comparing student learning styles in an online

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Comparing Student Learning Styles in an OnlineDistance Learning Class and an Equivalent On-Campus Class

byDavid P. Diaz and Ryan B. Cartnal

Cuesta Community College

Bibliographical reference:Diaz, D. P., & Cartnal, R. B. (1999). Students'learning styles in two classes: Online distance learning and equivalent on-

campus. College Teaching 47(4), 130-135.

Abstract

Educators have, for many years, noticed that some students prefer certain

methods of learning more than others. These traits, referred to as learning

styles, form a student's unique learning preference and aid teachers in theplanning of small-group and individualized instruction. If optimal studentlearning is dependent on learning styles, and these styles vary between

distance and equivalent on-campus students, then faculty should be aware

of these differences and alter their preparation and instructional methods

accordingly.

The purpose of this study was to compare the student learning styles of twoonline health education classes (N = 68) with an equivalent on-campus class

(N = 40). The Grasha-Riechmann Student Learning Style Scales (GRSLSS)

was administered to determine student social learning preferences in sixlearning style categories. Students who enrolled in the distance education

class were significantly more Independent learners than students in theequivalent on-campus class (p < .01). Students enrolled in the equivalent

class were significantly more Dependent learners than the distance group (p

< .01).

Correlational analysis revealed that on-campus students displayed

collaborative tendencies that were positively related to their needs to becompetitive and to be good class citizens. Thus, on-campus students

appeared to favor collaborative styles to the extent that it helped them to

obtain the rewards of the class. In contrast, online students were willing andable to embrace collaborative teaching styles if the instructor made it clear

that this was expected, and gave them form and guidance for meeting thisexpectation. Online students appeared to be driven more by intrinsic motives

and clearly not by the reward structure of the class.


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Faculty who are putting a traditional course online, should consider

administering a student learning style inventory to both their distance and

traditional students. Knowledge of student learning preferences can aidfaculty in class preparation, designing class delivery methods, choosing

appropriate technologies, and developing sensitivity to differing student

learning preferences within the distance education environment.

Introduction

The idea that people learn differently is venerable and probably hadits origin with the ancient Greeks (Wratcher, Morrison, Riley &Scheirton, 1997). Educators have, for many years, noticed that

some students prefer certain methods of learning more than others.

These dispositions, referred to as learning styles, form a student'sunique learning preference and aid teachers in the planning ofsmall-group and individualized instruction (Kemp, Morrison & Ross,1998, p. 40). Grasha (1996), has defined learning styles as,

"personal qualities that influence a student's ability to acquireinformation, to interact with peers and the teacher, and otherwiseparticipate in learning experiences" (p. 41).

Blackmore (1996) suggested that one of the first things educators

can do to aid the learning process is to simply be aware that thereare diverse learning styles in the student population:

There are probably as many ways to "teach" as there are to learn.

Perhaps the most important thing is to be aware that people do notall see the world in the same way. They may have very different

preferences than you for how, when, where and how often to learn.

While many instructors are aware that different learning styles

exist, the application of this knowledge is often inconsequential.

Some faculty simply opt to utilize a wide variety of teachingactivities, hoping that they will cover most student learning

preferences along the way. This method, though expedient, may notbe the most effective or systematic way to address student learningpreferences in the classroom. Many instructors think that the same

teaching methods that are effective in their traditional classes willalso work in distance learning settings. The underlying assumption


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is that students who enroll into distance education classes will havethe same learning preferences as students enrolled in traditional

classes. Also, faculty are assuming that teaching styles, andaccompanying classroom processes, are like a "master key" and

thus appropriate for any setting.

There is not an overabundance of research in the area of learning

styles and distance education. Most of the studies focus on thediscovery of relationships between learning styles and specificstudent achievement outcomes: drop rate, completion rate,

attitudes about learning, and predictors of high risk. One of themost popular learning style inventories and one that is often used indistance learning research is the Kolb Learning Style Inventory

(LSI) (Kolb, 1986). Kolb's LSI measures student learning style

preference in two bipolar dimensions. Over time, learners develop apreference for either concrete experiences when learning or a

preference for engaging in abstract or conceptual analyses whenacquiring skills and knowledge. They also may emphasize interestsin turning theory into practice, i.e., active experimentation, or they

may prefer to engage in reflective thinking about their experiences,i.e., reflective observation (Dille & Mezack, 1991, p. 27). James and

Gardner (1995) described Kolb's LSI as a cognitive learning stylemode. Cognitive processes include storage and retrieval of

information in the brain and represent the learner's ways ofperceiving, thinking, problem-solving and remembering (p. 20).Dille and Mezack (1991) used Kolb's LSI to identify predictors ofhigh risk among community college telecourse students. Successful

students had lower scores on their preferences for concreteexperiences than did the non-successful students. Thus, sincedistance learning courses often lead to social isolation, and require

greater reliance on independent learning skills, students with lessneeds for the concrete experience aspects of learning may be

expected to be better suited to the distance format. People withhigher scores on concrete experience tend to exhibit a greatersensitivity to feelings, and thus would be expected to require more

interactions with peers and the teacher. Successful telecoursestudents also preferred to look for abstract concepts to help explainthe concrete experiences associated with their learning. That is,

they wanted to know "why" certain things happened in conceptual


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or theoretical terms. This more abstract approach clearly favoredsuccess in the telecourse. Dille and Mezack concluded that students

who needed concrete experience and were not able to thinkabstractly were more high-risk students in a telecourse.

