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COMPUTER TECHNOLOGYCOMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

What is a computer?What is a computer? Hardware are the devices that make Hardware are the devices that make

up the physical components of the up the physical components of the systemsystem

Machine that is capable of gathering, Machine that is capable of gathering, processing, storing and processing, storing and disseminating data. disseminating data.

A computer must interface with the A computer must interface with the world to collect and convert text, world to collect and convert text, pictures, audio and video into ones pictures, audio and video into ones and zeroes. and zeroes.

The data is then stored and The data is then stored and processed within the computer. processed within the computer.

Finally, data is converted back into Finally, data is converted back into some human-computer form for some human-computer form for viewing viewing

What is a computer?What is a computer?

Computer : Computer : A machine that allows user to A machine that allows user to

store all sort of information/ data store all sort of information/ data and then ‘process’ that and then ‘process’ that information/data, or carry out information/data, or carry out actions with the information actions with the information such as calculating numbers or such as calculating numbers or organizing words organizing words

Computer system Computer system componentscomponents

Software

Hardware

Program

User

Computer system

Computer system Computer system componentscomponents A computer system is a A computer system is a

combination of hardware and combination of hardware and software. The hardware consists software. The hardware consists of the devices of the machine: a of the devices of the machine: a processor that carries out the processor that carries out the detailed instructions defining the detailed instructions defining the computer's activities, peripherals computer's activities, peripherals that allow our communication that allow our communication with the machine itself, and with the machine itself, and secondary memory. secondary memory.


Software directs the operations Software directs the operations of these components. Computer of these components. Computer hardware by itself is capable of hardware by itself is capable of surprisingly few basic surprisingly few basic operations, but driven by operations, but driven by application software, the application software, the computer can perform a wide computer can perform a wide range of functions. range of functions.


Two basic categories of Two basic categories of software:software: System softwareSystem software Application softwareApplication software

Computer system Computer system componentscomponents System softwareSystem software

Consists of the programs that Consists of the programs that manage our operation of the manage our operation of the computer.computer.

Includes operating system and all Includes operating system and all the utilities that enable the the utilities that enable the computer to function.computer to function.

Every general-purpose computer Every general-purpose computer must have an Operating System in must have an Operating System in order to run other programs.order to run other programs.

Computer system componentsComputer system components

Function of OS includes Function of OS includes coordination of the hardware and coordination of the hardware and

application softwareapplication software eg : allow you to start up and shut eg : allow you to start up and shut

down the computerdown the computer allocating storage facilitiesallocating storage facilities

eg : save your work as files and eg : save your work as files and retrieve that work laterretrieve that work later


Function of OS includes Function of OS includes controlling input and output devices controlling input and output devices

eg : prints documents, scan documents.eg : prints documents, scan documents.

managing time sharing for linked and managing time sharing for linked and networked computersnetworked computers

eg : allow you to access files from other eg : allow you to access files from other computer.computer.

Examples of OS : Windows NT, Examples of OS : Windows NT, DOS, Windows 2000, Windows 98, DOS, Windows 2000, Windows 98, OS/2, UnixOS/2, Unix


Apllication softwareApllication software Consists of the programs that allow Consists of the programs that allow

you to work on higher level tasks.you to work on higher level tasks. Example : Application for the Example : Application for the

following functions :-following functions :- Word processingWord processing

Advantage of word processing over using Advantage of word processing over using a type writer is that you can make a type writer is that you can make changes without retyping the entire changes without retyping the entire documentdocument

Easy to manipulate and format documentEasy to manipulate and format document SpreadsheetSpreadsheet

Used for mathematical calculation such Used for mathematical calculation such as accounts, budgets, statistic and etcas accounts, budgets, statistic and etc


Database applicationDatabase application A collection of related information A collection of related information

that can be manipulated and used to that can be manipulated and used to sort information, conduct statistical sort information, conduct statistical analysis or generate reportsanalysis or generate reports

Presentation packagesPresentation packages Enable user to create highly stylised Enable user to create highly stylised

images, chat and graphs for slide images, chat and graphs for slide presentations and reportspresentations and reports

Communication applicationCommunication application Software that enable people to send Software that enable people to send

faxes and email, dial into other faxes and email, dial into other computer and etc.computer and etc.

