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Consideration 1

Speech and Writing

Speech Writing

Unless humans suffer from some disorder or

experience a social context that is linguistically

starved they acquire language. Stubbs (1980)

suggests the term ‘homo loquens’ defines the

human race as much as ‘homo sapiens’.

The production (and decoding) of language in

the graphic mode is a formally learned

competence necessitating the transmission of a

set of skills through a process requiring a

sustained conscious effort both during

instruction and practice (Sharples, 1999).

Speech is usually a dynamic interaction

between two or more people. Context and

shared knowledge play a major role, so it is

possible to leave much unsaid or indirectly

implied.

Writers receive no immediate feedback from

their readers, except in computer-based

communication. Therefore they cannot rely on

context to clarify things so there is more need

to explain things clearly and unambiguously

than in speech, except in written

correspondence between people who know one

another well.

Spoken language tends to be full of repetitions,

incomplete sentences, corrections and

interruptions, with the exception of formal

speeches and other scripted forms of speech,

such as news reports and scripts for plays and

films.

Written language tends to be more complex and

intricate than speech with longer sentences and

many subordinate clauses. The punctuation and

layout of written texts also have no spoken

equivalent. However some forms of written

language, such as instant messages and email,

are closer to spoken language.

Speech is usually used for immediate

interactions.

Speech is usually transient, unless recorded,

and speakers can correct themselves and

change their utterances as they go along.

Speech depends on sound.

A written text can communicate across time

and space for as long as the particular language

and writing system is still understood.

Writing is usually permanent and written texts

cannot usually be changed once they have been

printed/written out.

Writing is silent.

* The list above is not exhaustive.

**Except for the first point, all other observations should be understood as existing on a cline.

A blank piece of paper is God’s way of telling us how hard it is to be God. – Sheldon

There is nothing to writing. All you do is sit down at a typewriter and bleed. -

Hemingway

Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and writing an exact man.- Bacon

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Consideration 2

Causes of and for Concern

Written work has been referred to as being one of the major causes of concern for students. One study

(Jordan, 1981) looked at the writing difficulties of overseas postgraduates attending classes at

university in the UK. On a six-point scale, ranging from ‘no difficulties’ to ‘a lot of difficulties’, they

were asked to comment on their own writing problems. A similar questionnaire was given to academic

staff teaching the students, asking what caused them the most difficulties, when reading students’

writing.

Students Staff

vocabulary 62% style 92%

style 53% grammar 77%

spelling 41% vocabulary 70%

grammar 38% handwriting 31%

punctuation 18% punctuation 23%

handwriting 12% spelling 23%

Weir (1988) conducted a much more detailed and wide-ranging survey among staff and students and

concluded that:

Subject tutors are more concerned with content than with mechanical

accuracy features…it is the relevance and adequacy of the subject

content, the clarity of the message and the arrangement and

development of written work which clearly stands out as the most

important criteria in subject tutors’ assessment of written work. (Weir, 1988)

from 2013 MATSEC Examiners’ Reports

Intermediate English

Essay planning in general was weak, with just a rather small number

of candidates managing to present a clearly structured text, together

with evidence of a coherent sense of direction or progression of ideas

from a clear introduction through to a well-linked conclusion.

Advanced English

This examination assesses candidates’ ability to employ good use of

the English language in a number of contexts: literary and linguistic,

but often register, coherence and cohesion pose a problem for

candidates.


Consideration 3

Beyond the Sentence

Cohesion – the overt (apparent) structural links between sentences.

Grammatical Cohesion

Lexical Cohesion

such as Forward/Backward reference and Conjunction

such as Repetition and Collocation

*for a full list of Cohesive Devices see Halliday & Hasan, 1976.

Coherence – the ‘unwritten’ links between sentences.

Sample 1

Snow White took the poisoned apple. Cider is an alcoholic drink made from fermented apples. An

apple a day keeps the doctor away. There are a number of Apple retail stores in London. William

Tell is said to have shot an arrow through an apple placed on his son’s head. In literature the apple

has often been used as a symbol of earthly desires, indulgence, immortality and reincarnation.

Carving an apple swan is relatively easy and makes an impressive addition to a dinner table.

Sample 2

This is an interesting process. All the apples go into the gas-store at Beeches when they have been

gathered. They are picked straight into bulk bins and are graded when they reach the store. The

store has about fifty departments, each of which holds 200 tons of apples. It operates as a

cooperative run by fifty full time apple-producing farmers.