Gee (1990) studied the impact of learning style variables in a liveteleconference distance education class. The purpose of the study

was to examine the influence of student learning style preference,in an on-campus or distance education remote classroom, onstudent achievement in the following areas: course content, course

completion rates, and attitudes about learning. Both distance andon-campus groups were taught simultaneously by the sameinstructor, received identical course content, and both groups met

weekly. Gee administered the Canfield Learning Styles Inventory

(CLSI) (Canfield, 1980).

Students in the distance learning class who possessed a moreindependent and conceptual learning style, had the highest averagescores in all of the student achievement areas. People with the

lowest scores in student achievement in the distance learningcourse had a more social and conceptual learning style. Students

with both a social and applied learning style performed much betterin the on-campus class. The outcomes of the Gee study suggested

that successful distance education students favored an independentlearning environment while successful on-campus students showeda preference for working with others. The relatively small sample of26 students suggested that additional work is needed to further

explore this relationship.

An important question is raised by such research: "Are there

differences in learning styles between students who enroll into adistance education class and their equivalent on-campus

counterparts?" This question, no matter which way it is answered,

holds important strategic information for anyone interested instudent success. If there are no differences in learning styles, then

it is likely that faculty can transfer the same types ofteaching/learning activities that have been successful for them inthe traditional environment, into the distance setting with similar

success. This is providing that sufficient sensitivity has been given


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to student learning styles in the first place, and that sufficientthought has been given to how these methods will be transferred to

the distance education environment using current communicationstechnologies. If there are differences in learning styles between

groups of students, then faculty must use learning style informationto aid their planning and preparation for delivery of distanceeducation activities. Sarasin (1998) noted that instructors should be

willing to change their teaching strategies and techniques based onan appreciation of the variety of student learning styles. "[Teachers]should try to ensure that their methods, materials, and resources fit

the ways in which their students learn and maximize the learningpotential of each student" (p. 2).

Knowledge of student learning preferences can provide a bridge to

course success in a distance education mode. If optimal studentlearning is dependent on learning styles, and these styles vary

between distance and equivalent on-campus students, then facultyshould be aware of these differences and alter their preparation andinstructional methods accordingly. In any case, the first step in

using learning style information to aid instruction in a distanceeducation setting is to first determine student learning styles.

Selecting a Learning Style Instrument

As educators consider transplanting their traditional courses intodistance learning settings, they should also consider assessing thelearning styles of the students who enroll. With a variety of learning

style instruments in use, it is important to carefully select aninstrument according to the unique requirements of the distancelearning context. Three important factors to consider when selecting

a learning style instrument include: considering the intended use ofthe data to be collected, finding an instrument and matching it to

the intended use and, finally, selecting the most appropriate

instrument (James and Gardner, 1995). Other concerns includeconsidering the underlying concepts and design of the instrument,

validity and reliability issues, administration difficulties, and cost (p.22).

One of the distinguishing features of most distance educationclasses is the absence of face-to-face social interaction between


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students and teacher. It seems appropriate that an inventory usedin a distance education setting should address the impact of

different social dynamics on the learning preferences of thestudents. An example of this can be seen in Gee (1990), who

employed the Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (CLSI). The CLSIdemonstrated merit for use in distance learning studies since itattempted to measure student preferences in environmental

conditions such as student's need for affiliation with other studentsand instructor, and the student's need for independence orstructure. These differing social dynamics represent one of the main

differences between distance learning and equivalent on-campusenvironments. However, in our opinion, the CLSI as well as Kolb'sLSI, create a narrow range of applicability for learning styles by

limiting learning preferences to one or two dimensions. This learning

style "stereotyping" may be convenient for statistical analysis, but isless helpful in terms of teaching students about weaker or unused

learning preferences. Further, the Kolb LSI, which has been widelyused, is primarily a cognitive learning preference instrument, and

does not specifically take into account social preference issues thatrepresent the key distinction between the distance and traditionalclassrooms.

Of the different learning style instruments, the Grasha-Reichmann

Student Learning Style Scales (GRSLSS) seems ideal for assessingstudent learning preferences in a college-level distance learningsetting. The GRSLSS (Hruska-Riechmann & Grasha, 1982; Grasha,1996) was chosen as the tool for determining student learning

styles in the present study based on criteria suggested by Jamesand Gardner (1995). First, the GRSLSS is one of the fewinstruments designed specifically to be used with senior high school

and college/university students (Hruska-Riechmann & Grasha,1982). Second, the GRSLSS is a relevant scale to use in a distance

setting since it focuses on how students interact with the instructor,other students, and with learning in general. Thus the scalesaddress one of the key distinguishing features of a distance class,

the relative absence of social interaction between instructor/studentand student/student. Third, the GRSLSS promotes an optimalteaching/learning environment by helping faculty design courses

and develop sensitivity to student/learner needs. Fourth, the


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GRSLSS promotes understanding of learning styles in a broadcontext, spanning six categories. Students possess all of six learning

styles, to a greater or lesser extent. This type of understandingprevents learning style stereotyping, and provides a rationale for

pursuing personal growth and development in the underusedlearning style areas. A brief discussion of each learning style isincluded below.