The Von-Neumann Machine The Von-Neumann Machine ModelModel John Von Neumann (1940) proposed John Von Neumann (1940) proposed

a new logical organization or a new logical organization or architecture for the computer. architecture for the computer. Machines based on this architecture Machines based on this architecture came to be called von Neumann came to be called von Neumann machines.machines.

Von Neumann MachinesVon Neumann Machines Separated the logical design from the Separated the logical design from the

engineering details.engineering details. The description of the components are The description of the components are

based on their function and not merely based on their function and not merely the mechanism that achieves that the mechanism that achieves that functionfunction

The Von-Neumann Machine The Von-Neumann Machine ModelModel

Von Neumann Machines Von Neumann Machines (cont..d)(cont..d) Implement the stored program Implement the stored program

conceptsconcepts Employs a binary internal coding Employs a binary internal coding

schemescheme Implement sequential instruction Implement sequential instruction Two major sub-system : processor Two major sub-system : processor

and I/O Systemand I/O System

The Von-Neumann Machine The Von-Neumann Machine ModelModel

I/O SystemI/O System

The input/output system is The input/output system is usually a collection of devices usually a collection of devices including :-including :- KeyboardKeyboard MonitorMonitor MouseMouse ScannerScanner Audio devicesAudio devices Video devicesVideo devices

I/O SystemI/O System

The The inputinput//outputoutput system has two system has two main function. main function.

1.1. it serves as a translator in it serves as a translator in communications between the user and communications between the user and the processor.the processor. Convert data between some analog format, Convert data between some analog format,

the internal digital format and then back to the internal digital format and then back to an analog form suitable for the end useran analog form suitable for the end user

2.2. Provides access to secondary memory Provides access to secondary memory devices where both program and data devices where both program and data can be stored when they are not being can be stored when they are not being used by the processor.used by the processor.

The ProcessorThe Processor

The heart of the computerThe heart of the computer Processor consists of two major units: the Processor consists of two major units: the

CPU and CPU and Main memory. Main memory.

The CPU manages the instruction-The CPU manages the instruction-execution cycle, and main memory is a fast execution cycle, and main memory is a fast storage device for holding binary storage device for holding binary instructions and data. These are connected instructions and data. These are connected by a signal pathway called a bus. When the by a signal pathway called a bus. When the processor is operating, bits are moved processor is operating, bits are moved rapidly across this bus. The number of bits rapidly across this bus. The number of bits that can be moved simultaneously across that can be moved simultaneously across the bus (32 bits for most modern desktop the bus (32 bits for most modern desktop computers), called the computers), called the bus widthbus width (is an (is an important factor in determining the speed important factor in determining the speed of the computer system.of the computer system.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)CPU (Central Processing Unit)

A combination of electronic circuits A combination of electronic circuits that interpret and execute stored that interpret and execute stored program instructions and program instructions and communicate with the rest of a communicate with the rest of a computer systemcomputer system

Contained in a tiny silicon chip called Contained in a tiny silicon chip called a microprocessora microprocessor

The chip is mounted in a piece of The chip is mounted in a piece of plastic with metal leads attached to itplastic with metal leads attached to it

Main componentMain component Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU)Arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) Control unit (CU)Control unit (CU) RegisterRegister

CPU (Central Processing Unit)CPU (Central Processing Unit)

Control Unit – manages the fetching, Control Unit – manages the fetching, decoding and executing of encoded decoding and executing of encoded instruction of store program concepts.instruction of store program concepts.

ALU – dedicated to the performance of ALU – dedicated to the performance of the machine’s built-in arithmetic and the machine’s built-in arithmetic and logical function. logical function.