Sample 3

A. Are you going to Gozo this weekend?

B. Cannot wait to go there.

Sample 4

A. Are you going to Gozo this weekend?

B. Wind might be NE Force 8.


Background Knowledge

The most important factor in determining how much readers will comprehend and

how well writers will be able to communicate about a given topic is their level of

knowledge about that topic. The importance of prior knowledge to comprehension

and communication is included in virtually all modern theories of reading (Anderson

& Pearson, 1984; Pressley, Wood, & Woloshyn, 1992; Spivey, 1996). According to

schema theory, prior knowledge provides a schema—a framework or structure—that

helps thinking.

Sample 5

The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups. Of

course, one group may be enough depending on how much there is. If you have to do it

somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step, otherwise you are ready to

begin. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at

once than too many. This may not seem important, but problems can easily arise. A

mistake can be expensive as well—you could ruin your things. At first the whole

procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, the procedure will become just

another part of everyday life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the need for this task in

the immediate future, but then you can never tell. After the procedure is completed, you

arrange the materials into different groups again and put them into their appropriate

places. Eventually the materials will be used again and the whole cycle will have to be

repeated. However, this is part of life.

Sample 6

If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn’t be able to carry since everything would be

too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from

carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation

depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also

cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud

enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the

instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the

best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential

problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong.


Consideration 4

Product Approach and Process Approach

As academic writing is so important for students of all kinds, and as it is

such a wide umbrella term, it is hardly surprising that there is a range of

approaches and types of practice for it. A number of approaches fall under

the notion of Product Approach – in a nutshell the Product Approach is

concerned with the finished product – the text. As a reaction to the Product

Approach, the Process Approach began to develop. This is concerned with

the processes of writing that enable the product to be achieved.

Product Approach

Discussion/Argument

Definition

Exemplification

Cause and Effect

Instruction

Explanation

Introductions

Conclusions

Stack Paragraphing

Process Approach

Preliminary Ideas

Prewriting Activities

Outlines

Getting Started

First Draft

Revising

Editing

Feedback

Proofreading

Evaluation


Consideration 5

Product Approach

When people talk of the freedom of writing, speaking or thinking I cannot choose

but laugh. No such thing ever existed. No such thing now exists...

John Adams

Sample 1

Sample 2

XBAJT wnt 2 go hm ASAP, 2C my

M8s :’- (

The Perfect Fried Egg

1 fresh large egg

3/4 tablespoon butter

Salt and freshly-ground black pepper

Preheat the frying pan:

Place a small non-stick frying pan over the lowest

possible heat on your stove. Add the butter and

let it slowly melt, making sure it doesn't foam and

is not sizzling.

When all the butter has melted, crack the egg into

the frying pan and cover with a lid. Continue

cooking approximately 5 minutes until the egg

white solidifies from transparency into snow-

white cream; the yolk will thicken slightly as it

heats.

When your egg is done, slide cooked egg onto a

serving plate. Sprinkle with fresh cracked pepper,

salt, and serve.

CREATIVITY certain degree of freedom

Story

Poem

Diary Entry

Note

Advertisement

sms

CONVENTION lesser degree of freedom

CV

Bibliography

Legal Document

Report

Academic Paper

Argument


Product Approach or the Rhetorical Functional Approach

Rhetorical

Functional

Judge throws out far-right lobbyist's appeal

Norman Lowell disqualified from running for EP elections

A judge yesterday declared null an appeal filed by far-right lobbyist Norman Lowell against a two-year

suspended jail sentence he had been given for incitement to racial hatred last March 27.

As a result, Mr Lowell will be disqualified from taking part in the Euro-parliamentary elections next June.

The Criminal Court of Appeal, presided over by Mr Justice David Scicluna, declared the application by Mr

Lowell and his lawyer Emy Bezzina null on grounds that it was not filed in the correct format as

provided by law.

According to law, an application for an appeal must have a brief statement of the facts, the

grounds of the appeal and a demand that the judgment of the first court be reversed or varied.

The court ruled that when Dr Bezzina gave a brief statement of the facts in the appeal application he was

economical with words in his description of the facts to an extent that it rendered the application

null. Paragraphs that were supposed to describe the facts were missing, the judge pointed out.

(Times of Malta Thursday , October 16th 2008)

White (1988) writes that:

much EAP writing is very product-oriented, since the conventions governing the

organization and expression of ideas are very tight. Thus the learner has to become

thoroughly familiarized with these conventions and must learn to operate within

them.

