communication skills press - oxford university press

Professor and HeadDepartment of Humanities and Social Sciences

BITS, Pilani (K.K. Birla Goa Campus)

Associate ProfessorDepartment of Humanities and Social Sciences

BITS, Pilani (Pilani Campus)

Communication Skills

Meenakshi Raman

Sangeeta Sharma

AS PER THE LATEST MUMBAI UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS FEC-206

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© Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.

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3Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of

Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.

Published in India by Oxford University Press

YMCA Library Building, 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001, India

© Oxford University Press 2017

The moral rights of the author/s have been asserted.

First published in 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the

prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics

rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the

address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-947508-7ISBN-10: 0-19-947508-3

Typeset in Caslon Proby Ideal Publishing Solution, Delhi

Printed in India by Magic International (P) Ltd, Greater Noida

Cover image: echo3005 / Shutterstock

Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are providedby Oxford University Press in good faith and for information only.

Oxford University Press disclaims any responsibility for the material contained therein.

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Preface

Today’s professional world demands effective transfer of technical information in the form of correspondence, talks, discussions, and documents more than ever before. Such forms of communication not only reflect the knowledge and experience of engineers, scientists, and other professionals but also act as the public face for organizations, reflecting their policies and achievements. The communication skills required in organizations are formal and are dependent on the audience. Hence, it is important to clearly understand the various aspects of communication.

About the BookThe book meets the requirements of the course on Communication Skills at University of Mumbai. A key feature of this beginner-level book is its user-friendly approach. The language is simple and easy to understand.

The contents have been organized keeping in mind the revised syllabus. The book aims to introduce students to the role of the four communication skills—listening, speaking, reading, and writing (LSRW). In addition to these, this book also introduces students to the fundamental components of technical communication, English grammar, and technical writing.

The technical aspects of communication have been explained through lively and relevant examples and illustrations. The worked-out examples reinforce the concepts discussed in the book, correlating theory and practice. In addition, the book also features three solved model question papers.

Key Features•DevelopedaccordingtothelatestUniversityofMumbaisyllabus•Exhaustiveandlucidcoverageofallimportantaspectsofcommunication•Solvedmodelquestionpapers

Online ResourcesTo aid the faculty and students using this book, additional resources are available at www.india.oup.com/orcs/9780199475087.

For Faculty and Students•Bonuschapters

Coverage and StructureThe text has been divided into 11 chapters.

Chapter 1 emphasizes and elaborates the basics of communication, such as importance, process, levels, and flow of communication. It also covers the formal and informal communication networks that come into play in organizations and discusses the barriers to verbal and non-verbal communication.

Chapter 2 discusses the strategies for effective speaking. It emphasizes the importance of having professional presentation skills. It also provides tips on making effective presentations and controlling nervousness and stage fright.

3Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.

It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of

Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries.

Published in India by Oxford University Press

YMCA Library Building, 1 Jai Singh Road, New Delhi 110001, India

© Oxford University Press 2017

The moral rights of the author/s have been asserted.

First published in 2017

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the

prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics

rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the

address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

ISBN-13: 978-0-19-947508-7ISBN-10: 0-19-947508-3

Typeset in Caslon Proby Ideal Publishing Solution, Delhi

Printed in India by Magic International (P) Ltd, Greater Noida

Cover image: echo3005 / Shutterstock

Third-party website addresses mentioned in this book are providedby Oxford University Press in good faith and for information only.

Oxford University Press disclaims any responsibility for the material contained therein.

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iv pReFACe

Chapter 3 on writing describes the usage of appropriate words and phrases in writing. It also covers the salient features of sentence construction and sequencing of sentences.

Chapter 4 covers all the important aspects of reading including skimming, scanning, transfer of information, note-making, and understanding discourse coherence.

Chapter 5 explains the importance of developing effective listening skills. It also discusses the strategies and barriers to effective listening.

Chapter 6 covers the steps and guidelines for effective précis writing along with a few samples.Chapter 7 discusses the reasons for poor comprehension and the techniques for improving

comprehension skills.Chapter 8 covers the essentials of grammar—noun phrases, subject–verb agreement, tenses, passive

voice, etc., and vocabulary—listings of prefixes, suffixes, synonyms, antonyms, idioms, homophones, one-word substitutes, confusables, etc.

