computer technology i

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"Computer technology" and "Computer system" redirect here. For the company, see

Computer Technology Limited. For other uses, seeComputer (disambiguation) and Computer

system (disambiguation)

Computer

A computer is a general purpose device that can beprogrammed to carry out a set of

arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the

computer can solve more than one kind of problem.

Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central

processing unit (CPU) and some form ofmemory. The processing element carries out

arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of

operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved

from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.

The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945. Originally they

were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modernpersonal

computers (PCs).[1]In this era mechanicalanalog computers were used for military

applications.

Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable

than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. [2] Simple computers are small

enough to fit into mobile devices, andmobile computers can be powered by smallbatteries.

Personal computers in their various forms areicons of theInformation Age and are what most

people think of as computers. However, the embedded computers found in many devicesfrom MP3 playerstofighter aircraftand from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

Contents

[hide]

1 History of computing

o 1.1 Limited-function early computers

o 1.2 First general-purpose computers

1.2.1 Key steps towards modern computers

o

1.3 Stored-program architectureo 1.4 Semiconductors and microprocessors
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2 Programs

o 2.1 Stored program architecture

o 2.2 Bugs

o 2.3 Machine code

o 2.4 Programming language

2.4.1 Low-level languages 2.4.2 Higher-level languages

o 2.5 Program design

3 Components

o 3.1 Control unit

o 3.2 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU)

o 3.3 Memory

o 3.4 Input/output (I/O)

o 3.5 Multitasking

o 3.6 Multiprocessing

o 3.7 Networking and the Internet

o 3.8 Computer architecture paradigms

4 Misconceptions

o 4.1 Required technology

5 Further topics

o 5.1 Artificial intelligence

o 5.2 Hardware

5.2.1 History of computing hardware

5.2.2 Other hardware topics

o 5.3 Software

o 5.4 Languages

o 5.5 Professions and organizations 6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

9 External links

History of computing
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TheJacquard loom, on display at the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester,

England, was one of the first programmable devices.

Main article:History of computing hardware

The first use of the word computer was recorded in 1613 in a book called The yong mans

gleanings by English writer Richard BraithwaitI haue read the truest computer of Times,and the best Arithmetician that euer breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.

It referred to a person who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word continued

with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century

the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.[3]

Limited-function early computers

The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies, automated

calculation and programmability. However no single device can be identified as the earliest

computer, partly because of the inconsistent application of that term. A few devices are worthmentioning though, like some mechanical aids to computing, which were very successful and

survived for centuries until the advent of the electronic calculator, like the Sumerian abacus,

designed around 2500 BC[4] of which a descendant won a speed competition against a modern

desk calculating machine in Japan in 1946,[5]the slide rules, invented in the 1620s, which

were carried on five Apollo space missions, including to the moon[6] and arguably the

astrolabeand the Antikythera mechanism, an ancient astronomical analog computerbuilt by

theGreeks around 80 BC.[7] The Greek mathematicianHero of Alexandria (c. 1070 AD)

built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a

complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which

parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when.

[8]

This is the essence ofprogrammability.

Blaise Pascal invented themechanical calculatorin 1642,[9] known asPascal's calculator, it

was the first machine to better human performance of arithmetical computations [10] and would

turn out to be the only functional mechanical calculator in the 17th century. [11] Two hundred

years later, in 1851, Thomas de Colmarreleased, after thirty years of development, his

simplifiedarithmometer; it became the first machine to be commercialized because it was

strong enough and reliable enough to be used daily in an office environment. The mechanical

calculator was at the root of the development of computers in two separate ways. Initially, it

was in trying to develop more powerful and more flexible calculators [12] that the computer was

first theorized by Charles Babbage[13]

[14]

and then developed.[15]

Secondly, development of alow-cost electronic calculator, successor to the mechanical calculator, resulted in the

development by Intel[16] of the first commercially available microprocessorintegrated circuit.

First general-purpose computers

In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom by introducing a

series ofpunched paper cards as a template which allowed his loom to weave intricate

patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development

of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an

early, albeit limited, form of programmability.
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The Most Famous Image in the Early History of Computing[17]

This portrait of Jacquard was woven in silk on a Jacquard loom and required 24,000 punched

cards to create (1839). It was only produced to order. Charles Babbage owned one of these

portraits; it inspired him in using perforated cards in his analytical engine.[18]

TheZuse Z3, 1941, considered the world's first working programmable, fully automatic

computing machine.

It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first

recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design afully programmablemechanical computer, hisanalytical engine.[19] Limited finances and

Babbage's inability to resist tinkering with the design meant that the device was never

completednevertheless his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the

analytical engine's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of

its use in computing tables in 1906. This machine was given to theScience museum in South

Kensingtonin 1910.
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Ada Lovelace, considered to be the firstcomputer programmer.[20]

Between 1842 and 1843, Ada Lovelace, an analyst ofCharles Babbage's analytical engine,

translated an article by Italian military engineerLuigi Menabrea on the engine, which she

supplemented with an elaborate set of notes of her own, simply called Notes. These notes

contain what is considered the first computer program that is, an algorithm encoded for

processing by a machine. Lovelace's notes are important in the earlyhistory of computers.

She also developed a vision on the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or

number-crunching while others, including Babbage himself, focused only on those

capabilities.[21]

In the late 1880s,Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine-readablemedium. Earlier uses of machine-readable media had been for control, not data. After some

initial trials withpaper tape, he settled on punched cards...[22] To process these punched cards

he invented the tabulator, and the keypunch machines. These three inventions were the

foundation of the modern information processing industry. Large-scale automated data

processing of punched cards was performed for the1890 United States Census by Hollerith's

company, which later became the core ofIBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of

ideas and technologies, that would later prove useful in the realization of practical computers,

had begun to appear: Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve), punched cards

and tape, and the teleprinter.

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met byincreasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical

model of the problem as a basis forcomputation. However, these were not programmable and

generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.

Alan Turing is widely regarded as the father of modern computer science. In 1936, Turing

provided an influential formalization of the concept of the algorithm andcomputation with the

Turing machine, providing a blueprint for the electronic digital computer.[23] Of his role in the

creation of the modern computer, Timemagazine in naming Turing one of the 100 most

influentialpeople of the 20th century, states: The fact remains that everyone who taps at a

keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an incarnation

of a Turing machine.[23]
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TheENIAC, which became operational in 1946, is considered to be the first general-purpose

electronic computer. Programmers Betty Jean Jennings (left) and Fran Bilas (right) are

depicted here operating the ENIAC's main control panel.

EDSACwas one of the first computers to implement the stored-program (von Neumann)

architecture.

George Stibitz is internationally recognized as a father of the modern digital computer. While

working at Bell Labs in November 1937, Stibitz invented and built a relay-based calculator he

dubbed the Model K (for kitchen table, on which he had assembled it), which was the

first to usebinary circuits to performan arithmetic operation. Later models added greater

sophistication including complex arithmetic and programmability.[24]

TheAtanasoffBerry Computer(ABC) was the world's first electronic digital computer, albeit

notprogrammable.[25] Atanasoff is considered to be one of the fathers of the computer. [26]Conceived in 1937 by Iowa State College physics professorJohn Atanasoff, and built with the

assistance of graduate student Clifford Berry,[27] the machine was not programmable, being

designed only to solve systems of linear equations. The computer did employ parallel

computation. A1973 court ruling in a patent dispute found that the patent for the 1946

ENIAC computer derived from the AtanasoffBerry Computer.

The first program-controlled computer was invente
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