conservation of freshwater habitats and fishes in the western ghats of india

Conservation of freshwater habitats and fishes inthe Western Ghats of IndiaR. KUMAR1 & K. R. DEVI2

1SRMJS 35, SRM Road, Cochin 682016, India, and 2Retired Scientist, Zoological Survey ofIndia, No. 16, First Canal Cross Road, Gandhinagar, Adayar, Chennai, 600028, IndiaE-mail: [email protected]

The Western Ghats, India, present a series of challengesand opportunities for novel approaches to conservation.Running parallel to the coast of the Indian Peninsula, theGhats represent the western edge of the Deccan Plateauand traverse 1400 km over six states, giving rise to riversthat drain over a third of the country. A global biodiver-sity hotspot with varied topography housing diverse eco-logical niches, the Western Ghats present significantchallenges to, and opportunities for, conservation. Densehuman habitation near river systems and dependence onfreshwater resources for livelihoods make it difficult toestablish protected areas. Freshwater fishes in this regionaccount for c. 40% of the freshwater fishes in India andaround 189 species are endemic to the Western Ghats.All the usual threats to the fishes and their habitats arepresent, and the freshwater fishes of the Western Ghatsare of great social and economic importance to the localcommunity. Zoos, aquariums and the general public canplay a role in conservation efforts through education andresearch. Utilizing traditional customs already in place,such as water bodies in the vicinity of temples where nofishing occurs, in conjunction with ecotourism and moremodern technologies, such as live gene banks and cryo-preservation, may ease the burden on the freshwaterhabitats and fishes in the region.

Key-words: ecotourism; freshwater fishes; habitats;human habitation; livelihoods; Western Ghats.

INTRODUCTION

The Western Ghats run parallel to the westerncoast of India, spanning 1400 km, from Kan-yakumari at the very tip of the peninsula,through the states of Tamil Nadu, Kerala,Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra, and upto the River Tapi in Gujarat (Fig. 1). Theyinclude the Sahyadri Hills in Maharashtra,Goa and Karnataka, the Nilgiri and Carda-mom Hills in Tamil Nadu, and the AnamalaiHills in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Rising to a height of 2695 m at theirhighest point (Anamudi in the AnamalaiHills), the Western Ghats are not true moun-tains but the edge of the Deccan Plateau.With a total area of 160 000 km2, the water-shed formed by the Ghats feeds rivers thatdrain about 40% of India’s land mass. Riversthat drain the western face of the Ghats intothe Arabian Sea have short lengths and do notform extensive networks, while most riversthat drain the eastern face of the Ghats intothe Bay of Bengal feed one of three majorrivers that drain peninsular India: theCauvery, Krishna or Godavari. This uniquelandform, with its varied topographical fea-tures, high mountain ranges and variedecological habitats, exhibits very high bio-diversity and endemism, and is consideredone of 25 global biodiversity hotspots.

The Western Ghats present a series of chal-lenges and opportunities for the conserva-tionist. The proximity of dense humanhabitation to river systems and the depend-ence of livelihoods on freshwater resourcesmake the establishment of protected areas achallenge. These very same factors presentunique opportunities for novel approaches toconservation involving zoos, public aquari-ums and the general public.

Ichthyofauna

Bhimachar (1945) divided the Western Ghatsinto three zoogeographic divisions: theNorthern Division from the Tapi River downto Goa; the Central Division extending

bs_bs_banner

FRESHWATER FISHES AND THEIR CONSERVATION 71

Int. Zoo Yb. (2013) 47: 71–80

DOI:10.1111/izy.12009

Int. Zoo Yb. (2013) 47: 71–80 © 2013 The Authors. International Zoo Yearbook © 2013 The Zoological Society of London

southwards from Goa, including the Kodagu,Wayanad and Nilgiri Hills; and the SouthernDivision below the Palghat gap, includingthe Anamalai Hill Ranges. Based on the dis-tribution of freshwater fishes, Bhimachar(1945) reported a greater biodiversity in theCentral and Southern Divisions, which heattributed to the favourable conditions inthese regions, compared to the Northern part,which was subject to volcanic activity.

Freshwater fishes from the Western Ghatsaccount for over 40% of freshwater fishspecies reported from India, totalling 290species under 106 genera and 33 families.This region exhibits a high degree of ende-mism, with 189 species out of 290 (65%)being endemic to the region (Molur et al.,2011). Fifteen genera are found nowhere elsein the world, with many species restricted to asingle water body or river.