Chapter 9 presents the basics of letter writing, and the types and samples of letters.Chapter 10 covers instructions as part of technical writing. It further deals with the rules of written

instructions, as also the use of graphics in instructions, analysing the audience, and the characteristics of product instructions.

Chapter 11 examines the technological aspect of communication, familiarizes the reader with the latest communication tools such as phones, computers, e-mails, video conferencing, web conferencing, and instant messaging, and discusses the importance of digital content creation in today’s world.

The book includes three solved model question papers for practice.

AcknowledgementsWe are grateful to Prof. Souvik Bhattacharya, Vice Chancellor, Birla Institute ofTechnology andScience(BITS),Pilani,Prof.A.K.Sarkar,DirectorofPilaniCampus,andProf.G.Raghurama,DirectorofGoa campusunderwhoseaegiswewereprovidedanenvironmentconducivetocompletethiseditionof the book.

Reviewers are an indispensable part of the making of a good textbook. In this regard, we would like to appreciate the tremendous efforts put forth by the editorial team at Oxford University Press, who were in constant touch with us on all review matters throughout the making of this book.

At the home front, we sincerely acknowledge the support and encouragement we got from our family members. Meenakshi Raman is unable to find enough words to express her gratitude to her familymembers,herhusbandProf.K.E.RamanandchildrenPrabhu,Priya,Preeta,andAnirudhforthe unstinting cooperation and affectionate concern extended during the course of the project. Sangeeta Sharma would like to acknowledge her husband Suresh Sharma for being a pillar of support at all times and the love of her children Amrit and Anuj as well as her parents-in-law.

We would like to thank the following faculty members for their valuable feedback: Dr ArpitaPalchoudhury, Ramrao Adik Institute of Technology; Prof. Avila Naik, Vidyalankar Institute ofTechnology;G.Sharmila,ShahandAnchorKutchhiEngineeringCollege;DrPoonamOjha,ThakurCollegeofEngineeringandTechnology;andMsSeemaKhan,SIESGraduateSchoolofTechnology.

Every effort has been made to trace copyright holders and to obtain their permission for the use of copyright material. The publisher would be grateful if notified of any errors or omissions made, and would incorporate any corrections required in future reprints or editions of this book.

Meenakshi RamanSangeeta Sharma

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Brief Contents

Preface iiiDetailed Contents viRoad Map to the Syllabus ix

1. Communication Theory 1 2. Effective Speaking 20 3. Writing 33 4. Reading 47 5. Effective Listening 77 6. The Art of Summarizing 92 7. Reading Comprehension 99 8. Grammar and Vocabulary 111 9. Basic Official Correspondence 152 10. Technical Writing 191 11. Information Communication Technology 207

Appendix A—Common Errors: Usage 236Appendix B—Words Commonly Misspelt 241

Model Question Papers 1–3 246–262

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1. Communication Theory 1Process of Communication 1Communication Cycle 2GeneralandTechnicalCommunication 3Language as a Tool of Communication 3Levels of Communication 3

Interpersonal Communication 3Organizational Communication 4

Flow of Communication 4Downward Communication 5Upward Communication 5Lateral or Horizontal Communication 5Diagonal or Cross-wise Communication 6

Communication Networks 6Formal Network Models 6Informal Network Models 7

Importance of Technical Communication 8BarrierstoCommunication 9

Linguistic Barriers 9Psychological Barriers 9Physical Barriers 9Mechanical Barriers 10Cultural Barriers 10

Objectives of Communication 10Methods of Communication 10

Verbal Communication 10Non-verbal Communication 10

2. Effective Speaking 20Presentations and Speeches 20Planning 21

Occasion 21Audience 22Purpose 22Thesis 23

Detailed Contents

Material 23Structuring 23

Introduction 23Main Body 24Conclusions 24

Preparing an Outline 25Delivery 25

Types of Delivery 25Guidelines for Delivery 26Verbal Elements 26Non-verbal Elements 28Vocal Elements 29Visual Elements 29

Controlling Nervousness and Stage Fright 29

Strategies for Reducing Stage Fright 29Strategies in Advance of the Presentation 29Strategies Just before the Presentation 29Strategies when the Presentation Begins 30On-camera Techniques 30

