comparison of global warming potential-impact …...indicated by the acquisition of global warming...

DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.25105/urbanenvirotech.v3i1.5530

Comparison of Global Warming Potential-Impacton the Handling of the Hazardous-Sludge from the Centralized Industrial-Wastewater Treatment Plant

Hakiki, Astuti, Wikaningrum p-ISSN 2579-9150; e-ISSN 2579-9207, Volume 3, Number 1, page 84 - 102, October 2019

Accredited SINTA 2 by Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher Education of The Republic of Indonesia No. 23/E/KPT/2019 on August 8th, 2019 from

October 1st, 2018 to September 30th, 2023

84

COMPARISON OF GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL-IMPACT ON THE HANDLING OF THE HAZARDOUS-SLUDGE FROM THE CENTRALIZED INDUSTRIAL-WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT

Rijal Hakiki1*, Maryani Paramita Astuti1,2, Temmy Wikaningrum1 1Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, President University, Cikarang, Indonesia 2Depatment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Aim: This study aimed to compare the secured landfill method and thermally sludge treatment through gasification, in order to determine their environmental impacts. Methodology and Results: The gate-to-gate LCA method was the implementation approach used to determine the, limits and assumptions to the actual condition. The experimental, theoretical mass balance calculation and secondary data of previous researches were used to carry out this study, with open-source openLCA software. In addition, the LCA was made up of four phases which include goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact assessment, and data interpretation. The simulation showed that the implementation of the thermal gasification process reduced the emission released to the atmosphere by lowering the hazardous sludge volume which is directly transported to the secured landfill. Conclusion, significance and impact study: Several assumptions and adjustments were made to the simulation results using the openLCA software, in the determined scope of study. Therefore, in conclusion, the thermal (gasification) treatment of hazardous sludge is further studied in connection with its implementation at the treatment plant. This was indicated by the acquisition of global warming potential impact category of 673 kg CO2 eq for direct disposal to secured landfill, which reduced to 424 kg CO2 eq during the implementation of thermal treatment. Conversely, there is a reduction in magnitude of impact by 37%.

MANUSCRIPT HISTORY

Received September 2019

Revised October 2019

Accepted October 2019

Available online October 2019

KEYWORDS Gasification

Gate-to-gate LCA

Hazardous sludge

LCA

OpenLCA

http://dx.doi.org/10.25105/urbanenvirotech.v3i1.5530

mailto:[email protected]






85

1. INTRODUCTION This paper is a continuation of a previous study that discussed the potential for reducing toxic

and hazardous sludge through the gasification process (Hakiki and Wikaningrum, 2019). Referring

to the list of hazardous waste from the non-specific sources in Table 1, at the Indonesian

government regulation number 101 year 2014, it should be noted that the sludge produced from

the centralized wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in an industrial estate is classified as toxic

and hazardous waste (Indonesian Government, 2014). From the previous study, it has been

known that the slurry phase produced from the biological treatment contains about 66% of

organic content, as show in Table 1.

Table 1 Slurry characteristics of Jababeka’s centralized WWTP (Hakiki, Wikaningrum, and Kurniawan, 2018)

Component Units Amount

TSS mg/L 7,168.0

MLVSS mg/L 4,732.0

SO4 mg/g 594.0

Ammonia mg/g 14.2

Organic % 66.0

H2O % 43.0

In the existing condition (Figure 1), it can be observed that the hazardous slurry phase from

the secondary settling tank (SST) then conveyed to the belt filter press (BFP) unit to reduce the

water content. The dewatered slurry (the wet sludge) collected in a fabric bag and then dried at

the sludge drying area (SDA) before transported to the sanitary landfill. It should realize that the

dewatering process will only reduce the water but not reducing the organic content significantly.

While the flow of sludge handling through the gasification process provided in Figure 2. As can

be observed in Figure 2, dry sludge from SDA not directly transported to secured landfill, but

experienced a process in gasifier and gas-liquid separator before transported to the landfill. There

is a difference in types of sludge transported to the landfill. For the scenario in Figure 1, all the

dry sludge from the SDA transported to the landfill. While for the scenario in Figure 2, material

transported to the landfill in a form of the fix-carbon residue from gasifier unit and liquid tar

residue from gas-liquid separator unit. The amount of this residue less than the amount of dry







86

sludge produced from SDA unit.