The ichthyofauna of the region sharesmany affinities with that of the Eastern Hima-layas and the Malay Peninsula. There havebeen many attempts over the years to explain

this phenomenon (Hora, 1944; Silas, 1952;Jayaram, 1977) but our understanding abouthow and why this came to occur is stillincomplete. In addition, the cichlid genusnative to India and Sri Lanka, Etroplus, isallied to a genus native to Madagascar andprovides a link to the ancient supercontinentof Gondwanaland.

The freshwater fishes of the Western Ghatsare of great social and economic importanceto the people of the region. Temple ponds andstretches of river adjoining temples oftenhouse populations of large cyprinid species(mostly Labeo, Tor and Hypselobarbus spp)that are protected by the temple and wor-shipped by devotees. These large aggrega-tions of fish also have the potential to bedeveloped into tourist attractions. Fish forman important part of the diet of local inhab-itants and many species, ranging from smallcyprinids (e.g. Amblypharyngodon) to largecatfish, cichlids, snakeheads and cyprinids(e.g. Horabagrus, Mystus, Etroplus, Channa,Tor, Hypselobarbus, Labeo spp), support

Fig. 1. Map of the Western Ghats of India.

72 WESTERN GHATS, INDIA: CONSERVATION OF FRESHWATER HABITATS AND FISHES


important fisheries. Additionally, the WesternGhats are home to a number of fish speciesthat are important to the ornamental fishtrade. These include old favourites that havebeen present in the trade for close to acentury, such as Blackspot barb Puntius fila-mentosus and Melon barb Puntius fasciatus,to species that have come to prominencein the past decade, such as Denison’sbarb Puntius denisonii and Canara pearlspotEtroplus canarensis. See Table 1 for a list ofthreatened species used for the ornamentalfish trade, and some sold for profit (food) orconsumed by local fishers.

THREATS TO FRESHWATERECOSYSTEMS IN THEWESTERN GHATS

Most habitats, both terrestrial and aquatic, inthe Western Ghats have undergone dramatictransformations in the recent past as a resultof a multitude of factors. Flow regulation,deforestation, pollution from industrial,domestic and agricultural run-off, and extrac-tion of forest products all contribute to thedegradation of habitats (Menon & Bawa,1997). Molur et al. (2011) estimate over 30%of freshwater fish species in the WesternGhats are imperilled (Fig. 2).

Flow regulation

The geology of the Western Ghats, withsteep slopes, coupled with the volume ofrainfall, makes them very attractive for largehydroelectric projects. Surging populationgrowth and the increased demand for elec-tricity and potable water have led to theconstruction of some very large dams.The Idukki Dam, which supplies most ofKerala’s electricity, is the second largest archdam in the world. The Nagarjuna Sagar Damon the Krishna River is the largest dam inIndia and the world’s largest masonry dam.The water impounded by this structure formsthe world’s largest man-made lake. There areover 50 medium and large dams acrossvarious rivers in the Western Ghats, withmore projects under consideration. While the

dams may prove beneficial to some speciesby ensuring a perennial flow of water inpreviously seasonal streams (Pethiyagoda& Kottelat, 2005); migratory fish, largecyprinids in particular, are vulnerable toobstructions posed by dams (Hora, 1942; seealso Reis, 2013). Dams are a serious problemin the Krishna River drainage, where largevolumes of water are diverted for growingsugarcane Saccharum spp. Recently, theIndian government has proposed an InterBasin Water Transfer project, which willconnect major rivers in northern India withthose in the south. This project, if allowedto go ahead, has the potential to severelyreduce freshwater biodiversity throughoutthe system (Grant et al., 2012).

Pollution

Agriculture is big business in the WesternGhats and is mostly dominated by planta-tions. Large areas are devoted to monocultureof teak, rubber, tea, coffee, oil palm, euca-lypts, clove, cardamom, etc. In the lowerreaches of the Ghats, many wetland habitatshave been converted into rice paddy fields.While large-scale agriculture causes habitatfragmentation and resulting loss of biodiver-sity, a far greater threat to freshwater habitatsresults from fertilizer and pesticide run-off.Pesticides that have been banned in otherparts of the world, such as dichlorodi-phenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and endosul-fan, continue to be used here. Indiscriminatepesticide use has rendered many first- andsecond-order streams in the vicinity of agri-cultural operations sterile. Fish that survive inthese streams often show evidence of tissuenecrosis and skeletal deformities. In additionto agricultural run-off, sewage from domesticand industrial sources poses a serious threatto freshwater ecosystems in the region. Riversthat flow through populated areas carry aheavy load of organic pollutants and sedi-ment, in addition to plastics and other non-degradable matter. This invariably leads toeutrophication and increased turbidity, withsubsequent effects on freshwater life.