Sample Presentation 30Sample 30

Tips for Effective Presentation 31

3. Writing 33Right Words and Phrases 33

Use Familiar Words 33Use Concrete and Specific Words 34Use Abbreviations Sparingly 34Avoid Clichés 35Avoid Excessive Use of Jargon 35Avoid Foreign Words and Phrases 36Avoid Redundancy and Circumlocution 36Avoid Discriminatory Writing 36

Sentences 36Salient Points of Sentence Construction 37

Preface iiiBrief Contents vRoad Map to the Syllabus ix

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DetAileD COntentS vii

Prefer Short Sentences 38Break the Sentence 38Avoid Cluttering Phrases 38Avoid Pleonasm or Redundant Phrases 39

Avoid Roundabout Expressions 40Avoid Needless Repetition 41Prefer Right Ordering and Proper Emphasis 41

Prefer Active to Passive Voice 41Avoid Ambiguous Sentences 42

Sequencing of Sentences 43

4. Reading 47Predicting the Content 47Skimming the Text 48

Questions 49Analysis 49

UnderstandingtheGist 49Topic Sentence and its Role 50Scanning 51Inferring Meanings: Lexical and

Contextual 53SQ3R Reading Technique 56Note-making 57

Outline/Linear Method 58Sentence Method 59Indian Economy 59Schematic/Mapping Method 59Indian Economy 60

Transfer of Information 60Visual Aids 60Interpreting and Transferring Graphical Information 66

UnderstandingDiscourseCoherence 67

5. Effective Listening 77Process of Listening 78Advantages of Listening 78Common Myths about Listening 79

Types of Listening 80Informative Listening 80Attentive Listening 81Relationship Listening 82Appreciative Listening 82Critical Listening 83Discriminative Listening 83

Effective and Ineffective Listening Skills 84Styles of Poor Listening 84

Strategies for Effective Listening 85Decide What Your Goals are for the Conversation 85

Be Aware of Your Options 85Payoffs of Effective Listening 87BarrierstoEffectiveListening 87Active and Passive Listening 89

6. The Art of Summarizing 92Steps to Effective Précis Writing 92Samples 94Guidelines 97

7. Reading Comprehension 99Reasons for Poor Comprehension 99Improving Comprehension Skills 99TechniquesforGoodComprehension 100

Skimming and Scanning 100Non-verbal Signals 100Structure of the Text 101Structure of Paragraphs 101Punctuation 101Author’s Viewpoint (Inference) 101Reader Anticipation: Determining the Meaning of Words 102

Summarizing 102Typical Reading Comprehension Questions 102

Sample 105

8. Grammar and Vocabulary 111Word Formation: Prefixes and Suffixes 111Synonyms and Antonyms 115

Synonyms 115Antonyms 115

Noun Phrases 117Subject–VerbAgreement 119Tenses 121

Present Tense 122Past Tense 124Future Tense 125

ImpersonalPassiveVoice 129Conditional Sentences 131Idioms 135

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viii DetaileD contents

Confusables 137One-word Substitutes 141Homonyms 142Homophones 143Eponyms 144

9. Basic Official Correspondence 152The Seven Cs of Letter Writing 152

Significance 152Purpose 152Structure 153Standard Elements 153Additional Elements 156Layout 159Principles 162

Types and Samples 167Enquiry Letters 168Reply to Enquiry Letters 170Placing Order Letters 171Claim Letters 172Adjustment Letters 174Sales Letters 176Job Application Letters 180

10. Technical Writing 191Instructions 191Written Instructions 191

How to Write Instructions? 192Planning Introduction 193General Warning, Caution, Danger Notices 193

Graphics in Instructions 194Format in Instructions 195

Headings 195Lists 195Numbers, Abbreviations, and Symbols 195

Audience Analysis 196Types of Audience 196Factors for Audience Analysis 196

Audience Adaptation 197

Product Instructions 198Characteristics of Good Product Instructions 199

Functions of Instructions 199Technical Description 199

Guidelines for Writing Good Descriptions 200

Checklist 201Writing Technical Descriptions 201Process Description 203

11. Information Communication Technology 207Technology-based Communication Tools 207

Telephone and Voice Mail 207Facsimile Machines 208Computers 209Internet 210Conferencing 212Instant Messaging 214E-mails 216Groupware 222Websites 222Blogs 226LinkedIn 227Podcasts 228Interactive Pads 228Interactive Whiteboards for Classrooms 229