1. Independent students prefer independent study, self-paced instruction, and would prefer to work alone on

course projects than with other students.2. Dependent learners look to the teacher and to peers as a

source of structure and guidance and prefer an authority

figure to tell them what to do.

3. Competitive students learn in order to perform betterthan their peers do and to receive recognition for their

academic accomplishments.4. Collaborative learners acquire information by sharing and

by cooperating with teacher and peers. They prefer

lectures with small group discussions and group projects.5. Avoidant learners are not enthused about attending class

or acquiring class content. They are typically uninterestedand are sometimes overwhelmed by class activities.

6. Participant learners are interested in class activities anddiscussion, and are eager to do as much class work aspossible. They are keenly aware of, and have a desire tomeet, teacher expectations.

The styles described by the GRSLSS refer to a blend ofcharacteristics that apply to all students (Grasha, 1996, p. 127).

Each person possesses some of each of the learning styles. Ideally,one would have a balance of all the learning styles, however most

people gravitate toward one or two of the learning stylepreferences. Learning preferences are likely to change as oneencounters new life and educational experiences. Grasha (1996),

and Dowdall (1991) also have suggested that particular teachingstyles might encourage students to adopt certain learning styles.Additional information on this issue is provided in the Grasha and

Yangarber (1999) article in this section.


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Problem and Purpose

Student performance may be related to learning preferences, orstyles as learners. Students may also self-select into or away fromdistance learning classes based on their learning preferences. As a

result, student success in distance learning classes may ultimatelydepend on understanding the learning style characteristics of the

students who enroll.

Since more online courses will invariably be offered in the future,

some assurance must be provided to the institution, the faculty andthe students, that distance education will meet expectations for aquality education. Not only will students expect an education that is

at equal in quality as that provided by traditional offerings, they will

expect a student-centered learning environment, designed to meettheir individual needs. There have been few studies on the

relationship of learning styles to student success in a distancelearning environment, and none that the author is aware of haveused the GRSLSS. The purpose of this study was to compare the

student learning styles of online, and equivalent on-campus, healtheducation classes using the GRSLSS.

Research Methods

The population for the current study included health educationstudents in a medium-sized (8,000-9,000 enrollment) communitycollege on the central coast of California. The distance education

sample included students in two sections of health education offeredin an online format (N = 68). The comparison class was selectedfrom four equivalent on-campus sections of health education (N =

40) taught by the lead author. The online distance students weretaught according to the same course outline, used the sametextbook, covered the same lecture material, and took the same

tests as the equivalent on-campus students. Three main differencesbetween on-campus and online groups were the delivery mode for

the lectures, the mode of teacher/student and student/studentcommunication, and the mode for the assignments. The distanceclasses reviewed multimedia slides (Power Point presentations

converted to HTML) and lecture notes online while the equivalentclasses heard instructor lectures and participated in face-to-face


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discussion. The distance class made heavy use of a class web siteand used a list serve and e-mail for communication/discussion with

other students and the instructor. The assignment load for thedistance class students consisted almost entirely of internet-based,

independent assignments while the equivalent class completedsome online assignments but participated most frequently inclassroom discussion assignments and other non-internet

assignments.

All 108 participants first reviewed the student cover letter that

explained the nature of the research and provided opportunity forinformed consent. Next, the authors distributed the GRSLSS andreviewed the instructions for completion of the inventory. The

GRSLSS was administered in a group setting during the second

week of classes. As a result, the "General Class Form" was used(the version used when the inventory is administered at the

beginning rather than the end of the course) to assess the initiallearning styles of the students. The inventory was self-scored by thestudent and raw scores were obtained for each of the learning style

categories. Inventories were reviewed by the researchers forcompliance with directions and for accuracy of scoring.

Research Outcomes

The present study compared social learning styles between distanceeducation and equivalent on-campus classes using the GRSLSS. Theaverage or mean scores of the distance learning class and the

equivalent health education class on each of the six categories ofthe GRSLSS are shown in Figure 1. Relatively larger differences inthe average scores between the two classrooms occurred for the

Independent and the Dependent learning styles. Compared to thosestudents enrolled in the traditional classroom, the students in the

distance learning class had higher scores on the Independent

learning style scale and lower scores on the Dependent learningstyle scale. A statistical test (i.e., a t- test ) was used to determine

if the differences in the scores between the Independent andDependent learning styles were due to chance.

The variations in average scores between the two styles were foundto be statistically significant and thus were not likely due to chance


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(p < .01). The variations in average scores between the twoclassrooms on the Avoidant, Competitive, Collaborative, and

Participant learning styles were relatively small, and a statisticalanalysis using a t-test revealed that they were not statistically

significant. In order to examine the patterns in the relationshipsamong the learning styles within each class, the associations amongdifferent combinations of styles were examined. This was done by

calculating the correlation coefficients associated with thecombinations of the six learningstyles. The outcomes of thisanalysis are shown in Table 1 for the distance learning and

traditional classroom groups. In reading this table the reader isreminded that a correlation coefficient varies from -1, 0, to +1 andthat the degree to which it deviates from zero in either direction

reflects the strength of the relationship between the two variables.

The asterisks associated with some of the values indicate that thesize of the correlation was statistically significant and thus not due

to chance.