Table 1. Some exploited fishes from the Western Ghats and their Red List status (IUCN, 2012). CR, CriticallyEndangered; EN, Endangered; VU, Vulnerable; afood relates to items for sale while subsistence relates to itemsconsumed by fishers.

SPECIES USEa

RED LISTCONSERVATIONSTATUS

Nilgiri mystusHemibagrus punctatus food, subsistence CR

Jerdon’s barilBarilius canarensis ornamental EN

Zebra loachBotia striata ornamental EN

Imperial white-collared yellow catfishHorabagrus nigricollaris ornamental, subsistence EN

Curmuca barbHypselobarbus curmuca food, ornamental EN

Korhi barbHypselobarbus micropogon food EN

Periyar barbHypselobarbus periyarensis food, subsistence EN

Deccan labeoLabeo potail food, subsistence EN

Peninsular hill troutLepidopygopsis typus food, subsistence EN

Shimoga loachNemachilichthys shimogensis ornamental EN

Long-finned barbOsteochilichthys longidorsalis food, subsistence, ornamental EN

Chalakkudy barbPuntius chalakkudiensis ornamental EN

Denison’s barbPuntius denisonii ornamental EN

Tambraparni barbPuntius tambraparniei ornamental EN

NuktaSchismatorhynchos nukta food EN

Malabar mahseerTor malabaricus food, subsistence EN

Periyar loachTravancoria elongata ornamental EN

Malabar pufferfishCarinotetraodon travancoricus ornamental VU

Indian giant snakeheadChanna diplogramma food, subsistence, ornamental VU

Mrigal carpCirrhinus cirrhosus food VU

Günther’s catfish/Sun catfishHorabagrus brachysoma food, subsistence, ornamental VU

Malabar hatchet chelaLaubuca fasciata ornamental VU

Day’s spike tailed gouramiPseudosphromenus dayi ornamental VU

Mascara barbPuntius assimilis ornamental, subsistence VU

Setna’s barbPuntius setnai ornamental VU



Development

Removal of sand from riverbeds, for use in theconstruction industry, poses one of the gravestthreats to freshwater habitats in the WesternGhats. Large volumes of sand are abstracted,both manually and by machines, leading tolarge changes in stream-bed composition,variations in flow regimes and lowering of thewater table. The Bharatapuzha, the secondlargest river in Kerala, is heavily affected bysand mining, with barely any flow during thesummer months. When coupled with defor-estation upstream and dams along the way,sand mining can spell the death knell for manyrivers in the Western Ghats. Sand mining alsosignificantly affects the Indrayani River inMaharashtra (Dahanukar et al., 2011) and therivers that drain into the Vembanad Lake inKerala (Padmalal et al., 2008).

Fishing

With many economically important fishspecies in the rivers of the Western Ghats,unregulated, unsustainable fishing practicespose a significant threat to freshwater biodi-versity in the region. Capture fisheries in theWestern Ghats are essentially open access,with little or no regulation on the size andnumbers of fish caught. While some artisanal

fishing practices are sustainable, many othersare not (Raghavan et al., 2011; Prasad et al.,2012). Untargeted fishing, using syntheticpoisons and phytotoxins as well as dynamite,has disastrous effects on ecosystems. Dyna-mite use is particularly important. Interviewswith fishermen in Kerala and Karnatakasuggest dynamite fishing is widespread, and isused both for subsistence fishing and large-scale fishing for profit. In addition to killinglarge numbers of fish, dynamiting also kills alot of small fish that are not harvested. Fine-meshed nets capture non-target species aswell as juveniles of target species. Unman-aged collection for the ornamental fish trade isan additional threat to freshwater fish in theregion. It is hard to paint an accurate picture ofthe true extent of fishing because officialfigures only report catches at fish landingcentres and there are no data on small-scalefishing for subsistence or local sale. As anaside, fisheries managers in Southern India inthe 1800s were already calling for regulationson gear and catches in order to preserve fish-eries (Thomas, 1870).