Corporate Communication: Digital Content Creation 229

Positive Impact of Technology-enabled Communication 230

Negative Impact of Technology-enabled Communication 231

Overcoming Negative Impact 232Selection of Appropriate Communication

Technology 232Effectiveness in Technology-based

Communication 234Technology Planning 234

Appendix A—Common Errors: Usage 236Appendix B—Words Commonly Misspelt 241

Model Question Papers 1–3 246–262

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OBJECTIVESYou should study the chapter to know the• Presentations and Speeches• Planning• Structuring• Preparing an Outline• Delivery• Controlling Nervousness and

Stage Fright• Sample Presentation• Tips for Eff ective Presentation

Eff ective Speaking

No matter what your area of responsibility or the type of organization for which you work, you will, sooner or later, be expected to give a presentation or speech. You may be asked to talk to colleagues, clients, suppliers, or the general public. You may be asked to speak for 10 minutes or 2 hours. Regardless of whom you are talking to, the subject matter or the duration of your presentation and your ability to eff ectively communicate with your audience and engage them directly refl ects on your company and you. Failure to professionally present your work, your ideas, or your organization in these situations may signifi cantly aff ect your company’s reputation. In addition, it will certainly aff ect your own ability to achieve your career goals.

Speaking eff ectively and powerfully is a skill that is really worth learning. Fortunately, public speaking is something you can learn. Public speaking is a skill that can be studied, polished, and even perfected to some degree. All it takes is hard work. With tenacity and persistence, you can master it, and it will make a signifi cant diff erence to your career. Th is chapter facilitates your understanding of presentations and public speaking.

PrESENTATIONS AND SPEEChES

Th e ability to speak eff ectively in public is important. Members of groups, companies, or organizations often have to make speeches to groups of varying sizes. We give speeches to explain our ideas or plans, to report on the results of research or investigations, to convince people of the advantages of a course of action, or to entertain at a lunch. Whether we can make a good speech or not makes a big diff erence to what other people think about us. Being able to express information and ideas clearly and in a well-organized way in front of a group of people is a useful skill. Along with computer literacy, professional presentation skills are becoming a new survival skill in the workplace. People enjoy presenters who are inviting, engaging, and informative. Whether you present to internal or external audiences, your presentation basics remain the same.

Let us see how a presentation diff ers from a public speech. A presentation is a formal talk addressed to one or more people and ‘presents’ ideas or information in a clear, structured way. On the other hand, public speaking is speaking formally to a group of listeners.

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EFFECTIVE SPEAKING 21

Though, in most respects, both these types of oral communication are similar, they differ subtly in terms of the purpose of the speaker, background and expectations of the audience, the amount of information that is to be delivered, and the level of interaction to be allowed. These subtle differences are tabulated below in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Difference between presentations and public speaking

Points of difference Presentations Public speaking

Aim of speakers To give the audience what they know they need To give the audience what they believe they want

Type of audience Generally homogenous in terms of their knowledge, area of academic or professional interest, etc.

Mostly heterogeneous

Expectations of audience Complete details about the topic Do not expect a lot of details

Amount of information More Less

Level of interaction More; as the audience wishes to understand the topic thoroughly

Less; as a general understanding is desired by the audience

Some typical reasons why it may be in the interests of an organization to have an executive deliver a speech/talk are as follows: (a) to influence important decisions (b) to attract media and public attention (c) to establish an image (d) to explain the importance of an organizational change (e) to dispel rumours (f) to present findings before a committee

As you examine these situations, you may observe that, though each one appears to belong to the category of business presentations, two of them, the second and the fifth, can be grouped under the category of public speaking, because of the differences discussed earlier.

Visit the ORC for videos of good and bad presentations.

PlANNING

Preparing and delivering your first business presentation or public speech can be daunting. Your first instinct may be to sit down with a pen and paper and charge ahead into the first line of your

speech. However, you will save yourself a lot of time and effort, not to mention much frustrating re-writing, if you begin instead by devoting some time to careful planning of your speech. Through effective preparation, you will be able to answer all the questions and doubts about your speech before they arise. The contents of your speech, and how you deliver it, are based on five important factors: • Occasion • Audience • Purpose • Thesis • Material

OccasionThe circumstances or the occasion will obviously have a great bearing on your speech. The factors that contribute to the occasion are the facilities available for your presentation, time, and the context of your presentation.