Rhetoric aims at improving the

capability of writers or speakers to

inform, persuade, or motivate through

various devices.

A concern with the higher-order characteristics of writing – the overall

organisation and structure of texts including the function of the different parts

of a text in contributing to a coherent whole.


Consideration 6

Rhetorical Structure

‘Superbaby turns Superbust’

Mention the name of Lee Kuan Yew to female university graduates in Singapore, and

many will angrily denounce the Singaporean Prime Minister’s attempt at genetic

engineering. These women are the government’s special targets in a campaign launched

a year ago encouraging them to marry early and have children. Despite mixed scientific

evidence. Lee Kuan yew is convinced that I.Q. and talent are genetically determined and

can be inherited by children of intellectually superior parents. He sees it as the most

promising way for Singapore to keep its edge, in the years to come, in the field of

sophisticated new technology and industry. He underestimated, however, the free spirit

of university-educated Singaporean women. Referring to the Prime Minister, one said,

‘He is living in the past. Women are not cattle to be manipulated for breeding.’

Lee Kuan Yew Text

Pattern Female Graduates

Humpty Dumpty sat on a Wall

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,

Humpty Dumpty had a great fall;

All the king's horses and all the king's men

Couldn't put Humpty together again.

The Queen of Hearts

The Queen of Hearts she made some

tarts all on a summer's day.

The Knave of Hearts he stole the tarts

and took them clean away.

The King of Hearts called for the tarts

and beat the Knave full sore.

The Knave of Hearts brought back the

tarts and vowed he'd steal no more.


Situation – Problem –Solution – Evaluation

Fly Fighters

One of the major annoyances at the women’s prison is flies. Situated as it is in the middle

of an agricultural zone where breeding sites for flies abound, the prison attracts them by

the millions. Inmates, even those who have seldom dealt with fly infestation, must learn to

cope with the problem, especially at eating time, when the flies want to share the meals. In

observing what goes on at different tables in the dining hall, I have discovered that there

are three kinds of fly fighters: the shooers, the hiders and the baiters.

The shooers are the most unimaginative. They wave their hands at the flies, shooing them

after they have landed or by constant waving try to keep them from landing. This technique

requires the constant waving of the hand in slow rhythmical movements or faster

aggressive ones. The effort is contrary to the movements associated with eating and is

almost as difficult as patting one’s head while rubbing one’s stomach. At any time one can

look around the dining room and see the women waving their hands and the flies waving

their wings as if they are all communicating. If so, the flies have the last word.

The hiders, the second class, practice stealth, figuring that any human being should be

intelligent enough to hide food from a small-brained creature like a fly. After using several

napkins to enshroud their food, the hides bend their head forward to close the space and

scoop food from under the covering. Unfortunately, the food often saturates the napkin or,

even worse, flies actually manage to crawl under the covering without the hiders

immediately noticing it. Overall; however, this technique is fairly successful and is

probably the most popular.

The baiters, the third class, while being the most intelligent are probably the most cynical.

They have concluded that the flies will succeed in getting to the food in some way or

another. The baiters offer a self-serving compromise to the flies. Upon taking a seat at the

table, they will immediately deposit a spoonful of food near the edge of the tray or even on

the table itself. They then employ the hiders’ technique of covering the major portion of

the food. While flies swarm on the token bait, the baiters often with a smug look of

superiority can relatively enjoy their meal. Once the baiters finish their meal, they carry the

bait away to the dump zone.

The swatters


Argument/Opinion/Research Paper

The following eleven sentences form an opinion ‘essay’, but are in the wrong

order. Using the underlined words attempt to put the sentences in a logical

order.

a For another thing, children whose mothers work are enriched by their mother’s

experience and knowledge of the work world; these children get more than just their

father’s view of the world.

b In fact, I believe that children benefit when their mothers work.

c You often hear people say, ‘A woman’s place is in the home.’

d My brother’s children, for example, were in daycare centres from infancy to kindergarten

and they became very mature at a young age.

e I am one of those who believe that mothers are not neglecting their responsibilities by

working outside the home.

f Finally, and quite obviously, the children of working mothers have the economic

advantages gained from their mother’s income.

g Others, however, find this notion old-fashioned in today’s world of tight budgets and

good child-care facilities.

h Their daycare experience was a definite plus for them.

i For one thing, children who are cared for by babysitters or in daycare centres gain

independence, maturity and social skills more quickly than those cared for by their

mother.

j In short, as long as children are well cared for, I’m for mothers who work.

k Many traditionalists support this statement, saying that a woman’s first responsibility is

to her husband and children.