Exotic species

Several species have been introduced into thewaters of the Western Ghats, mostly into res-ervoirs, in order to increase net fish yields,support sport fishing and as biocontrol agentsfor mosquitoes. Many of these introducedfishes have been naturalized in the streams,ponds and lakes of the region. Invasive speciesinclude wild Common carp Cyprinus carpio,Mozambique tilapia Oreochromis mossambi-cus, Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, Mos-quitofish Gambusia affinis, Guppy Poeciliareticulata and trout (Salmonidae), introducedfrom other countries, as well as Rohu Labeorohita, Catla Catla catla and Mrigal carp Cir-rhinus mrigala that have been have been intro-duced from other parts of the Indiansubcontinent. In addition to introductions,some species are believed to have escapedfrom aquaculture facilities and establishedthemselves in the wild. Established exoticspecies include the North African catfishClarias gariepinus (Krishnakumar et al.,

20

30

40

50

60

70perc

enta

ge

total species endemic species

0

10

CR EN VU NT LC

IUCN Red List threat status

Fig. 2. Percentages of total freshwater fish species inthe Western Ghats compared with the endemic fresh-water fish species given according to InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red Listcategory: CR, Critically Endangered; EN, Endan-gered; LC, Least Concern; NT, Near Threatened;VU, Vulnerable. Chart adapted from data presentedin Molur et al., 2011.



2011), the Leopard pleco Pterygoplichthysgibbiceps, Amazon sailfin catfish Pterygopli-chthys pardalis (often incorrectly identified inthe literature as Orinoco sailfin catfish Ptery-goplichthys multiradiatus), cichlids of thegenera Cichlasoma and Hemichromis, and thelarge Pirapatinga Colossoma brachypomum(Krishnakumar et al., 2009; Knight, 2010).These exotic species are adaptable and affectpopulations of indigenous fish via direct com-petition for resources, predation and habitatmodification. In addition to exotic fishes, theinvasive aquatic weed Eichhornia crassipes ispresent in many water bodies in the regionand, while it has not been reported as a seriousthreat thus far, it has the potential to causesignificant negative impact if left unchecked.

CONSERVATION

Even though fresh waters in the tropics arerich in biodiversity, awareness and efforts toconserve these are limited, with the majorityof reported studies coming from northerntemperate regions. Restricted distributionsand high degrees of endemism present a sig-nificant impediment to conservation efforts,as large areas need to be conserved in orderto preserve a significant proportion of biodi-versity in the area (Dudgeon et al., 2006).

Conservation of freshwater habitats in theWestern Ghats is a complex issue, taking intoaccount traditional rights and the need to pre-serve natural resources, and balancing theseagainst the pressures of population and eco-nomic growth. Conservation in India tradi-tionally has taken a policy-driven, top-downapproach that has yielded mixed results. Mostlegislation focuses on terrestrial ecosystems,and more or less ignores aquatic life that doesnot qualify as charismatic megafauna. Whileconservation measures designed to protectterrestrial ecosystems do provide a degree ofprotection to freshwater ecosystems (waterbodies within national parks and sanctuaries),this usually only applies to small fragmentsof the total ecosystem. Many rivers in theWestern Ghats traverse more than one stateand, unless there is strong political coopera-tion, effective projects in one state can easily

be undone by lax measures in another. It isalso important to note that in a developingcountry, such as India, conservation invari-ably comes off second best when pittedagainst the needs of the economy. Potentiallong-term benefits of conservation (e.g.increased revenue from fishing) lose outto immediate needs (e.g. electricity from ahydroelectric power station).

Biodiversity conservation in the region iscurrently overseen by State BiodiveristyBoards, in conjunction with Forest Depart-ments and other agencies at the state or dis-trict level. The Report of the Western GhatsEcology Expert Panel (Western GhatsEcology Expert Panel, 2011) recommendsthe establishment of a Western GhatsEcology Authority as a statutory body tooversee and coordinate conservation projectsacross the region, with State Western GhatsAuthorities and District Ecological Commit-tees to implement projects at lower levels.While we agree that a central body is essen-tial to maximize cooperation among states,setting up additional agencies at lower levelsis likely to create bureaucratic hurdles.Opening and maintaining channels of com-munication between existing agencies oughtto be the focus of any central office that isestablished.

While the political courage needed to takeeffective decisions may never manifest itself(some state governments and civil organiza-tions are already up in arms against theReport of the Western Ghats Ecology ExpertPanel as anti-development and unscientific)and many habitats may never recover to evena fraction of their former splendour, all is notlost. The very factors that put freshwaterhabitats in the Western Ghats under threat,such as development, tourism and proximityof wilderness to urban centres, can be used astools to conserve biodiversity. Two ongoingprojects in other parts of the world outlinepossibilities for conservation efforts in theWestern Ghats.