Facilities include the venue, keeping in mind the seating, light, projection facilities, ventilation, acoustic provisions, etc. Most experienced speakers check out the room in advance and come prepared for any lacunae.

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22 COmmuNICATION SKIllS

Time refers to both the time of the day you are going to present and the duration of your talk. Straightforward and factual presentations may work well during the morning hours; but if you need to give an after-dinner speech, you need to adapt your remarks to the occasion. As far as the duration of the presentation is concerned, most professional presentations are brief. Hence, you need to present the important points in the first few minutes.

Context refers to the events surrounding your presentation. When you are presenting in a team, for example, you need to consider the team members. They might have left a positive or negative impression in the minds of the audience and hence, you would need to adapt yourself to the existing situation just before presenting your part. Besides these immediate events, the recent happenings in your company can also affect the presentation. For example, if you are about to present a new proposal on budget just after your company has suffered a financial loss, you should emphasize on those features of your budget that focus on reducing the costs.

AudienceWhatever the occasion, your speech must always be targeted to the people in your audience, who know what they want to listen to just as speakers know what they need to convey. Hence, as a presenter, knowing the positions, personal preferences, signi ficant demographic characteristics, size of the group, aim, knowledge, and attitude of your audiences would greatly help you tailor your speech better. Your audiences may be internal or external to the organization, or a combination of both.

Begin your preparation by considering the positions/ranks/designations of the members of your audience. If they are specialists in their fields, you may find them more interested in the technical aspects of your talk. If they are non-experts, they would probably be bored by your technical details.

Your audience will have its preferences. Though it is difficult, knowing your audience’s preferences can make the difference between an effective and an ineffective presentation. Consider the preferences of your most important clients before starting your preparation.

Keep in mind the demographic features, such as the age, sex, cultural background, and economic status, of your audience while preparing for the presentation. You need to know the distribution ratio of men and women among the audience for your presentation on the new scheme for travel or medical reimbursement, as there may be special considerations for each of them. Likewise, when you present a topic like a new insurance scheme, it is beneficial to consider the age groups and cultural background of your audience.

The next factor in audience analysis is the size of the group. Ask yourself questions like:How many copies of the handout or questionnaire need to be prepared? How large should the visual aid be, so that it is clearly visible to everyone?How much time should be devoted to answering questions? For example

It would not be wise to be seated while addressing a large audience, or standing behind a podium to make a presentation to four or five people.

You need to consider the audience’s attitude towards you, as the presenter, and towards the topic. Keep in mind whether the audience is friendly or hostile towards you, and how they feel about the topic.

You must know the audience for your message to have the best effect.

PurposeBefore you start preparing a presentation, you should ask yourself: ‘Why am I making this presentation?’ Do you need to inform, persuade, entertain, train, or sell? Your objective should be clear to you if it is to be clear to your audience. A statement of purpose not only describes what you want to accomplish but also helps you know, at the end of your presentation, whether you have achieved it. You can classify your purpose into two broad categories: general and specific.

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Your general purpose can be further divided into three sub-categories: to inform, to persuade, or to entertain. An informative presentation at the new employee orientation programme or another enlightening presentation for explaining your project status are typical presentations that have an informative purpose. Sales presentations, presentations by the marketing executives to convince sales representatives to be more enthusiastic about a product that has gone down in sales, etc., come under the second sub category—to persuade.

When you prepare a specific purpose statement, you need to specify whom you want to influence, what you want them to think or do, and when and where you want them to do it. For example, if you want your boss to accept the internal proposal you presented during the discussion at the end of your presentation, you have to formulate your specific purpose statement with the four ‘wh’—who, what, when, and where.

ThesisThe central or core idea of your presentation is referred to as the thesis statement, a single statement that summarizes your message. Just as concentric circles revolve round the same centre, all your ideas should contribute something to your central idea. For example, if your purpose statement is ‘I want my project team members to change over to the new technique’, your thesis statement could be ‘recent advances have changed the course of our project’. In other words, instead of explicitly revealing your purpose to the audience, you are informing them of the purpose lying beneath the thesis statement.

materialOnce you have formulated your thesis, you need to develop the information, which elaborates it. Collecting material requires some research. For example, when you are giving a product presentation, besides the complete information about the product, you may have to collect the information pertaining to the competing products, and their features. When you are explaining a process or procedure, the information is obvious.

