGR R. Cagnat, Inscriptiones Graecae ad ResRomanas Pertinentes. 4 vols. (vol. 2 neverpublished). (Paris 1906–1927; reprintedChicago 1975)

ILCV I E. Diehl, Inscriptiones Latinae ChristianaeVeteres I (Berlin 1925)

ILS H. Dessau, ed., Inscriptiones LatinaeSelectae. 3 vols. (Berlin 1892–1914)

LIMC Lexicon Iconographicum MythologiaeClassicae. 9 vols. (as 17).(Zurich–Munich 1981–1999)

LTUR E. M. Steinby, ed., LexiconTopographicum Urbis Romae. 6 vols.(Rome 1993–2000)

OLD P. G. W. Glare, ed., Oxford LatinDictionary. Combined edition,reprinted and corrected (Oxford 1996)

PG J.-P. Migne, ed., Patrologiae CursusCompletus. Series Græca. 161 vols. (Paris1857–1866)

P. Lond. F. S. Kenyon and H. I. Bell, eds., GreekPapyri in the British Museum. (London1893–1907)

P. Oxy. Grenfell, G. P., Hunt, A. S., and others,eds., The Oxyrhynchus Papyri. 68+ vols.(London 1898–)

PLRE A. H. M. Jones, J. R. Martindale, and J.Morris, eds., The Prosopography of theLater Roman Empire. 3 vols. in 4.(Cambridge 1971–1992)

Repertorium Repertorium der Christlich-antikenSarkophage.

I F. W. Deichmann, Rom und Ostia.(Wiesbaden 1967)

II J. Dresken-Weiland, Italien mit einemNachtrag Rom und Ostia, Dalmatien,Museen der Welt. (Mainz 1998)

xxi






xxii ABBREVIATIONS

III B. Christern-Briesenick, Frankreich,Algerien, Tunisien. (Mainz 2003)

RIC The Roman Imperial Coinage (London)I C. H. V. Sutherland, 31 BC to AD 69 –

Augustus to Vitellius. Revised edition.(1984)

II H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham,Vespasian to Hadrian. (1926)

III H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham,Antoninus Pius to Commodus (1930)

IV.1 H. Mattingly and E. A. Sydenham,Pertinax to Geta (1936)

IV.2 H. Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham, andC. H. V. Sutherland, Macrinus toPupienus (1938)

IV.3 H. Mattingly, E. A. Sydenham, andC. H. V. Sutherland. Gordian III toUranius Antoninus (1949)

V.1 P. H. Webb, Valerian to Florian (1927)V.2 P. H. Webb, Probus to Amandus (1933)VI C. H. V. Sutherland, From Diocletian’s

Reform (AD 294) to the death ofMaximinus (AD 313) (1967)

VII P. M. Bruun, Constantine and Licinius,AD 313–337 (1966)

VIII J. P. C. Kent, The Family of ConstantineI, AD 337–364 (1981)

IX J. W. E. Pearce, Valentinian I toTheodosius I (1951)

X J. P. C. Kent, The Divided Empire and theFall of the Western Parts AD 395–491(1994)

RPC A. Burnett, M. Amandry, P. P.Ripolles, Roman Provincial Coinage. 2vols. + supplement. (London 1992–)

SIG W. Dittenberger, Sylloge InscriptionumGraecarum. 3rd ed. 4 vols. (Leipzig1915–1924). Reprinted 1960.