Correlational analysis within the online group showed a negative

relationship between the Independent learning style, and theCollaborative and Dependent learning styles. In other words, people

who were more Independent in their learning styles also tended tobe less Collaborative and Dependent. A second important

relationship (positive correlation) was found between theCollaborative learning style and the Dependent and Participantlearning styles. That is, students who were more Collaborative intheir learning styles also were more Dependent and Participatory in

their approach to learning.

In the equivalent on-campus group, significant positive correlations

were found between the Collaborative learning style and theCompetitive and Participant styles. That is, on-campus students who

were collaborative also tended to be competitive and participatory inthe classroom. Finally, a positive correlation between theCompetitive and Participant styles of learning also was observed.

Students who tended to compete also were "good classroomcitizens" and were more willing to do what the teacher wanted themto do.


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Discussion

Gibson (1998) has challenged distance education instructors to"know the learner" (p. 140). She noted that distance learners are aheterogeneous group, and that instructors should design learning

activities to capitalize on this diversity (p. 141). Since the dynamicnature of the distance population precludes a "typical" student

profile (Thompson, 1998, p. 9), instructors should continuallyassess student learner characteristics. The broad range of GRSLSSscores in the present study demonstrated the diversity of learning

preferences of both groups and illustrates the dynamic nature ofdistance student characteristics as noted by Thompson. Aninstructor using the present data could plan learning opportunities

that would emphasize the learning preferences of each of the

commonly preferred learning styles (i.e., Independent, Dependent,Collaborative, and Participant), thus matching teaching strategies

with learning styles.

Of particular interest were the significant differences between the

groups in the Independent and Dependent categories. The distancestudents more strongly favored independent learning styles. It is

not surprising that students who prefer independent, self-pacedinstruction would self-select into an online class. It may be that the

distance education format appealed to students with independentlearning styles, and that independent learning preferences are wellsuited to the relative isolation of the distance learning environment.This interpretation would agree with Gee (1990) who noted that

successful telecourse students favored an independent learningstyle. This also agrees with James and Gardner (1995) whosuggested that distance education students who favored reliance on

independent learning skills would be more suited to a distanceformat. As a result of these significant differences, instructional

strategies in the distance class should emphasize relatively moreindependent, and fewer dependent learning opportunities. Thisapproach has practical significance given that instructors often

complain of too little "class time" to devote to learning objectives.Armed with learning style data, instructors can more efficientlyallocate course instructional time to various learning activity types.


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Not only were online students more independent than the on-campus students, but their independent learning preferences were

displayed in a way that was negatively related to how dependentand collaborative they were. That is, the independence displayed by

online learners was not tied to needs for external structure andguidance from their teacher (dependence), or for a need tocollaborate with their classmates. Thus, the online students can be

described as "strongly independent," in that they match thestereotype of the independent learner in terms of autonomy and theability to be self-directed. Self-direction and independence was

facilitated in the online course by offering students flexible optionsto shape their learning environment. The lead author utilized self-paced, independent learning activities that allowed students to

choose from a menu of online "cyber assignments" based on their

personal interests and the relevance of the assignments to theirown life situations. Students chose their own assignments and

completed the assignments by the deadlines posted online at theclass web site.

Students in the equivalent on-campus class were significantly moreDependent learners than the distance group. Since Dependent

learners prefer structure and guidance in the learning setting, it isnot difficult to understand why dependent learners might view the

isolation and need for self-reliance in a distance educationenvironment with some apprehension. The low level ofindependence displayed by on-campus students was not related toany other aspects of their styles as learners. Thus, independence

was clearly a weaker learning preference for traditional classstudents.

The online students also displayed collaborative qualities in theirstyles as learners that were related to their need for structure

(dependence), and their willingness to participate as good classcitizens (Participant dimension). This correlation demonstrated that,though online students prefer independent learning situations, they

are willing and able to participate in collaborative work if they havestructure from the teacher to initiate it. In his online class, the leadauthor has used "list serves" and "threaded discussion" areas to

promote collaboration among distance students. However, in the


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past, the author designed collaborative activities among studentsthat required students to initiate peer contact, and to conduct the

collaboration with a minimum of teacher-provided structure andsupport. Based on the findings of the current study, it is apparent

why this strategy failed: Online students will apparently respondwell to collaborative activities, but only if sufficient structure andguidance is provided by the instructor. The mistake made by the

author was that he assumed that online students would be self-directed, and autonomous, regardless of the type of learningactivity. In contrast, the traditional class students had collaborative

tendencies that were related to their needs to be competitive, andto be good classroom citizens. In other words, they were interestedin collaboration to the extent that it helped them to compete

favorably in the class, and to meet the expectations of their

teachers. Thus, collaboration was tied to obtaining the rewards ofthe class, not to an interest in being collaborative per se.

Average Avoidant and Competitive learning style scores indicatedthat these learning preferences were favored to a lesser degree by

both groups. It was interesting that, though we live in a highlycompetitive society, neither the online or equivalent on-campus

students really preferred a Competitive learning environmentrelative to other styles of learning. However, the on-campus

students appeared to favor competitiveness if it was clear that suchcompetitiveness was expected (i.e., thus the relationship ofCompetitive and Participant styles).