Based on some results of the previous study conducted by Hakiki et al., 2018, it has been

known that the process of hazardous sludge reduction through the gasification method can

reduce the cost of sludge disposal. Gasification which is utilizing thermal energy to decompose

the organic content from the hazardous sludge has been proven, at least at the laboratory scale

to reduce the sludge particle size up to 60% and reduce the sludge mass up to 50% (Hakiki,

Wikaningrum, and Kurniawan, 2018). The reduction of disposal cost can occur because the

reduction of sludge particle size and mass can significantly reduce the total amount of hazardous

sludge transported to the secured landfill. Hypothetically, there will be a reduction in fossil fuel

consumption to transport the sludge from the treatment plant to the secured landfill. The

reduction of sludge transported means the reduction of rotation in transportation, which means,

there will be a reduction of emissions from transportation. So that there will be an amount of

reduction in CO2 emission to the atmosphere.

Figure 1 (a) The industrial wastewater; (b) Mechanical separation of solid particles from wastewater; (c) Dried sludge; (d) The existing flow of wastewater treatment and sludge handling. (Kurniawan, Hakiki, and Sidjabat, 2018)

In addition, green energy produced from the gasification process can also be used as an

alternative energy source (McNamara et al., 2016; Ji et al., 2010). CO2 being an important

constituent in our atmosphere, the changes of concentration in our atmosphere can affect the

global climate (Sun et al., 2015; Anderson, Hawkins, and Jones, 2016; Kusrini et al., 2017; Zhang,

Zhao, and Xu, 2017). Combustion of fossil fuel, in a field of transportation, power generation,







87

domestic activity, manufacturing process and other kinds of human activities are the sources of

CO2. In addition to CO2, there are other gases that are classified as greenhouse gases such as Nox,

Sox, and CH4 which are produced from the combustion process (Rinanti, 2016).

Based on the techno-economic simulation conducted by Hakiki et al., 2018, it is known that

the utilization of green energy produced from the gasification process can reduce the electricity

consumption in a centralized wastewater treatment plant located at the Jababeka industrial

estate up to 3% from the total electricity consumed (R. Hakiki, Wikaningrum, and Kurniawan,

2018). Although the results of the preliminary study appeared to be economically promising,

studies on environmental aspects must be still conducted to find out the prospects for sustainable

development of this technology. Land limitation and the more restrictive regulations for a

secured landfill become the motive behind the idea of utilizing gasification process to reduce the

amount of hazardous sludge (Folgueras, Alonso, and Díaz, 2013; Li et al., 2015; Samolada and

Zabaniotou, 2014).

Figure 2 Another scenario of sludge handling through the thermal-gasification process

However, the impact resulted from the implementation of this process to the environment

becomes an important aspect should be considered in this context. The reduction of CO2 emission

from the transportation side and the CO2 equivalent reduction from the reduction of electricity

consumption are the highlighted-advantages from the utilization of gasification technology to

treat hazardous sludge. Nevertheless, to prove that the reduction of sludge amount and







88

reduction in electricity consumption can also reduce CO2 emission to the atmosphere, it will

require a “technique” to improve the environmental performance of this process, in this context

by calculating the amount of CO2 emitted. Or in other words, this technique can support the

proposed “thermal-gasification” method to handle the sludge.

Refers to ISO 14040:2006 concerning Environmental management-Life cycle assessment-

Principle and framework, stated that life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique developed to

identify opportunities in terms of improving environmental performance of a product, provide

information to decision-makers, government and non-government organizations in terms of

strategic planning and prioritization, selection of relevant environmental performance indicators

and their relation to branding to increase marketing value (International Organization for

Standardization, 2006). In connection with this, the study tries to compare two kinds of sludge

handling, direct disposal to secured landfill method versus thermally sludge treatment through

gasification before the disposal. This comparison is intended to find out the environmental

impacts that will result from the scope of the sludge handling. Furthermore, the scope will be

limited to the handling of sludge after the SDA until the transport of sludge, without concerning

the impact of a secured landfill. The consideration of this limitation can be observed from Figure