TLL Thesaurus Linguae Latinae. 10+ vols.(Leipzig 1800–)

Series

ACL Ante-Nicene Christian LibraryCCSL Corpus Christianorum Series LatinaCFHB Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae

CSEL Corpus Scriptorum EcclesiasticorumLatinorum

CSHB Corpus Scriptorum Historiae ByzantinaeCUF Collection des universites de FranceFC Fathers of the ChurchGCS Die griechischen christlichen

Schriftsteller der ersten JahrhunderteJACE Jahrbuch fur Antike und Christentum

ErganzungsbandLCL Loeb Classical LibraryMGHAA Monumenta Germaniae Historica

Auctorum AntiquissimorumPC Penguin ClassicsSC Sources chretiennesSLNPF Select Library of Nicene and

Post-Nicene Fathers of the ChristianChurch

TCL Translations of Christian Literature Series1. Greek Texts

TTH Translated Texts for Historians

Journals

AAAH Acta ad Archaeologiam et ArtiumHistoriam Pertinentia

AB Analecta BollandianaAC L’Antiquite classiqueAIPhO Annuaire de l’Institut de Philologie et

d’Histoire Orientales et SlavesAJA American Journal of ArchaeologyAJPh American Journal of PhilologyAnTard Antiquite tardiveArtBull Art BulletinBABesch Bulletin Antieke BeschavingBCH Bulletin de correspondance helleniqueBJ Bonner JahrbucherBMGS Byzantine and Modern Greek StudiesBoreas Boreas: Munstersche Beitrage zur

ArchaologieByzZ Byzantinische ZeitschriftCJ The Classical JournalClAnt Classical AntiquityCPh Classical PhilologyCQ Classical QuarterlyCRAI Comptes rendus de l’Academie des

Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres






ABBREVIATIONS xxii i

DOP Dumbarton Oaks PapersEMC Echos du Monde Classique, Classical ViewsG&R Greece and RomeGRBS Greek, Roman and Byzantine StudiesHSCP Harvard Studies in Classical PhilologyHThR Harvard Theological ReviewIstMitt Istanbuler MitteilungenJARCE Journal of the American Research Center in

EgyptJbAC Jahrbuch fur Antike und ChristentumJBL Journal of Biblical LiteratureJDAI Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archaologischen

InstitutsJEA Journal of Egyptian ArchaeologyJECS Journal of Early Christian StudiesJEH Journal of Ecclesiastical HistoryJHS Journal of Hellenic StudiesJLA Journal of Late AntiquityJNES Journal of Near Eastern StudiesJRA Journal of Roman ArchaeologyJRS Journal of Roman StudiesJSAH Journal of the Society of Architectural

HistoriansJSAN Journal of the Society for Ancient

NumismaticsJSNT Journal for the Study of the New TestamentJThS Journal of Theological StudiesJWI Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld

InstitutesLNV Litterae Numismaticae VindobonensesMAAR Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome

MediterrAnt Mediterraneo AnticoMDAI(R) Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archaologischen

Instituts, Romische AbteilungMEFRA Melanges de l’Ecole francaise de Rome:

AntiquiteNC Numismatic ChronicleNZ Numismatische ZeitschriftOJA Oxford Journal of ArchaeologyPAPhS Proceedings of the American Philosophical

SocietyPBSR Papers of the British School at RomeP&P Past and PresentRAC Rivista di archeologia cristianaRBen Revue BenedictineREA Revue des etudes anciennesRHPhR Revue d’histoire et de philosophie religieusesRHR Revue de l’histoire des religionsSBN Studi bizantini e neoelleniciSCI Scripta Classica IsraelicaSTh Studia TheologicaStudPat Studia PatristicaTAPhS Transactions of the American Philosophical

SocietyT&MByz Travaux et memoiresTPAPhA Transactions and Proceedings of the

American Philological AssociationVChr Vigiliae ChristianaeYClS Yale Classical StudiesZAC Zeitschrift fur Antikes ChristentumZKG Zeitschrift fur KirchengeschichteZPE Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik






CHRONOLOGY

S

273 Constantine born to ConstantiusChlorus and Helena at Naissus (27February).

284 Diocles (later Diocletian) proclaimedemperor near Nicomedia (20November).

285 Maximian appointed Caesar (earlysummer), so forming the Dyarchy.

286 Maximian elevated to juniorco-Augustus with Diocletian (1 April).

289 (approx.) Constantius separates fromHelena and marries Theodora.Panegyric X is delivered (21 April).