Instructors can also use learning style data to help them design"creative mismatches" where students can experience their lessdominant learning style characteristics in a less threatening

environment (Grasha, 1996, p. 172). Designing collaborativeassignments for independent learners, or independent assignments

for dependent or collaborative learners, is appropriate and evennecessary. Strengthening lesser-preferred learning styles helpsstudents to expand the scope of their learning, become more

versatile learners, and adapt to the requisites of the "real world"(Sarasin, 1998, p. 38).


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Learning styles were not the only differences between the distanceand comparison groups in this study. Demographic data indicated

that the distance group had a higher percentage of females (59%,49%), students currently enrolled in under 12 units (66%, 50%),

students who had completed 60 or more college units (12%, 1%),had completed a degree (12%, 7%), and students above 26 yearsof age (36%, 6%). These characteristics agree with the general

profile of distance students as reported by Thompson (1998).Though it is tempting to identify and depend on a "typical" distancestudent profile, it is likely that the dynamic nature of distance

education in general will keep student characteristics a movingtarget. Thus, distance education instructors should continuallymonitor student characteristics.

Conclusions

The authors concluded that local health education students enrolledin an online class are likely to have different learning styles thanequivalent on-campus students. Online students were more

independent, and on-campus students more dependent, in theirstyles as learners. The on-campus students seemed to match the

profile of traditional students who are willing to work in classprovided they can obtain rewards for working with others, and for

meeting teacher expectations. Online students appeared to bedriven more by intrinsic motives and clearly not by the rewardstructure of the class.

One of the limitations of this study was the utilization of a non-probability (convenience) sampling technique. Non-probabilitysampling is used when it is impossible or impractical to use random

sampling techniques. This is the case in a large portion ofeducational research. While still valid, the results should not be

over-generalized. The authors have demonstrated a real and

substantial difference in learning styles between distance, andequivalent on-campus, health education students at their institution.

Before faculty rush to find out the effects of learning styles onstudent outcomes, they should first address the issue of whether

learning style differences exist at all. The results of this studyshould send an important notice to faculty who are teaching their


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traditional courses in a distance mode, that there may be drasticlearning style, as well as other characteristic differences between

distance and traditional students that warrants consideration.

As the World Wide Web continues to become an important medium

for educational delivery, more and more courses will be offered inan online format. Though faculty may attempt to utilize the same

teaching methods in a distance environment that they wouldemploy in an equivalent on-campus class, the data from the currentstudy suggest that faculty will encounter significantly different

learning preferences as well as other different studentcharacteristics. Thus, faculty may want to employ learning styleinventories, as well as collect relevant demographic data, to better

prepare for distance classes and to adapt their teaching methods to

the preferences of the learners.

Faculty should use social learning style inventories and resultingdata for the purpose of facilitating class preparation, designing classdelivery methods, choosing educational technologies, and

developing sensitivity to differing student learning preferenceswithin the distance education environment. Future field-based

research should replicate the current study in different institutionsand disciplines.

References

1. Blackmore, J. (1996). Pedagogy: Learning styles[Online]. Available:http://granite.cyg.net/~jblackmo/diglib/styl-a.html[1997, September 10]

2. Canfield, A. (1980). Learning styles inventory manual.Ann Arbor, MI: Humanics Media.

3. Dille, B. & Mezack, M. (1991). Identifying predictors ofhigh risk among community college telecourse students.The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(1), 24-35.

4. Dowdall, R. J. (1991). Learning style and the distantlearner. Consortium project extending the concept andpractice of classroom based research report. (ERIC

Document Reproduction Service No. ED 348 117)


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5. Gee, D. G. (1990). The impact of students' preferredlearning style variables in a distance education course: A

case study. Portales: Eastern New Mexico University.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 358 836)

6.Gibson, C. C. (1998). The distance learners academicself-concept. In C. Gibson (Ed.) Distance learners inhigher education: Institutional responses for quality

outcomes. pp. 65-76. Madison, WI: Atwood.7. Grasha, A. F. (1996). Teaching with style. Pittsburgh, PA:

Alliance.

8. Hruska-Riechmann, S., & Grasha, A. F. (1982). TheGrasha-Riechmann student learning style scales. In J.Keefe (Ed.). Student learning styles and brain behavior

(pp. 81-86). Reston, VA: National Association of

Secondary School Principals.9. James, W. B. & Gardner, D. L. (1995). Learning styles:

Implications for distance learning. (ERIC DocumentReproduction Service No. EJ 514 356)

10.Kemp, J. E., Morrison, G. R., & Ross, S. M. (1998).Designing effective instruction (2nd ed.). Upper SaddleRiver, NJ.

11.Kolb, D. A. (1986). Learning style inventory: Technicalmanual (Rev. ed.). Boston, MA: McBer.

12.Sarasin, L. C. (1998). Learning style perspectives:Impact in the classroom. Madison, WI: Atwood.

13.Thompson, M. M. (1998). Distance learners in highereducation. In C. Gibson (Ed.) Distance learners in higher

education: Institutional responses for quality outcomes(pp. 9-24). Madison, WI: Atwood.

14.Wratcher, M. A., Morrison, E. E., Riley, V. L., & Scheirton,L. S. (1997). Curriculum and program planning: A studyguide for the core seminar. Programs for higher

education: Nova Southeastern University.