1 and Figure 2, that there is no difference between both processes, it begins from PST > OD > SST,

and for both handling scenario, the residue from the treatment is transported to the landfill. And

the difference can be observed after the SDA Unit and before the transport of the sludge as

illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Scenario comparison of sludge handling between direct-landfill versus thermal gasification process







89

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study was carried out using the “gate-to-gate LCA method”. Referring to the “AIA Guide to

Building Life Cycle Assessment in Practice”, published by The American Institute of Architects, it

is a partial LCA which only examine value-added process in the entire production chain, for

example by evaluating the environmental impact due to the construction stage of a building

(Bayer et al., 2010). With respect to the possibility to implement the partial analysis of the

environmental impact, in its implementation of this partial LCA, limits, and assumptions have

been determined as an approach to the actual condition. Some of the data used include the

experimental data, theoretical mass balance calculation and secondary data obtained from

previous research. The study was carried out with the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method

utilizing openLCA software that is open source (Claudia Di Noi, Ciroth, and Srocka, 2017).

Illustrated in Figure 4, the required data are a combination of primary data and secondary data

that is processed in such a way that the simulation results are expected to be able to approach

the actual process condition. However, the simulation results need to be studied further,

considering the relatively narrow scope of the study area, only limited to the sludge-dewatering

process to the residual-transport of the entire wastewater treatment process from centralized

wastewater treatment in an industrial estate.

Figure 4 Sources of data used in this study using the OpenLCA software







90

As can be observed from Figure 4, the data used as the input for inventory data to the

software. It is classified into two major groups of data, the primary data consist of the data

resulted from the laboratory experiments, while the secondary data consist of the mass balance

calculation (theoretically), sludge characteristics and syngas characteristics.

Figure 5 Mass balance data from the lab-scale experiment (Hakiki, Wikaningrum, and Kurniawan, 2018)

Configuration of the lab-scale gasifier illustrated in Figure 5. It can be observed that the

amounts of organic sludge are converted to 40% wet syngas and 60% char, and from the 40% of

wet syngas convey to the gas-liquid separator and results 90% dry syngas and 10% condensate

(from the total 40% of wet syngas resulted in gasifier). The mass balance data is then entered as

inventory data in OpenLCA software. In general, the research stage illustrated in Figure 6.







91

Figure 6 The research stage

2.1 Impact Simulation With OpenLCA The four-phase in the LCA include goal and scope definition, inventory analysis, impact

assessment, and data interpretation (Noor and Soewondo, 2018). The step of simulating the

impact was following the four-phase of the LCA method, utilizing OpenLCA software with CML

Baseline Impact 2000. The functional unit of this study is the mass of sludge treated in ton/month.

2.1.1 Goal and Scope Definition (The Scenario) The goal of this study would be predicting the environmental impacts of both the sludge handling

method, i.e., thermal gasification and direct transport to secure landfill, particularly the potential

of global warming from hazardous sludge treatment. Considering the wide scope of the

wastewater treatment process, this study will be limited only to the solid handling stage from the

sludge dewatering stage to the residual transport process.







92

Figure 7 Direct-secured-landfill scenario

Figure 7 and Figure 8 illustrate the area under this study for direct landfill and thermal process

accordingly. In Figure 1 it can be observed that this study is limited, beginning from the

dewatering process of secondary settling tank (SST) outlet, followed by further drying process at

sludge drying area (SDA) unit, to be transported to a secured landfill. Whereas in Figure 2, a

similar stage is carried out also, beginning with the dewatering process of SST outlet, then

proceed with further drying in the SDA unit.

The difference is the implementation of thermal processes that are equipped with a gas-

liquid separator unit to separate the gas and liquid phase. There are two kinds of waste produced

from this system, in the form of char (from gasifier) and condensate (from separator) which are

then transported to the secured landfill. Char is the residue of the thermal process that does not

convert to the gas phase, but still in solid phase. While the condensate resulted from bottom

product of gas-liquid separator. The separation process in the gas-liquid separator is affected by

the difference in vapor pressure that is owned by each separated fraction.