Project Seahorse (http://seahorse.fisheries.ubc.ca/) has, over the past decade and ahalf, established a model conservation pro-gramme with a global reach. Starting with



http://seahorse.fisheries.ubc.ca/

http://seahorse.fisheries.ubc.ca/

the taxonomy and biology of syngnathids(once a poorly studied group of fish), ProjectSeahorse supports initiatives to establishmarine reserves and no-take zones, involveslocal fishers in decision making and enforce-ment of conservation measures, and encour-ages traders and consumers to voluntarilycommit to restrictions on trade. In addition,the project helped formulate global policy onthe conservation of these fish, continues towork with enforcement agencies to regulateillegal trade, and coordinates efforts oncaptive husbandry and aquaculture.

Project Piaba (http://opefe.com/piaba.html) was set up in Brazil to examine theeffects of the ornamental fish trade on eco-systems and to determine whether ornamen-tal fisheries could help conservation whileensuring economic benefits to local residents.Studies carried out suggest ornamentalfisheries cause less damage to ecosystemsthan feared and complete bans on fisheriesare likely to drive fishers into other tradeswith far greater environmental impacts.Project Piaba works closely with InstitutoBrasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos RecursosNaturais Renováveis (the Brazilian regula-tory agency) to protect vulnerable speciesand promote environment-friendly policies.Project Piaba also works with participants inthe ornamental fish trade to ensure the sus-tainability of wild collections and improvefish survival through better handling proce-dures along the supply chain.

Zoos, aquariums and the general publiccan play an important role in conservationefforts by contributing to in situ and ex situconservation both in the traditional sense andin novel ways. We will now examine ways inwhich to harness this resource.

Education and research

The biggest role zoos and aquariums can playin the Western Ghats is that of educator to thepublic in general and to communities livingin proximity to water bodies in particular.This involves both reaching out to the adultpopulation that exploits freshwater resourcesas well as children who will inherit these

resources in the future. Zoos in India areslowly coming around to the idea that exhib-its must educate and inform rather than justentertain; however, public aquariums stilllag greatly in this regard. Exhibits that show-case native aquatic life, rather than goldfish(Cyprinidae) and gourami (Osphronemidae),are needed. Reaching out to students by invit-ing them to participate in research projectsand conservation-themed competitions areways in which communities can be encour-aged to think about conservation. Baird et al.(1997) detail the working and results of sucha project in Laos. While institutions con-cerned with agriculture have played a stellarrole in disseminating information gatheredfrom scientific research to agriculturists,there is often a large gap between scientistsand a non-technical audience when it comesto conservation. Zoos and aquariums canplay an important role here too, acting asmediators between scientists and the public.Currently, there are no data available onthe biology of many threatened species.Research projects that detail, for example,habitat and diet preferences, or migration,will greatly help fine tune conservation meas-ures. Local fishers are often very knowledge-able about the species they target and need tobe utilized better as a resource in data gath-ering. As a bonus, participation in researchprojects is likely to make locals more awareof conservation issues and more likely to takeownership of conservation projects.

A scheme similar to Seafood Watch pro-moted by the Monterey Bay Aquarium, CA,USA, could prove to be a useful conservationmeasure for species that are exploited as foodsources. Visitors to zoos and aquariumsshould be made aware of freshwater speciesin peril and how they can help. For example,Pearlspot Etroplus suratensis is a highlyprized fish in the state of Kerala, with speci-mens of all sizes being captured for consump-tion. An information campaign that educatesconsumers about the state of the fishery andencourages them not to purchase small speci-mens could prevent the harvest of juvenilefish. Similar campaigns could be run for orna-mental fish. The Marine Products Export



http://opefe.com/piaba.html

http://opefe.com/piaba.html

Development Authority (MPEDA) in Indiahas recently introduced a Green Certificationscheme for sustainable harvest of ornamentalfish (MPEDA, 2011). Zoos and aquariumsworldwide can help promote the concept ofsustainable fisheries amongst consumers andencourage the retail trade to promote sustain-able fisheries.