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Great Memory Strategies for Students

by Keith(Manchester, England)

Note Taking Memory Technique

When I was in graduate school, I spent several days revising for tests, and still made averagescores. Part of my problem was having an undiagnosed learning difficulty related to my short-term memory. My comprehension, on the other hand, was brilliant.

To solve this, I started using two memory techniques that worked wonders. I cut my revisiontime down to just one day, and scored higher on my exams. Not bragging,but I graduated withhonors too.

Below you will find the two techniques I used:

The first memory technique is for note taking. Don't write anything down that you already know.Only put the notes of things you dont know on the page, and leave a three inch blank margin onthe left hand side of the paper. Read through your notes after class, and put a word or phrase in

the margin next to your notes.

When you study foryour test, fold the notes over and only look at your margin. Ifyou can recallthe information by looking at your key word, then tick it and move on to the next key word. Ifyou cant remember the information associated with a key word, then circle the word and readover that part ofyour notes again. When you go through the list of key words in your marginagain, only look at the key words that you circled.


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The next one is a memory tool that will help you keep facts in your head, and is based on apegging system. A pegging system is where you connect what you need to remember, ontosomething else. The key with a pegging system is to make sure that the information and theobject that you peg your information on, actually connect. Make sure the information that you

want to remember has action - the crazier, the better. This will be the glue that will help youremember the information that you have pegged. You can peg things to yourbody, your car oreven to objects in every room ofyour house. This memory technique works brilliantly with lists.

So ifyou want to cut down on time and perform better on your tests, remember to use the notetaking technique and the pegging system. These are simple tools that are guaranteed to work.

http://www.self-improvement-advice.org/great-memory-strategies-for-students.html

10 Strategies to Enhance Students' Memory

By Glenda Thorne, Ph.D.

The memory demands for school-age children are much greater than they are for adults. Asadults, we have already acquired much of the knowledge and skills we need to function day today. Although the knowledge base for some fields such as technology changes rapidly, the newinformation is generally highly specific and builds on existing knowledge. On the other hand,school children are constantlybombarded with new knowledge in multiple topic areas in which

they may or may not be interested. Additionally, they are expected to both learn and demonstratethe mastery of this knowledge on a weeklybasis. Thus, an effective and efficient memory iscritical for school success.

Many students have memory problems. Students who have deficits in registering information inshort-term memory often have difficulty remembering instructions or directions they have justbeen given, what was just said during conversations and class lectures and discussions, and whatthey just read. Students who have difficulty with working memory often forget what they aredoing while doing it. For example, they may understand the three-step direction they were justgiven, but forget the second and third steps while carrying out the first step. If they are trying tosolve a math problem that has several steps, they might forget the steps while trying to solve the

problem. When they are reading a paragraph, they may forget what was at the beginning of theparagraph by the time they get to the end of the paragraph. These students will look like theyhave difficulty with reading comprehension. In facts, they do; but the comprehension problem isdue to a failure of the memory system rather than the language system.

Students who have deficits in the storage and retrieval of information from long-term memorymay study for tests, but not be able to recall the information they studied when taking the tests.They frequently have difficulty recalling specific factual information such as dates or rules of


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grammar. They have a poor memory of material they earlier in the school year or last year. Theymay also be unable to answer specific questions asked of them in class even when their parentsand/or teachers think they really know the information.

The following ten general strategies are offered to help students develop a

more efficient and effective memory.

1. Give Directions in Multiple Formats: Students benefit from beinggiven directions in both visual and verbal formats. In addition, theirunderstanding and memorizing of instructions could be checked byencouraging them to repeat the directions given and explain the meaning ofthese directions. Examples of what needs to be done are also often helpful for enhancing memoryof directions.

2. Teach Students to Over-learn Material: Students should be taught the necessity of "over-learning" new information. Often they practice only until they are able to perform one error-free

repetition of the material. However, several error-free repetitions are needed to solidify theinformation.

3. Teach Students to Use Visual Images and Other Memory Strategies: Another memorystrategy that makes use of a cue is one called word substitution. The substitute word system canbe used for information that is hard to visualize, for example, for the word occipitalorparietal.These words can be converted into words that sound familiar that can be visualized. The wordoccipital can be converted to exhibit hall(because it sounds like exhibit hall). The student canthen make a visual image of walking into an art museum and seeing a big painting of a brainwithbig bulging eyes (occipital is the region of the brain that controls vision). With this system,the vocabulary word the student is trying to remember actuallybecomes the cue for the visual

image that then cues the definition of the word.

4. Give Teacher-Prepared Handouts Prior to Class Lectures: Class lectures and series of oraldirections should be reinforced by teacher-prepared handouts. The handouts for class lecturescould consist of a brief outline or a partially completed graphic organizer that the student wouldcomplete during the lecture. Having this informationboth enables students to identify the salientinformation that is given during the lectures and to correctly organize the information in theirnotes. Both of these activities enhance memory of the information as well. The use of Post-Its tojot information down on is helpful for remembering directions.

5. Teach Students to Be Active Readers: To enhance short-term memory registration and/orworking memory when reading, students should underline, highlight, or jot key words down inthe margin when reading chapters. They can then go back and read what is underlined,highlighted, or written in the margins. To consolidate this information in long-term memory,they can make outlines or use graphic organizers. Research has shown that the use of graphicorganizers increases academic achievement for all students.