Register - Special memory unit that Register - Special memory unit that help the CPU keep track of its work: help the CPU keep track of its work: Memory address register (MAR)Memory address register (MAR) Memory data register (MDR)Memory data register (MDR) Program Counter (PC)Program Counter (PC) Instruction Register (IR)Instruction Register (IR) General Register (GR)General Register (GR)

Evolution of MicroprocessorEvolution of Microprocessor

4004 -- introduced in 19714004 -- introduced in 1971 80286 -- introduced in 198280286 -- introduced in 1982 Pentium -- introduced in 1993Pentium -- introduced in 1993 Pentium II – introduced in 1997Pentium II – introduced in 1997 Pentium III Xeon -- introduced in Pentium III Xeon -- introduced in

19991999 Itanium – introduced in 2000Itanium – introduced in 2000 Pentium IV –introduced in 2001Pentium IV –introduced in 2001

MemoryMemory

Memory is usually divided into uniform-size Memory is usually divided into uniform-size units that contain a sequence of binary units that contain a sequence of binary digits. These sequence of bits are treated digits. These sequence of bits are treated as single units is known as a as single units is known as a memory memory wordword, the smallest meaningful unit for , the smallest meaningful unit for representing information.representing information.

A memory word is denoted by a unique A memory word is denoted by a unique number called its number called its addressaddress. Just as your . Just as your street address locates your home, a street address locates your home, a memory word’s address locates its unique memory word’s address locates its unique position in main memory.position in main memory.

Thus, we can conceive of memory as a Thus, we can conceive of memory as a collection of standard length, addressable collection of standard length, addressable words. Most processor today use a words. Most processor today use a memory word size of one byte (one byte = memory word size of one byte (one byte = 8 bits)8 bits)

Bit, byte & binary numberBit, byte & binary number 1 Kilobyte (KB) - 1024 bytes1 Kilobyte (KB) - 1024 bytes K - Kilo in greek - 1000K - Kilo in greek - 1000 For estimates, we can and usually do For estimates, we can and usually do

think of a kilobyte as 1000 bytes because think of a kilobyte as 1000 bytes because 1024 is very close to this value.1024 is very close to this value.

Example : 64 K = 64 x 1024 = 65,535 Example : 64 K = 64 x 1024 = 65,535 bytebyte

MB (Megabyte) = A thousand Kilobyte MB (Megabyte) = A thousand Kilobyte (approximately 1 million bytes)(approximately 1 million bytes)

GB (Gigabyte) = 1024 MB (approximately GB (Gigabyte) = 1024 MB (approximately 1 billion (230) bytes) 1 billion (230) bytes)

SummariesSummaries 1 bit - 1 1 bit - 1 on/offon/off switch switch 1 byte - 8 bits1 byte - 8 bits 1 KB- 1024 byte (210)1 KB- 1024 byte (210) 1 MB - 1024 KB (1,048,576 byte)1 MB - 1024 KB (1,048,576 byte) 1 GB - 1024 MB (1,073,741,824 byte)1 GB - 1024 MB (1,073,741,824 byte)

Form of Main MemoryForm of Main Memory

The two most important forms of The two most important forms of main memory are called:-main memory are called:-

RAM (random access memory) – RAM (random access memory) – typically desktop system is typically desktop system is somewhere between 16 and 64 somewhere between 16 and 64 megabytemegabyte

ROM (read-only memory) – is more ROM (read-only memory) – is more often in the 4 - 8 megabyteoften in the 4 - 8 megabyte

Reading a memory item means Reading a memory item means consulting its contents. consulting its contents.

Original contents remain unchanged Original contents remain unchanged Writing an item means storing Writing an item means storing

something in its address.something in its address. Original contents are replaced by the Original contents are replaced by the

new data new data

RAM (Random-access-RAM (Random-access-memory)memory) Short-term memory – available only Short-term memory – available only

when the computer is turned onwhen the computer is turned on ““Random access” because each memory Random access” because each memory

word is accessible immediately by its word is accessible immediately by its addressaddress

volatilevolatile – meaning that they require – meaning that they require constant source of electrical energy to constant source of electrical energy to maintain their contents.maintain their contents.

These are called dynamic RAM (DRAM). These are called dynamic RAM (DRAM). Although DRAMs are reasonably fast and Although DRAMs are reasonably fast and comparatively economical. comparatively economical.

This is way it is important to have a This is way it is important to have a nonvolatile source of secondary memory nonvolatile source of secondary memory that can be used to back up programs that can be used to back up programs and data.and data.