291 Panegyric XI celebrates Maximian’sbirthday (21 July?).

293 Constantius and Galerius appointedCaesars to Maximian and Diocletianrespectively (1 March), so forming theFirst Tetrarchy. Constantius drivesCarausius from the coast of Gaul.Carausius murdered and replaced byAllectus.

296 Constantius liberates Britain fromAllectus. Narses invades Armenia(autumn).

297 Panegyric VIII to Constantius isdelivered (1 March). Galerius capturesthe harem of Narses at Oskha inArmenia (autumn).

297–298 Galerius captures Ctesiphon (winter)accompanied by Constantine.

298 Panegyric IX by Eumenius is delivered.

301–302 Constantine travels through Palestine toEgypt with Diocletian.

303 Diocletian posts the First PersecutionEdict in Nicomedia (24 February).

Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, andConstantius meet in northern Italy anddiscuss the imperial succession(autumn).

Galerius required on lower Danubefrontier.

In Rome, Diocletian and Maximiancelebrate their vicennalia and the victoryover Narses (20 November).

In the temple of Jupiter on theCapitoline, Maximian swears an oath toretire with Diocletian.

305 Diocletian and Maximian retire;Galerius and Constantius are appointedAugusti in East and West; MaximinusDaza and Severus are proclaimed theirrespective Caesars (1 May), so formingthe Second Tetrarchy.

Active persecution ceases in the Westunder Constantius.

Constantine joins his father in Gaul.They cross to Britain and win a victoryover the Picts (summer or autumn).

306 Constantius dies in York andConstantine succeeds (25 July).

Constantine restores property andfreedom to Christians in Britain, Gaul,and Spain.

xxv






xxvi CHRONOLOGY

Galerius proclaims Severus the newAugustus and Constantine Severus’Caesar.

Maxentius claims imperial status inRome (28 October) and summons hisfather, Maximian, from retirement in hissupport. He extends toleration toChristians in his realms (winter).

307 Severus defeated by Maxentius atRavenna and later murdered.

Constantine marries his second wife,Fausta (daughter of Maximian andEutropia) and is raised to the rank ofAugustus by Maximian. Galerius doesnot recognize the appointment.

Panegyric VII celebrates the marriage(December).

308 Maximian attempts to take Rome fromMaxentius but fails (April).

Diocletian, Maximian, and Galeriusmeet at Carnuntum (11 November) anddeclare Licinius successor to Severus,Constantine Caesar to Licinius, andMaxentius as usurper. Maximian stepsdown again.

310 Maximian attempts to regain power butis captured by Constantine and forced tocommit suicide at Marseille ( July).

Panegyric VI describes Constantine’svision of Apollo.

Galerius acknowledges Constantineand Maximinus Daza as Augusti, sobringing the Tetrarchic system to anend.

311 Galerius posts edict of toleration toChristians in Danubian provinces andGreece (late April) but dies a monthlater in Serdica, having entrusted hiswife and bastard son to Licinius. Histerritories are divided between Liciniusand Maximinus.

Panegyric V celebrates Constantine’squinquennalia (25 July).

Constantine and Licinius attempt tocurb Maximinus’ persecuting tendenciesin the East.

311 or 312 Diocletian dies at Spalato (Split;3 December).

312 Constantine crosses the Alps (spring orsummer), becomes master of northernItaly, defeats Maxentius at the MilvianBridge (28 October), and enters Romethe next day.

Maximinus’ edict of toleration in theEast (end of year).

313 Constantine and Licinius meet in Milanand forge an alliance through themarriage of Constantine’s oldesthalf-sister, Constantia, to Licinius. Theyagree on a policy of religious freedom(February).

Maximinus attacks Licinius atHadrianopolis (Adrianople; April) but isdefeated and flees eastwards. Liciniuskills surviving members of otherTetrarchic families.

Maximinus issues edict endingpersecution and restoring confiscatedproperty in his territories (May).

Licinius sends to governors of boththe Balkans and provinces newly takenfrom Maximinus (Asia Minor, Syria,Palestine, and Egypt) a letter extendingto Christians the same benefits alreadyenjoyed by those in the West (13 June).