6. Write Down Steps in Math Problems: Students who have a weakness in working memoryshould not rely on mental computations when solving math problems. For example, if they are


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performing long division problems, they should write down every step including carryingnumbers. When solving word problems, they should always have a scratch piece of paper handyand write down the steps in their calculations. This will help prevent them from losing their placeand forgetting what they are doing.

7. Provide Retrieval Practice for Students: Research has shown that long-term memory isenhanced when students engage in retrieval practice. Taking a test is a retrieval practice, i.e., the

act of recalling information that has been studied from long-term memory. Thus, it can be veryhelpful for students to take practice tests. When teachers are reviewing information prior to testsand exams, they could ask the students questions or have the students make up questions foreveryone to answer rather than just retelling students the to-be-learned information. Also, ifstudents are required or encouraged to make up their own tests and take them, it will give theirparents and/or teachers information about whether they know the most important information orare instead focused on details that are less important.

8. Help Students Develop Cues When Storing Information: According to the memory

research, information is easier retrieved when it is stored using a cue and that cue shouldbepresent at the time the information is being retrieved. For example, the acronym HOMES can beused to represent the names of the Great Lakes Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior.The acronym is a cue that is used when the information is being learned, and recalling the cuewhen taking a test will help the student recall the information.

9. Prime the Memory Prior to Teaching/Learning: Cues that prepare students for the task tobe presented are helpful. This is often referred to as priming the memory. For instance, when areading comprehension task is given, students will get an idea of what is expectedby discussingthe vocabulary and the overall topic beforehand. This will allow them to focus on the salientinformation and engage in more effective depth of processing. Advance organizers also serve

this purpose. For older students, Clif Notes for pieces of literature are often helpful aids forpriming the memory.

10. Review Material Before Going to Sleep: It should be helpful for students to review materialright before going to sleep at night. Research has shown that information studied this way isbetter remembered. Any other task that is performed after reviewing and prior to sleeping (suchas getting a snack, brushing teeth, listening to music) interferes with consolidation of informationin memory.

CDL's on-line library contains more articles on this topic.Read more about memory.

http://www.cdl.org/resource-library/articles/memory_strategies_May06.php


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Would you like higher marks? Do you have plans for attending college? Maybe you'd just like a good report

card. We can help!Whether you are a brand new grade 7 student, or an ambitious potential graduate , there are things you can

learn to do that are guaranteed to increase your marks ... in all subjects! Interested?

Everyone can increase their mark, in any subject, by following one or more of the proceduresdescribed below. The more of these procedures you successfully master, that you haven't

already been doing conscientiously, the more of an increase you will see in your next reportcard marks. We guarantee it!

Read on!

... How to Improve Your Marks ...

these tips may seem simple, or obvious. You would be surprised, however, at the difference theyyour learning and understanding, and in the results you obtain for work you hand in, or for tests

r to see a big improvement in your marks, you must successfully practice these suggestions in evevery day.

te or Print Neatlyding, this really works! When you hand in something that's messy, the teacher will be forced to rewly and carefully in order to find the important stuff. The teacher will find every single spelling

grammar mistake you made!On the other hand, if what you hand in is very neatly printed or handwritten, the teacheread it more quickly, and is less likely to find all the little mistakes. Also, let's face it, teare human, too ... they are probably going to be a little more generous with an assignmelooks nice, than they are with one that looks like it was written by a chimpanzee with ar


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2. Be OrganizedNeatness and organization are skills that maybe hard to develop, but will pay off in the longrun.Ifyou can never find the right notebook, are constantly losing your homework and

assignments, mostlybecause you are messy and disorganized, you are not only aggravatingyour teachers, but you are probably losing valuable marks for late or missing homeworkassignments as well!The first thing you need to do is to put the notes from each subject into its own, clearly labelledbinder. Have some spare binders at home that you can transfer notes to, when the binders getfull.Keep the notes in order, and in good shape. Never, ever, copy notes or do homework from one

class, into the binder from another class.Keep your locker neat. The only school things you should ever see when you open it are binders and textbooks.Loose papers should be filed, or discarded. This way, you will always be able to find what you need for eachclass.

Keep your notes for each subject organized ... neat, and in order. Have dividers separating the topics, so youcan find something quickly.It's far easier to succeed when you're organized!

3. Improve Your SpellingMarks are deducted for misspelled words in all classes, not just English. This is a really silly way to losemarks. There is no such thing as a poor speller ... only a lazy one who could spell better! See our'How toBecome a Better Speller' page for more information about how to improve your spelling.

4. Keep Good NotesNotes are taken for several reasons, and these reasons are different for some subjects thanothers. But in all classes, a complete set of notes, including returned correctedtests andassignments, will make it much easier foryou to study for tests. You will know all the thingsthat could be tested, and you will have actual questions and correct answers to practice. Seeour'Preparing for Exams' page, for more information.

But there is more involved in keeping a good notebook than this. Use your notebook as a record of what youhave learned, and what you've had problems with. This is especially true for subjects like Math or Science, butapplies as well to other areas.For example, all your homework questions, after they've been taken up in class or marked and returned, shouldbe correct. But don't just fix them; make a note beside the ones you got wrong! These are the questions you

will need to look at, and try again, when studying for a test.Start a special section at theback of each ofyour notbooks, where you can keep a record, inpoint form, of each of the facts, ideas, topics, or specific problems you've had difficulty with.This will give you some things to concentrate on when studying, and will serve as an indicatorwhen you visit your teacher. (See #5 below.)