The CPU & Main MemoryThe CPU & Main Memory

ROMROM

Long-term memory – available when the Long-term memory – available when the computer is turned on/offcomputer is turned on/off

Also randomly accessible Also randomly accessible Is not writeableIs not writeable Non-volatileNon-volatile Its contents do not disappear when the Its contents do not disappear when the

power supply to the computer is shut off.power supply to the computer is shut off. ROM usually stores proprietary ROM usually stores proprietary

instruction that the manufacturer has instruction that the manufacturer has written for basic system functions such written for basic system functions such as starting the computer system, I/O as starting the computer system, I/O operations and the like. operations and the like.

REGISTERSREGISTERS

RegistersRegisters High-speed storage areas used to High-speed storage areas used to

temporarily hold small units of temporarily hold small units of program instructions and data program instructions and data immediately before, during, and immediately before, during, and after execution by the CPU.after execution by the CPU.

Primary StoragePrimary Storage Holds program instructions and Holds program instructions and

data (a.k.a. main memory).data (a.k.a. main memory).

Performance of a systemPerformance of a system

The most important factors in The most important factors in determining the over determining the over performance of the system are:performance of the system are: RAM and transferring rateRAM and transferring rate system clock system clock bus widthbus width

Stored Program ConceptStored Program Concept

Both data and instructions are stored Both data and instructions are stored in a main memory unit. The tasks of in a main memory unit. The tasks of fetching, decoding and executing fetching, decoding and executing the encoded instructions of the the encoded instructions of the stored program performed by the stored program performed by the control unit are repeated over and control unit are repeated over and over as long as there are program over as long as there are program instructions to be carried out. This instructions to be carried out. This repeated cycle is called the repeated cycle is called the instruction execution cycle. instruction execution cycle.

Instruction execution cycleInstruction execution cycle

FETCHthe next instruction

DECODEthe instruction

EXECUTEthe instruction

Managing the Instruction-Managing the Instruction-Execution CycleExecution Cycle Fetching the instructionFetching the instruction

1.1. The previous cycle has left the address of the The previous cycle has left the address of the next instruction stored in the program counter next instruction stored in the program counter (PC) register. The counter unit now signals for (PC) register. The counter unit now signals for a copy of that address to be sent to the a copy of that address to be sent to the memory address register (MAR) over the CPU memory address register (MAR) over the CPU bus.bus.

2.2. The value of the address in the program The value of the address in the program counter (PC) is then incremented to reflect the counter (PC) is then incremented to reflect the correct location of the next instruction in main correct location of the next instruction in main memory (in preparation for the next cycle).memory (in preparation for the next cycle).

3.3. The instruction, whose address is now stored in The instruction, whose address is now stored in the memory address register (MAR), is now the memory address register (MAR), is now copied to the memory data register (MDR) over copied to the memory data register (MDR) over the data bus. The MDR serves as temporary the data bus. The MDR serves as temporary storage for such transfers from RAM.storage for such transfers from RAM.

Managing the Instruction-Managing the Instruction-Execution CycleExecution Cycle Decoding the instructionDecoding the instruction

4.4. The instruction is next copied over the CPU bus The instruction is next copied over the CPU bus from the MDR to the instruction register (IR) for from the MDR to the instruction register (IR) for decoding. The IT has special circuits that break decoding. The IT has special circuits that break the instruction down into its meaningful the instruction down into its meaningful components.components.

Executing the instructionExecuting the instruction5.5. Once the instruction is deciphered in the IR, the Once the instruction is deciphered in the IR, the

control unit sends the appropriate signals to control unit sends the appropriate signals to commence its execution. This execution is commence its execution. This execution is usually carried out by the arithmetic logic unit usually carried out by the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which may also employ one or more of (ALU), which may also employ one or more of the general registers (GR).the general registers (GR).