You often hear people say, ‘A woman’s place is in the

home.’ Many traditionalists support this statement,

saying that a woman’s first responsibility is to her

husband and children.

Others, however, find this notion old-fashioned in today’s world of tight

budgets and good child-care facilities.

I am one of those who believe that mothers are not neglecting their

responsibilities by working outside the home.

In fact, I believe that children benefit when their

mothers work.

For one thing, children who are cared for by babysitters or in daycare centres

gain independence, maturity and social skills more quickly than those cared

for by their mothers.

My brother’s children, for example, were in daycare centres from infancy to

kindergarten and they became very mature at a young age.

Their daycare experience was a definite plus for them.

For another thing, children whose mothers work are enriched by their mother’s

experience and knowledge of the work world; these children get more than just

their father’s view of the world.

SUPPORT

CLOSURE

THEME

SUPPORT

CLOSURE

THEME


THEME

Finally, and quite obviously, the children of working mothers have the

economic advantages gained from their mother’s income.

SUPPORT

CLOSURE

In short, as long as children are well cared for, I’m for mothers who work.

THEME

GENERIC

SPECIFIC


Consideration 7

Style and Tone

Here are two versions of the same story from different newspapers. Read the two

passages and attempt to identify some of the differences between the two texts.

Article One

Horror for TV Star The teenage son of Cockney comic Jim Neill killed his best pal in a shotgun tragedy

yesterday.

John Neill, 17 told detectives he was showing one of his Dad’s guns to the friend when it

went off.

Det. Supt. Mike Jones who is looking into the matter, said late last night: ‘I cannot say if this

was an accident or not.’

The teenage friend was blasted by the pump-action 12-bore in the doorway of a bar by the

family’s pool.

An ambulanceman said he would have been dead before he hit the ground.

Police sealed off the £200,000 thatched cottage in Essex as forensic experts combed the

three-and-a-half acre garden.

TV star Jim, 50, bought the house about three years ago after selling a nearby mansion. He

is a keen marksman and keeps a large collection of shotguns at the cottage.

Last night he cut short a cabaret spot in Manchester to return to the house.

Article Two

Gun death at star’s home A young man died in a shooting incident yesterday at the home of Jim Neill the Cockney

comedian. It was understood that the victim was a friend of one of Mr. Neill’s sons, who was

demonstrating one of his father’s guns at the time.

Police cordoned off the area leading to the house and dogs were brought in to search the

grounds. The Detective investigating the incident said they were keeping an open mind on

the possibility of it being an accident.

Jim Neill, who cancelled a cabaret engagement to return home last night bought the house,

set in 3½ acres about three years ago. He has two sons, John, 17 and James, 21, who were

interviewed by detectives last night.


Look at some of these differences

The teenage son of Cockney comic

Jim Neill killed his best pal in a

shotgun tragedy yesterday.

A young man died in a shooting

incident yesterday at the home of

Jim Neill the Cockney comedian

Accident

Garden

Cut short

Show

Incident

Grounds

Cancel

Demonstrate

The teenage friend was blasted by

the pump-action 12-bore in the

family doorway …..

It was understood that the victim

was a friend of one of Mr Neill’s

sons, who was demonstrating one of

his father’s guns at the time.

John Neill, 17, told detectives he

was showing one of his Dad’s guns

to the friend when it went off.

He has two sons, John, 17 and

James, 21, who were interviewed by

detectives last night.

Det. Supt. Mike Jones who is

looking into the matter, said late last

night: ‘I cannot say if this was an

accident or not.’

The Detective investigating the

incident said they were keeping an

open mind on the possibility of it

being an accident.


1 Abbreviations and Contractions

Informal These are used in informal texts – I’m, they’re, there’s, it’s, isn’t, etc.

Formal Use full form – I am, they are, there is, it is, is not, etc.

2 Use of the Passive and Active

Informal The general trend is that verbs/sentences are in the active unless there is a

good reason to use the passive – I am sending your bill back …I am going to

try and put an album together.

Formal In formal writing one tends to find that the passive is more commonly used –

his fee will not be paid…so that an album of guests’ photographs can be

compiled.

3 Use of the first person singular

Informal This correlates with the use of the active and is, therefore, more commonly

used in informal texts – I’m terribly sorry…I’m going to send…I think you

ought etc.