5. Talk to Your Teacher Often


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You willhave problems understanding some things. When the lesson includes something you don't understand,ask about it right away. Get some after-school help within a day or two. Don't wait until theend of the term;by then, there will be too many things to catch up on, besides your regularstudying, and in the meantime what you don't know may have affected how well you've beendoing in other areas! This is especially true in math, where what you're learning this month

requires that you understand perfectly something you did three months ago!Back in grade one or two, you had to masterreading and numbers, oryou didn't pass. Themastery level was somewhere around '90%'. That was because those skills were essential foreverything else that followed. But in the higher grades, you can pass with a mark of 50%. If

this happens to you, you will go on to the next course not knowing half of what you were supposed to learn! Inmath, this will mean you will probably not pass that next course.You should plan on attaining a mark ofat least 60% in a course ifyou plan on passing the next level.

6. Attend All ClassesIn senior high, particularly in science and math courses, the main reason that students don't do wellis because they miss too many classes! Whatever level you are at, ifyou are often absent,your mark

will go down! Nothing can substitute for a full period of class time, asking questions, and practicingproblems. More than one or two days'absence per month are too many, ifyou want a good mark.Believe it or not, students have gone through senior high courses and missed 20% of the classes ...

and actually expected topass!They might as well have not taken the course at all!

7. Attempt All the HomeworkBelieve it or not, there actuallyis a reason for homework. Most ofyour learning happens whenyouattempt to answer some questions, notwhile you are listening to the teacher. Extra practice isnecessary to help you really learn the material ... and there is never enough class time to do all of it.Doing mostof the homework, or doing it mostof the time, is not good enough. Ifyou want your

marks to improve, you must attempt it all, every day!Notice also the word 'attempt'. Trying a homework assignment that you get wrong is better than nottrying it at all because it looks too hard. You can learn, even from your mistakes!

8. Don't Confuse 'Cool' With 'Lazy'Quite often, the people in high school with the reputation ofbeing 'cool' may not be getting very good marks.This is oftenbecause they are always doing 'cool' things in the evening, or on weekends, and don't do much

homework. In order to be better liked, and considered 'cool' yourself, you may want to be aroundthem more. This is why teenagers often start smoking. It's also why high-school students whocouldget better marks, don't. Try to remember this: in fifteen years, the person you thought was'cool' will be 30 years old, will stillbe hanging around town, (he didn't have the marks for

college), and will be spinning his tires on the main street trying to keep his 'cool' image. Ifyouwant a shot at becoming a marine biologist and working in the South Pacific, or a social workeremployed in a big city, or just want to attend college,you have to do homework and study! Thereare no short-cuts!

Anotherbig reason people do poorly in high school courses is that they don't do much homework, or don'tstudy effectively for exams.For the month preceding exam week, you should have little or no social life ...you're too busy studying!


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Some students never learn this, until they flunk out of college in their first year, after wasting $10,000 -15,000!

9. Study With OthersYou learn something thoroughly when you try to explain it to someone else. Study for tests witha friend. Make up questions for each other. Explain things to each other. The more you talk and

write about a topic, the betteryou'll understand it.

Teachers know this ... it's one of the reasons they askyou questions in class!

10. Have a Regular Work Spot at HomeThis is very important. Get into a routine of doing your homework at a certain time, at a special place. Make

sure that place has adequate light, and minimal noise. Don't listen to music ... studies haveshown that playing music while studying will make it harderforyou to learn things, andyou'll remember less! (with the exception of classical music, which seems to help!)Make this your regular homework spot. Don't let others work there, if possible, so you can

keep all the materials you'll need handy, without worrying about them disappearing.Make a regular homework schedule, and stick to it. Do the same when studying for tests or exams.

11. Do Homework Even When You Don't Have HomeworkOn the nights when you have no homework in a subject, take some time to go over the notes and examples you

did in class that day. Rewrite your notes if they aren't completely organized and neat. Write out aquestion or two to ask the teacher the next day. This really helps!Successful university students have to do this; it's a procedureyou should get in the habit of

practicing now.

12. Don't Rely on a Calculator for Basic ComputationsDo as much as you can in your head. Memorize basic math facts. By grade 9, you should be able todo all of these things in your head:

y - multiply numbers up to 12 x 12y - add, subtract, multiply, and divide integers (eg: -12 + 17)y - do simple powers (eg: 26)y - do simple square roots

That way, in senior high courses where the solution to a problem may take 15 minutes and a page ofcalculations, you won't be forced to use your calculator every twenty seconds to do a simple math fact. Thetime you save by not using your calculator will save you many hours for other things! Like learning how to do

those page-long questions!

ll, that's it. We never said it would be easy, or even fun. But if you want to get the marks in high

ool necessary for success in college or university, sooner or later you'll have to start doing most


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these things, most of the time. The sooner you start, the sooner your marks will start to go up! Weguarantee it!

Visit our science page about memory for more information about how yourbrain stores information, and some tricks to help you recall things more efficiently.

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