Maximinus, besieged in Tarsus,commits suicide ( July).

Constantine perhaps visits Britain.Panegyric XII delivered in

Constantine’s honour (autumn).314 Council of Arles convened to discuss

the Donatist controversy.315 Constantine’s decennalia celebrated in

Rome (18/21 July–27 September).Arch of Constantine dedicated by the

Senate and people of Rome.316 Constantine defeats Licinius at Cibalae

(autumn).317 Peace negotiated at Serdica between

Constantine and Licinius.Licinianus (son of Licinius), Crispus

(Constantine’s son by Minervina), andConstantine Junior (Constantine’s firstson by Fausta) named Caesars (1 March).

319 Constantine bans private acts ofdivination.






CHRONOLOGY xxvii

321 Panegyric IV delivered by Nazarius onthe quinquennalia of the Caesars (1 March).

323 Constantine encroaches on Licinius’territory.

324 Constantine defeats Licinius at the RiverHebrus (3 July) and Chrysopolis (18September) and adds Asia Minor, Syria,Palestine, and Egypt to his domains.

Constantinople founded on site ofByzantium.

Constantius (Constantine’s second sonby Fausta) named Caesar, and Helenaand Fausta made Augustae (8 November).

325 Licinius executed at Thessalonica(spring).

Council of Nicaea convened todiscuss the Arian controversy( June–July). Bishops invited to banquetto celebrate beginning of Constantine’svicennalia (25 July).

325 or 326 Macarius, bishop of Jerusalem, receivesletter from the emperor instructing himto build a basilica at the site of the HolySepulchre.

326 Trial and condemnation of Crispus;suspicious death of Fausta.

Constantine enters Rome (15 July) tocelebrate the twentieth anniversary ofhis accession ten days later.

327 Helena embarks on pilgrimage to HolyLand (spring) and is joined by Eutropia,Constantine’s mother-in-law.

Council of Nicomedia readmits Ariusto the church.

328 Constantine constructs a bridge over theDanube.

Helena dies, probably in Nicomedia,and is buried on the Via Labicana inRome.

330 Constantinople dedicated: radiate statueof Constantine placed on top ofporphyry column (11 May); circusprocession of Constantine’s statue(12 May).

332 Constantine wins a victory over theGoths (winter).

333 Constans (Constantine’s third son byFausta) proclaimed Caesar (25December).

334 Constantine wins a victory over theSarmatians.

Council at Caesarea investigatesaccusations against Athanasius.

335 Council at Tyre ( July–September) findsAthanasius guilty.

Dalmatius (nephew of Constantine)named Caesar (18 September).

Church of Holy Sepulchre dedicatedin Jerusalem, and Eusebius recites theextant oration on the church of theHoly Sepulchre (September).

Council of Tyre summoned toConstantinople and presents newaccusations against Athanasius.

Eusebius recites a second oration onthe church of the Holy Sepulchre inConstantinople (November).

336 Constantine adopts the title DacicusMaximus.

Arius dies (24 July).Constantine’s thirtieth anniversary

celebration (tricennalia) atConstantinople, at which Eusebiusrecites his In Praise of Constantine (25July).

337 Constantine baptized and dies atNicomedia (22 May). He is buried in ashrine of the Apostles in Constantinople(late May or early June).

Constans agrees to the constructionof a temple in honour of the imperialfamily at Hispellum.

Massacre of the sons and grandsons ofTheodora, including the CaesarDalmatius (early June).

Constantine’s sons (Constantine,Constantius, Constans) proclaimedAugusti (9 September).

339 Eusebius of Caesarea dies (May).359 Patriarch Macedonius moves

Constantine’s body to the church of St.Acacius.






Map of the Roman Empire under the Tetrarchs and Constantine

xxvii i






xxix






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constantine, divine emperor of the christian golden … · 2015. 8. 8. · 28. ptolemy iii...

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