93

Figure 8 Thermally-hazardous-sludge-treatment scenario

2.1.2 Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) The inventory data was obtained by calculating the mass balance of the process, combined with

the actual data from the plant and from the laboratory experiment results. Therefore, an effort

needs to be made to optimize the energy potential. Carbon compounds in sludge that have been

dewatered, will then be put into the gasifier so that there will be some chemical reactions as can

be observed in Table 2. The equation of chemical reaction is the basis for a stoichiometric

calculation to obtain the required data as input for the simulation process using the openLCA

software.

Only several of the reactions in Table 2 are considered to represent the parameters to

examine in the LCA method. Another information required is regarding GHG which includes the

emission factors for the use of electricity as well as the emission factors for fuel usage. Referring

to the emission factor for electricity usage in the area of Java is 0.84 kg CO2/kWh (Ministry of

Energy and Mineral Resources Republic of Indonesia, 2016). As for the fuel usage emission factor,

referring to the data which is 2.66 kg CO2/L of diesel fuel for land transportation, 0.14 kg CH4/L of

diesel fuel for land transportation and 0.14 kg N2O/L of diesel fuel for land transportation (Boer

et al., 2012). In this study, the units of tonnes per year (t/y) are used as functional units in the







94

calculation of impact assessment (LCIA).

Table 2 Several equations of the chemical reaction as a basis for

stoichiometric calculation (Arena, 2012)

2.1.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessments (LCIA) CML Baseline 2000 impact analysis method is used to process the inventory data, which include

several impact categories: abiotic depletion (kg Sb eq), acidification (kg SO2 eq), eutrophication

(kg PO4 eq), freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity (kg 1.4-DB eq), global warming (GWP 100)

(kg CO2 eq), human toxicity (kg 1.4-DB eq), marine aquatic ecotoxicity (kg 1.4-DB eq), ozone layer

depletion (kg CFC-11 eq), photochemical oxidation (kg C2H4 eq), and terrestrial ecotoxicity

(kg 1.4-DB eq). In each of these categories, it has been compared with the dominant components

that are considered to be representative for further processing in order to obtain the desired

results. The accuracy of the simulation results is determined by several factors, including the

accuracy of the analytical results, the suitability of mass balance calculation and other factors that

are also considered influential in the calculation.







95

2.1.4 Interpretation of results Nugraha et al., (2018) stated that the interpretation of results included two important steps, i.e.,

identification of important issues and evaluation (Nugraha, Wiloso, and Yani, 2018). Consistency

of inventory results is needed in identifying important issues that will be discussed, as well as

evaluating the impact caused, referring to the goals and scope that have been determined. The

aspects of completeness, sensitivity, and consistency of the data need to be evaluated so that the

results of the analysis are in line with what is expected.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The model graph generated from the software for both treatments can be observed in Figure 9

and Figure 10. The model for the secured landfill method is simpler than the thermally-sludge-

treatment method. The difference that can be observed is that in Figure 4 there is a part of the

gasifier and gas-liquid- separator, each of which is connected to the residual transport section.

That can be interpreted, that in Figure 3 the sludge generated from the wastewater plant (WWTP)

is directly disposed to a secured landfill.

Figure 9 The model graph generated as a result of input data to the openLCA software for direct-secured-landfill-scenario

Whereas in Figure 4, the sludge generated from WWTP undergoes further treatment in the

gasifier and gas-liquid-separator. Referring to both models, it is known that the input data is in

accordance with the desired scenario. The generated model can function as an initial control to

ensure that the scenario data input into the software is as desired. The incompatibility of the







96

generated model indicates that there is a discrepancy in the data input, which will affect the

assessment results.

Several considerations in this simulation include: a) It is assumed that all process units used

and included in the LCA scope are in good condition and there is no leakage so that emissions

that expose out of the system are actual emissions resulting from the process and not due to

leakage. b) This research is focused on the study of the categories of global warming potential

impacts (kg CO2 eq) because thermal treatment will produce flue gas whose major composition

is classified as greenhouse gas (GHG) compounds. c) It is assumed that other pollutants have been

processed in such a way that they do not cause a negative impact on the environment. d)

Utilization of green energy generated from the thermal process as a power source for dewatering

units, thereby reducing electricity consumption from the power plant (PLN).