In situ measures

Gusset & Dick (2010) note that fishes arerather poorly represented in the number of insitu conservation projects supported by zoosand aquariums worldwide. Aquatic habitatsin the Western Ghats present a number ofopportunities to remedy this. Water bodies inthe vicinity of temples have traditionallybeen viewed as under the protection of thegods and fishing is taboo in many such areas.This includes both well-known sites, such asSringeri and Kukke Subhramanya in Karna-taka, and Kulathupuzha and Aruvikkara inKerala, as well as a number of smaller areas.Local communities strictly enforce no-takerules and large aggregations of largecyprinids (Tor, Labeo and Hypselobarbusspp) are present in these areas. Menon (2004)opines that temple tanks and river stretchesadjoining temples where large endemic carpsabound ought to be declared sanctuaries.However, fishing pressures can be very highboth up and downstream of these sites.Research is needed on these community-enforced sanctuaries whether these serve asarks (where fish can mature, reproduce andhelp repopulate other areas) or cages (wherefish survive, but are unable to reproducebecause of unsuitable habitat or other factors)and how sustainable they are in the long run.Devotees who offer prayers at temples nearsanctuaries often feed the protected fish and,if properly marketed, these sanctuaries caneasily be promoted as ecotourism sites,thereby bringing additional revenue to theircaretakers and increasing their incentive toconserve this resource.

If properly managed, ecotourism has thepotential to play a large role in the conserva-tion of freshwater habitats in the Western

Ghats. Statistics from the Ministry ofTourism show increasing numbers of touristsvisit states where the Western Ghats arelocated for nature and wildlife related activi-ties. Tourism in protected areas has the poten-tial to do more harm than good and posessignificant challenges for wildlife manage-ment (Karanth & DeFries, 2011); however,there are aspects of freshwater biota in theWestern Ghats that make ecotourism anintriguing prospect.• Many species of fish and invertebrates

from the region enjoy global popularity asaquarium inhabitants. Ecotourism initia-tives in other parts of the world activelypromoting the concept of observing orna-mental fish in the wild, such as Aqva Terra(Uruguay), WildPeru (Peru) and LakeTanganyika Adventure Safaris (Tanzania),offer trips to unique aquatic ecosystemswhere the tourist can observe fish in thewild, and even catch a few to take backhome with them (with the proper permitsand paperwork). Infrastructure, such as air-ports, roads and hotels, is already in placeacross much of the Western Ghats andproperly branded and managed ecotourismventures, promoting responsible tourism,could turn out to be a rare win–win conser-vation proposition. Fishers who currentlycollect fish for the ornamental fish tradecan be trained and retained as expertguides, increasing their sources of incomeand giving them an additional incentive toensure species are conserved in the wild,along with their habitat.

• The Western Ghats are also home tospecies of fish that rank very highly withsports fishermen. Fish such as the mahseer(Tor sp) and other large indigenous carp,can form the basis for a conservationeffort built around catch-and-release sportfishing. Dudgeon (2005) and Granek et al.(2008) present several case studies wherecatch-and-release ecotourism serves as auseful aid to conservation. In additionto funds generated from fishing licencesand other related activities, recreationalfishermen can also be enlisted to help gen-erate useful data on fish populations and



distribution. Again, if traditional fishers areretained as guides, they stand to realize amuch larger income per fish in a catch-and-release scenario than if the fish are con-sumed after capture. We do not recommendpromoting a fishery based on exotic fishsuch as trout, even though this alreadyexists, because of the damage caused tonative fish stocks.

Fisheries research institutes in India havebeen successful in developing protocols forthe production of fingerlings of a number ofspecies, but practical applications still lagbehind. Technical assistance and outreachprogrammes to enable widespread use ofthese techniques and possible applications inriver ranching projects are areas in whichzoos and aquariums can help.

Ex situ measures

Institutes such as the National Bureau ofFish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) have putforward the idea of maintaining ‘live genebanks’, where stocks of threatened fish can bemaintained in captivity. However, the abilityof a handful of repositories to maintain suffi-cient stocks of a large number of species islimited. Zoos and aquariums can play animportant role in this endeavour by providingfacilities for maintaining live gene banks.Detailed records on specimens, such as theirsource, notes on captive husbandry and propa-gation, will need to be maintained; perhaps ina central database accessed over the Internet.

One of the biggest problems faced in thelong-term propagation of species in captivityis the retention of sufficient genetic diversity.One way to solve this is through cryopre-served tissues (Clarke, 2009). Zoos andaquariums can contribute by making avail-able tissues of specimens in their care. TheNBFGR and other institutes have developedprotocols for the cryopreservation of spermcells from several species (Basavaraja et al.,2002; Basavaraja & Hegde, 2004). Thisknowledge can be used for the propagation ofspecies where a limited number of specimensare present in captivity or where conditions in

captivity do not allow for synchronized matu-ration of � and � specimens. Here, again, acentralized database will greatly help in plan-ning and executing programmes.