Formal Partly because of the more extensive use of the passive, the use of ‘I’ is less

common in formal texts. In addition, it is generally advisable to avoid writing

I think and present opinion as a fact. For example, instead of saying I think

the pictures were awful, it would be better to say The pictures were

unacceptable.

4 Use of Intensifiers

Informal Intensifiers are far more common in speech than in formal writing. In formal

writing emotions need to be ‘hedged’ and consequently these would be out of

place – absolutely awful, completely fuzzy, really upset, absolutely dreadful,

etc.

Formal Intensifiers are less common, and if they need to be used, they tend to be

more formal and toned down (if possible avoid absolutes) – unacceptable not

entirely, completely unacceptable as things are either acceptable or not.

5 Use of Phrasal Verbs

Informal Phrasal verbs are more commonly used in informal writing – make up for, put

(an album) together, etc.

Formal In formal writing, wherever possible, phrasal verbs are replaced by verbs

derived from Latin – compensate, compile, etc.


6 Link Words

Informal In informal writing simpler linking words and phrases tend to be used –

anyway, what’s more, opposite to this, etc.

Formal More formal linking words are used – but, furthermore, in contrast, etc.

7 Set Phrases and Idioms

Informal In informal texts, phrases and idioms that are found in speech are more

commonly found – make a mess of… thanks very much… not going to pay

you a penny… hope to hear from you soon… etc.

Formal Idiomatic expressions are usually avoided and in addition there are a number

of set phrases that are commonly used – Thank you for…I would be most

grateful if you could…I look forward to hearing from you…etc.

8 Rhetorical Questions

Informal These are possible – this isn’t the kind of thing you expect, is it?...Is that OK

for you?...Shall I contact you again next week?...etc.

Formal Rhetorical questions are best avoided in formal writing. even if are requests is

intended, this is often rephrased as a statement – I am sure you are aware that

this is not the kind of work one expects… I believe tomorrow should not be a

problem for you… I would be grateful if you can let me know whether it

would be possible to contact you again next week…etc.

Note that in attempting to avoid the abruptness of the question the text

generally tends to become longer.

9 Expressions of Personal Feelings

Informal Personal feelings can be readily expressed – I think…I am upset…I do not

like…etc.

Formal Personal feeling should be kept out of formal writing. Even if the texts is one

of complaint, the writer should avoid expressions of anger or resentment. The

message can still be conveyed by rephrasing personal feelings as facts - the

pictures are unacceptable…the materials provided failed to meet the standards

expected…the many hours beyond the call of duty are causing hardships …etc.

10 Ellipses (missing out words)

Informal In speech or informal writing the omission of certain words is tolerated and

accepted – Hope to hear from you…lovely party…great to see you

again…will ring next week…etc.

Formal Ellipses would be out of place in formal writing.


11 Sexism

Informal While it is never encouraged, aspects of sexism in language may be tolerated

in speech or informal writing – The clerk must make sure that he files all the

work.

Formal Language is considered sexist when the word choice suggests only one gender

even though both are intended. In formal writing this is avoided so that the text

is non-sexist. Although an occasional s/he or he or she is acceptable, too many

of them are not appreciated.

Use of infinitive - The clerk must make sure to file all the work.

Use of plural - The clerks must make sure they file all the work.

12 Parallelism

Informal In speech or informal language speakers/writers may not maintain parallelism

in the construction of sentences – The faculty guarantees that it will replace

the old system and to consider the new proposal…My work on the computer

includes documents, the sending of electronic mail and also to find pictures

from the Internet.

Formal In formal writing different elements in a sentence need to be treated in the same

way. The above sentences would be considered as faulty in formal writing.

Employing parallelism would mean the sentences should be written – The

faculty guarantees that it will replace the old system and will consider the new

proposal …My work on the computer includes the writing of documents, the

sending of electronic mail and the finding of pictures from the Internet.

13 Choppiness

Informal A string of short sentences results in choppiness. Sometimes, in speech,

particular texts or creative writing the use of a series of short sentences is

appreciated because of the effect such a string of sentences may have – Both

modes offer safety belts. Both models have counterbalancing. Each one has a

horn. Each one has lights. One offers wing-sided seats. These seats enhance

safety.

Formal In formal writing this choppiness is not appreciated – Both models offer safety

belts, counterbalancing, a horn and lights. Only one offers wing-sided safety

belts, which enhance safety.


Balloon Serenade

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