Figure 10 The model graph generated as a result of input data to the openlca software for thermally-sludge-treatment- scenario

The use of electrical energy generated from the thermal process is also considered to reduce

the amount of GHG emissions into the atmosphere. This is consistent with what has been studied

by Wiloso et al., (2016), which states that the assumption of the neutrality of biogenic carbon

stored during growth will be released back into the atmosphere in the same number and form,

so it is believed that there is no increase in GHG concentration due to decomposition or

combustion of biogenic carbon compounds (Wiloso et al., 2016). In addition, it should be realized

that utilizing green energy derived from carbon content in sludge will also reduce the

consumption of fossil fuels because it will reduce disturbance to carbon underground reserves.







97

3.1 Life Cycle Impact Assessment of The Projects Of the several impact categories studied in the CML Baseline 2000 impact analysis method, the

category of global warming potential impact is become a concern. In Table 3, the results of the

impact analysis can be observed for both treatments. However, in addition to the global warming

potential impact category, another observed result is the photochemical oxidation impact

category. It caused by the emission of methane from fossil fuel combustion which not just impacts

global warming potential, but also can produce the photochemical oxidant when it reacted with

other constituents in the atmosphere. Another impact categories which cannot be observed, such

as abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity, human toxicity,

marine aquatic ecotoxicity, ozone layer depletion and terrestrial ecotoxicity caused by the scope

in this study is limited to sludge handling process without calculating wastewater and liquid waste

generated from dewatering, drying, gasification and gas-liquid separation process. In addition, it

can be observed in Figure 1 and Figure 2 that the liquid generated from the dewatering and drying

process directly circulated to the oxidation ditch unit for further treatment so that no liquid-

residual contaminated the water bodies. Whereas, the toxicity impact which may be generated

can also be minimized, because of the solid management specifically in a limited access area of

centralized industrial estate WWTP.

Table 3 shows that the value of global warming potential impact category for the thermal

process is lower than the direct secured landfill treatment. This is due to the greenhouse gases

contained in the top product of gas-liquid separator being the input for green energy. Or in other

words, in the gasification process which is a closed system, there is no exhaust gas emitted into

the atmosphere, except the flue gas produced from the conversion process of syngas into energy.

This is consistent with what has been studied by Wiloso et al., (2016), which states that the

assumption of the neutrality of biogenic carbon stored during growth will be released back into

the atmosphere in the same number and form, so it is believed that there is no increase in GHG

concentration due to decomposition or combustion of biogenic carbon compounds.







98

Table 3 Life cycle impact analysis results for both treatment from openLCA software

Impact category Direct secured

_landfill Thermal_sludge _treatment

Unit

Global warming (GWP100) - CML 2 baseline 2,000

6.73276e+2 4.24385e+2 kg CO2 eq

Photochemical oxidation - CML 2 baseline 2,000

7.68600e-5 4.91904e-5 kg C2H4 eq

3.2 Process Contributions to Global Warming Potential As shown in Figure 11, two stages of the sludge handling process are identified as the major

contributors of GHG production, i.e., residual transport and sludge dewatering. In the residual

transport stage, a considerable amount of GHG is generated from the results of fossil fuel

combustion. Whereas in dewatering stage, GHG has resulted from electricity consumption as the

power source for electric motor which used in belt filter press unit. The amount of GHG identified

is based on the data which stated that the emission factor for electricity usage in the area of Java

is 0.84 kg CO2/kWh (Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources Republic of Indonesia, 2016). The

emission factor used is the average amount of emitted GHG to the atmosphere and it has been

equalized with the amount of electricity produced by the power plant. Other units are

contributed relatively small amounts of GHG rather than the two major GHG contributors. The

further drying process in the SDA unit only utilizes heat from the radiation of sun, it means there

is no other energy in the form of electricity or fossil fuels used in the process units. Exposure to

solar heat that accumulates on the surface of the sludge, allows the evaporation of volatile carbon

compounds even though the amount is significant when compared to the mass of sludge dried in

the unit.