CONCLUSION

There is no silver bullet in sight to solvethe threats to freshwater ecosystems in theWestern Ghats. To be successful, a conserva-tion plan must allow for sustainable resourceuse, while protecting biodiversity and habi-tats. Conservation efforts must be based onsound scientific principles and the implica-tions of threats and conservation must beeffectively communicated to the public atlarge.

Zoos and aquariums have an importantrole to play in this scenario; in the acquisitionof data, through specific species conservationplans and, most importantly, in educating thegeneral public. Given the fact that Indianzoos and aquariums are not widely exposedto conservation projects in freshwater habi-tats outside of specific niches, such as water-fowl and aquatic reptiles, there is a need forthe international zoo and aquarium commu-nity to contribute significantly by sharingtheir expertise on captive husbandry and insitu management of threatened populationsvia partnerships and training opportunities.The possibility of involvement in the regionalcollection plans (i.e. conservation masterplans) of the European and North Americanzoo communities for freshwater fishes shouldalso be explored, in order to marshal interna-tional resources to assist with the conserva-tion of fishes in the Western Ghats.

REFERENCESBAIRD, I. G., KISOUVANNALAT, P., INTHAPHAYSI, V. &PHVLAIVANH, B. (1997): Participatory student researchincreases awareness of sustainable fisheries manage-ment. PLA Notes 30: 50–53.BASAVARAJA, N. & HEGDE, S. N. (2004): Cryopreservationof the endangered mahseer (Tor khudree) spermatozoa.I. Effect of extender composition, cryoprotectants, dilu-tion ratio and storage period on post-thaw viability.Cryobiology 49: 149–156.BASAVARAJA, N., HEGDE, S. N., AKASH, N. & UDUPA, K. S.(2002): The fertility of cryopreserved Deccan mahseer,Tor khudree (Sykes) spermatozoa. Asian FisheriesScience 15: 193–202.



BHIMACHAR, B. S. (1945): Zoogeographical divisions ofthe Western Ghats as evidenced by the distribution of hillstream fishes. Current Science 14: 12–16.CLARKE, A. G. (2009): The frozen ark project: the role ofzoos and aquariums in preserving the genetic material ofthreatened animals. International Zoo Yearbook 43:222–230.DAHANUKAR, N., DIWEKAR, M. & PAINGANKAR, M. (2011):Rediscovery of threatened and Western Ghats endemicsisorid catfish Glyptothorax poonaensis (Teleostei:Siluriformes: Sisoridae). Journal of Threatened Taxa3: 1885–1898.DUDGEON, D. (2005): River management for conserva-tion of freshwater biodiversity in monsoonal Asia.Ecology and Society 10(article 15): 1–20.DUDGEON, D., ARTHINGTON, A. H., GESSNER, M. O., KAWA-BATA, Z.-I., KNOWLER, D. J., LÉVÊQUE, C., NAIMAN, R. J.,PRIEUR-RICHARD, A.-H., SOTO, D., STIASSNY, M. L. J. &SULLIVAN, C. A. (2006): Freshwater biodiversity: impor-tance, threats, status and conservation challenges.Biological Reviews 81: 163–182.GRANEK, E. F., MADIN, E. M. P., BROWN, M. A., FIGUEIRA,W., CAMERON, D. S., HOGAN, Z., KRISTIANSON, G., DE VIL-LIERS, P., WILLIAMS, J. E., POST, J., ZAHN, S. & ARLINGHAUS,R. (2008): Engaging recreational fishers in managementand conservation: global case studies. ConservationBiology 22: 1125–1134.GRANT, E. H. C., LYNCH, H. J., MUNEEPEERAKUL, R.,ARUNACHALAM, M., RODRÍGUEZ-ITURBE, I. & FAGAN, W. F.(2012): Interbasin water transfer, riverine connectivity,and spatial controls on fish biodiversity. PLoS ONE 7(3):e34170.GUSSET, M. & DICK, G. (2010): ‘Building a future forwildlife’? Evaluating the contribution of the world zooand aquarium community to in situ conservation.International Zoo Yearbook 44: 183–191.HORA, S. L. (1942): The effects of dams on the migrationof Hilsa fish in Indian waters. Current Science 11: 470–471.HORA, S. L. (1944): On the Malayan affinities of thefreshwater fish fauna of Peninsular India, and its bearingon the probable age of the Garo-Rajmahal Gap. Proceed-ings of the National Institute of Science, India 10: 423–439.IUCN (2012): The IUCN red list of threatenedspecies. Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK: IUCNAvailable at http://www.iucnredlist.org/JAYARAM, K. C. (1977): Zoogeography of Indian fresh-water fishes. Proceedings of the Indian Academy ofScience 86: 265–274.KARANTH, K. K. & DEFRIES, R. (2011): Nature-basedtourism in Indian protected areas: new challenges forpark management. Conservation Letters 4: 137–149.KNIGHT, J. D. M. (2010): Invasive ornamental fish: apotential threat to aquatic biodiversity in PeninsularIndia. Journal of Threatened Taxa 2: 700–704.KRISHNAKUMAR, K., RAGHAVAN, R., PRASAD, G., BIJUKU-MAR, A., SEKHARAN, M., PEREIRA, B. & ALI, A. P. H.(2009): When pets become pests: exotic aquarium fishesand biological invasions in Kerala, India. CurrentScience 97: 474–476.