6.6. Once execution of the instruction completes, Once execution of the instruction completes, the CPU returns to step 1 and repeats the the CPU returns to step 1 and repeats the entire process.entire process.

memoryaddressregister

memoryaddressregister

instructionregister

instructionregister

memorydataregister

memorydataregister

programcounter

programcounter

accumulator(workregister)

accumulator(workregister)

arithmeticlogic unit

arithmeticlogic unitsystem

clocksystemclock

Inside the CPUInside the CPU

1. address of thenext instruction istransferred fromPC to MAR

2. the instruction islocated in memory

1. address of thenext instruction istransferred fromPC to MAR

2. the instruction islocated in memory

FETCH the instructionFETCH the instruction

3. instruction iscopied frommemory to MDR

3. instruction iscopied frommemory to MDR

FETCH the instructionFETCH the instruction

instruction istransferred to and decoded inthe IR

instruction istransferred to and decoded inthe IR

DECODE the instructionDECODE the instruction

control unitsends signalsto appropriatedevices to causeexecution of theinstruction

control unitsends signalsto appropriatedevices to causeexecution of theinstruction

EXECUTE the instructionEXECUTE the instruction

System ClockSystem Clock

The entire instruction-execution The entire instruction-execution cycle is governed by the cadence of cycle is governed by the cadence of the system clock. Each stage takes a the system clock. Each stage takes a certain number of clock cycles.certain number of clock cycles.

The system uses its clock cycles to The system uses its clock cycles to ensure that all its components are ensure that all its components are properly sequenced.properly sequenced.

Clock cycles are usually measured in Clock cycles are usually measured in megahertz (MHz), megahertz (MHz), where a where a megahertz is one million cycles per megahertz is one million cycles per second.second.

System ClockSystem Clock

Processor in today’s desktop Processor in today’s desktop computer systems have clock computer systems have clock speeds of 200, 300, 400 MHz speeds of 200, 300, 400 MHz and higher.and higher.

A 400-MHz processor has a A 400-MHz processor has a clock speed of 400 million clock speed of 400 million cycles per second.cycles per second.

The single instruction may take The single instruction may take several cycles to complete.several cycles to complete.

Machine LanguagesMachine Languages

Instruction setInstruction set bulit-in set of operations a bulit-in set of operations a

particular computer modelparticular computer model Machine languageMachine language

A particular set of codes that A particular set of codes that implement all the operation in its implement all the operation in its instruction set instruction set

Instruction setInstruction set

There are 3 groupsThere are 3 groups1.1. Data movement operationsData movement operations

Transfering data from memory to CPUTransfering data from memory to CPU Transfering data from memory to memoryTransfering data from memory to memory Performing input and output operationsPerforming input and output operations

2.2. Arithmetic and logical operationsArithmetic and logical operations +, -, x and / numbers+, -, x and / numbers Comparing two quantities for equality, Comparing two quantities for equality,

greater, lesser and the likegreater, lesser and the like Shifting or rotating bits in quantityShifting or rotating bits in quantity Testing, comparing and converting bitsTesting, comparing and converting bits

Instruction setInstruction set

3.3. Program control operationProgram control operation Starting the execution of a programStarting the execution of a program Halting the execution of a programHalting the execution of a program Skipping automatically to other Skipping automatically to other

instruction in the programinstruction in the program Testing a data itemto decide Testing a data itemto decide

whether to skip to another whether to skip to another instruction in the programinstruction in the program

Moore’s LawMoore’s Law

Moore’s LawMoore’s Law A hypothesis that states transistor A hypothesis that states transistor

densities in a single chip will double densities in a single chip will double every 18 months.every 18 months.

Computer ClassComputer Class

SupercomputersSupercomputers Very high-performanceVery high-performance Specialized computers used Specialized computers used

primarily for scientific applications primarily for scientific applications that require intensive numerical that require intensive numerical calculationscalculations

Are used for a variety of tasks Are used for a variety of tasks such as meteorological such as meteorological forecasting, modeling of physical forecasting, modeling of physical systems and graphics and image systems and graphics and image processingprocessing


MainframeMainframe Large sized, powerful multi-user Large sized, powerful multi-user

computercomputer Support concurrent programsSupport concurrent programs Support up to thousand users at Support up to thousand users at

the same timethe same time Usage for processing amount of Usage for processing amount of

data quickly (customer bank, data quickly (customer bank, insurance company, airlines)insurance company, airlines)


MinicomputerMinicomputer Smaller and capable of serving a Smaller and capable of serving a

smaller number of users (dozens smaller number of users (dozens rather than hundreds)rather than hundreds)

Eg : small financial system, payroll Eg : small financial system, payroll systemsystem

MicrocomputerMicrocomputer Personel or single user computers Personel or single user computers

that were relatively inexpensivethat were relatively inexpensive

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