99

Figure 11 Process contributions to global warming potential for both scenario, analysis result for direct-secured-landfill-scenario and thermally-sludge-treatment-scenario

Therefore, in carrying out the calculation it is assumed that there will be 0.25% volatile carbon

that is evaporated into the atmosphere. This value is the estimated value because there is no

measurement data about it. Other units that also do not use electricity or fossil fuel energy are

gas-liquid separator units. So that in ideal conditions, namely in the condition of a vessel without

leakage, there will be no gas emitted into the atmosphere or condensate which pollutes the soil

or waters. Whereas carbon dioxide emissions in the syngas to green energy conversion system

are also assumed to be carbon neutral, according to what has been mentioned earlier, that the

green energy produced will be reused as a source of energy for motor-driven belt filter press unit.

In addition to reducing electricity consumption, it is also considered to be able to offset carbon

emissions released from the results of electricity generation at power plants, without having to

interfere with the availability of underground fossil fuel reserves. Based on the simulation results,

it is known that the amount of carbon emissions generated from the gasifier unit is relatively

large. However, in a closed system, there will be no gas emitted into the atmosphere because the

top product of the gasifier will be flowed to the gas-liquid separator to be further separated

between the gas and liquid phases.







100

4. CONCLUSIONS Based on the study of “gate-to-gate” LCA, it can be concluded that the thermal (gasification)

treatment of hazardous sludge can be studied further in connection with its implementation at

the treatment plant. From the actual plant data of 3.2 ton treated-biologically sludge per day,

with 30% water content, it is indicated by the acquisition of global warming potential impact

category of 6.73276e+2 kg CO2 eq (for direct transporting/disposal to secured landfill) reduced

around 4.24385e+2 kg CO2 eq (for the implementation of thermal treatment). In other words,

there is a reduction in the magnitude of the impact to around 37%. This can be achieved if all the

assumptions and conditions required in the simulation process can be met.

REFERENCES

Anderson, Thomas R., Ed Hawkins, and Philip D. Jones. 2016. CO2, the Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming: From the Pioneering Work of Arrhenius and Callendar to Today’s Earth System Models. Endeavour. 40 (3): 178–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endeavour.2016.07.002.

Arena, Umberto. 2012. Process and Technological Aspects of Municipal Solid Waste Gasification. A Review. Waste Management. 32 (4): 625–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2011.09.025.

Bayer, Charlene, Michael Gamble, Russell Gentry, and Surabhi Joshi, AIA Guide to Building Life Cycle Assessment in Practice, New York: The American Institute of Architects, 2010.

Boer, Rizaldi, Retno Gumilang Dewi, Ucok WR Siagian, Muhammad Ardiansyah, Elza Surmaini, Dida Migfar Ridha, Mulkan Gani et al. Guidelines on Organization of National Greenhouse Gases Inventorisation. 2nd Ed. Vol. 1. Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia. 2012.

Claudia Di Noi, Andreas Ciroth, and Michael Srocka. 2017. OpenLCA 1.7 Comprehensive User Manual. Berlin: GreenDelta GmbH. http://www.openlca.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/openLCA1.7_User_Manual_v1.1.pdf%0Ahttps://www.openlca.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/openLCA1.7_UserManual.pdf.

Folgueras, M. B., M. Alonso, and R. M. Díaz, Influence of Sewage Sludge Treatment on Pyrolysis and Combustion of Dry Sludge. Energy. 55: 426–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.03.063, 2013.

Government, Indonesian. 2014. Appendix I: Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 101 Of 2014 Concerning Management of Waste of Hazardous and Toxic Materials.

Hakiki, R., T. Wikaningrum, and T. Kurniawan. 2018. The Prospect of Hazardous Sludge Reduction


https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.03.063






101

through Gasification Process. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 106 (1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/106/1/012092.

Hakiki, Rijal, and Temmy Wikaningrum. 2019. The Prospect of Digitally Enhanced Colorimetry as an Analytical Method for Water Quality Determination. Indonesian Journal of Urban and Environmental Technology. 2 (2): 146–63. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.25105/urbanenvirotech.v2i2.4362 146.