KRISHNAKUMAR, K., ALI, A. P. H., PEREIRA, B. & RAGHA-VAN, R. (2011): Unregulated aquaculture and invasivealien species: a case study of the African catfish, Clariasgariepinus, in Vembanad Lake (Ramsar wetland),Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa 3: 1731–1744.MENON, A. G. K. (2004): Threatened fishes of India andtheir conservation. Kolkota: Zoological Survey of India.MENON, S. & BAWA, K. S. (1997): Applications of geo-graphical information systems, remote sensing, and alandscape ecology approach to biodiversity conservationin the Western Ghats. Current Science 73: 134–145.MOLUR, S., SMITH, K. G., DANIEL, B. A. & DARWALL, W. R.T. (Compilers) (2011): The status and distribution offreshwater biogeography in the Western Ghats, India.Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK: InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature; and Coimbatore: ZooOutreach Organization.MPEDA (2011): MPEDA guidelines for green certifica-tion of freshwater ornamental fishes. Cochin: MarineProducts Export Development Authority. http://www.mpeda.com/green.pdfPADMALAL, D., MAYA, K., SREEBHA, S. & SREEJA, R.(2008): Environmental effects of river and sand mining:a case from the river catchments of Vembanad Lake,South West Coast of India. Environmental Geology 54:879–889.PETHIYAGODA, R. & KOTTELAT, M. (2005): A review of thebarbs of the Puntius filamentosus group (Teleostei:Cyprinidae) of Southern India and Sri Lanka. RafflesBulletin of Zoology 12 (Suppl.): 127–144.PRASAD, G., ALI, A., HARIKRISHNAN, M. & RAGHAVAN, R.(2012): Population dynamics of an endemic and threat-ened yellow catfish Horabagrus brachysoma (Günther)from Periyar river, southern Western Ghats, India.Journal of Threatened Taxa 4: 2333–2342.RAGHAVAN, R., ALI, A., DAHANUKAR, N. & ROSSER, A.(2011): Is the Deccan mahseer, Tor khudree (Sykes,1839) fishery in the Western Ghats hotspot sustainable?A participatory approach to stock assessment. FisheriesResearch 110: 29–38.REIS, R. E. (2013): Conserving the freshwater fishesof South America. International Zoo Yearbook 47:65–70.SILAS, E. G. (1952): Further studies regarding Hora’sSatpura hypothesis. 2. Taxonomic assessment andlevels of evolutionary divergences of fishes with theso-called Malayan affinities in Peninsular India. Pro-ceedings of the National Institute of Science, India 18:423–448.THOMAS, H. S. (1870): Report on pisciculture in SouthCanara. London: G. E. Eyre & W. Spottiswoode.WESTERN GHATS ECOLOGY EXPERT PANEL (2011): Report ofthe Western Ghats ecology expert panel submitted to theministry of environment and forests, government ofIndia. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests.http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/wg-23052012.pdf

Manuscript submitted 30 April 2012; revised28 December 2012; accepted 8 January 2013



http://www.iucnredlist.org/

http://www.mpeda.com/green.pdf

http://www.mpeda.com/green.pdf

http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/wg-23052012.pdf

http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/wg-23052012.pdf

conservation of freshwater habitats and fishes in the western ghats of india

Documents