International Organization for Standardization. ISO 14040:2006 Environmental Management - Life Cycle Assessment - Principles and Framework.Switzerland: ISO, 2006.

Kurniawan, Tetuko, Rijal Hakiki, and Filson Maratur Sidjabat. 2018. Wastewater Sludge As an Alternative Energy Resource: A Review. Journal of Environmental Engineering & Waste Management. 3 (1): 1-12. https://doi.org/10.33021/jenv.v3i1.396.

Kusrini, Eny, Angga Kurniawan Sasongko, Nasruddin Nasruddin, and Anwar Usman. 2017. Improvement of Carbon Dioxide Capture Using Graphite Waste/ FE3O4 Composites. International Journal of Technology. 8(8): 1436. https://doi.org/10.14716/ijtech.v8i8.697.

Li, Hui, Long Bo Jiang, Chang Zhu Li, Jie Liang, Xing Zhong Yuan, Zhi Hua Xiao, Zhi Hong Xiao, and Hou Wang. 2015. Co-Pelletization of Sewage Sludge and Biomass: The Energy Input and Properties of Pellets. Fuel Processing Technology. 132: 55–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuproc.2014.12.020.

McNamara, Patrick J., Jon D. Koch, Zhongzhe Liu, and Daniel H. Zitomer. 2016. Pyrolysis of Dried Wastewater Biosolids Can Be Energy Positive. Water Environment Research. 88 (9): 804–10. https://doi.org/10.2175/106143016x14609975747441.

Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources Republic of Indonesia, GHG Emission Factors in the Electrical Interconnection System Year 2016. Directorate General of Electricity, Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources, 2016.

Noor, Rininta Triananda, and Prayatni Soewondo. 2018. Selection of Alternative Domestic Wastewater Treatment Technology with Using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) Approach: Case Study Settlement Area of Riverbank Karang Mumus of Samarinda City, East Kalimantan. Indonesian Journal of Urban and Environmental Technology. 1 (2): 164-184. https://doi.org/10.25105/urbanenvirotech.v1i2.2825.

Nugraha, Ahmad Zaky, Edi Iswanto Wiloso, and Mohammad Yani. 2018. Pemanfaatan Serbuk Gergaji Sebagai Substitusi Bahan Bakar Pada Proses Pembakaran - Kiln Di Pabrik Semen Dengan Pendekatan Life Cycle Assesment (Lca). Jurnal Pengelolaan Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan (Journal of Natural Resources and Environmental Management). 8(2): 188-98. https://doi.org/10.29244/jpsl.8.2.188-198.

Rinanti, Astri. 2016. Biotechnology Carbon Capture and Storage by Microalgae to Enhance CO2

Removal Efficiency in Closed- System Photobioreactor. In Algae - Organisms for Imminent Biotechnology, 25. IntechOpen. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/57353.


https://doi.org/10.2175/106143016x14609975747441






102

Samolada, M. C., and A. A. Zabaniotou. 2014. Comparative Assessment of Municipal Sewage Sludge Incineration, Gasification and Pyrolysis for a Sustainable Sludge-to-Energy Management in Greece. Waste Management. 34(2): 411–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.11.003.

Sun, Lin Bing, Ying Hu Kang, Yao Qi Shi, Yao Jiang, and Xiao Qin Liu. 2015. Highly Selective Capture of the Greenhouse Gas CO2 in Polymers. ACS Sustainable Chemistry and Engineering. 3(12): 3077–3085. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b00544.

Wiloso, E. I., R. Heijungs, G. Huppes, and K. Fang. 2016. Effect of Biogenic Carbon Inventory on the Life Cycle Assessment of Bioenergy: Challenges to the Neutrality Assumption. Journal of Cleaner Production. 125: 78–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.096.

Zhang, Guojie, Peiyu Zhao, and Ying Xu. 2017. Development of Amine-Functionalized Hierarchically Porous Silica for CO2 Capture. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 54: 59-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2017.05.018.


comparison of global warming potential-impact …...indicated by the acquisition of global warming...

Documents