STruCTurING

Structuring or organizing your material clearly is vital for an effective presentation. A well-organized presentation can make your messages more comprehensible, keep your audience happy, and boost your image as a speaker. First, tell your audience what you want to tell them; then, tell them the ideas; and then again, tell them what you have already said. In other words, your presentation should have the following format:• Introduction Should grab attention, introduce topic, contain a strategy for establishing credibility,

preview your speech, establish rules for questions, and have a smooth transition to the main text.• Main body Contains all topics/the entire matter organized into a logical sequence• Conclusion Contains signal, highlights/summary, closing statement/re-emphasis, a vote of thanks,

and invitation to questions

Introduction The introduction comprises the porch or the opening statement, the aim, and the layout. It can be a question, a sincere greeting, or a starting statement. This catches the attention of your audience and prepares them to listen to the rest of your presentation. Depending upon the topic, you can use a question, a quotation, a statement, or even an anecdote to grab the attention of the audience. For example, if you deliver a presentation on the topic ‘The New Performance Appraisal System’, you can begin your presentation with the question: ‘What are the benefits of the newly introduced performance appraisal system?’ or with the statement, ‘The new performance appraisal has brought in a lot of changes.’

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main Body The main body, the discussion, or the text part follows the subsequent to introduction and supports your aim or specific purpose. The major points you highlighted in your opening will be expanded upon here. Depending upon your topic, and your introduction, you can choose from any of the following patterns to organize the main body of your speech.• Chronological You can have this pattern for organizing the details which you can arrange sequentially

(in the order in which the events occurred or appeared before you). The entire presentation can be arranged chronologically. This method is useful for topics like ‘the profile of your institute’, ‘the changing face of the earth’, and ‘history of sports’.

• Categorical This is one of the easiest and most commonly adopted patterns for many topics. The entire presentation can be divided into various topics and sub-topics arranged on the basis of subordination and coordination. This can be used for topics like ‘the role of advertising’, ‘environmental protection’, ‘importance of professional presentation’, etc.

• Cause and effect You can adopt this method whenever there exists a cause and effect relationship. Here you have to illustrate and explain the causes of the situation and then focus on the effects. It is relevant for topics like ‘impact of cinema on children’, ‘internet—boon or bane’, ‘smoking in children’, etc.

• Problem-solution Here you divide the presentation into two parts. In the first part describe and analyse the cause and effect of the problem. After the analysis you move on to the main objective of your presentation to suggest or propose a solution to the problem. It is a very helpful and effective way for persuasive presentation. For topics like ‘populaion explosion’ this method can be used.

ConclusionsYou can conclude your presentation by reviewing the main points. Give a signal such as to sum up, to conclude, to review. As you conclude, remind the audience briefly about the purpose of your presentation, which could be either to persuade them or to inform them. Tell them what you want them to do, think, or remember based on your presentation.

Avoid the temptation to wrap up in haste or add something new in this part of your speech. You can also conclude with a quotation or recall the earlier story, joke, anecdote with which you

commenced your presentation to bring it to a full circle.

Dealing with Difficult Questions• Whilepreparingforthepresentation,makealistofquestionswhichyouthinkyouraudiencewillaskand

mentally prepare yourself to answer them. • Indicatewhenyouarereadyforquestions.• Avoidbecomingdefensive.Makequestionersfeelthattheirquestionsarewelcome.• Ifyoudonotknowtheanswertoaquestion,betruthfulandsayso.Admittingignoranceisbetterthan

hedging. • Thinkbeforeyouspeak.

Very often, presentations are followed by a question period. Questions provide you with vital feedback about the ideas that you have put forth in your presentation. Preparing for questions, therefore, is as important as preparing for your presentation.

How does a presenter cope with difficult questions? This is every presenter’s nigtmare, but every seasoned speaker has to overcome it to emerge more confident and self-assured. If a questioner tries to

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trip you up with a difficult question, maintain a polite but firm attitude. Do not reveal annoyance, but as soon as possible, divert to other members of the audience.

It is also important that you learn how to quickly divert irrelevant questions, so as to avoid wasting everybody’s time. If any one person in the audience tries to monopolise question time, you have to learn to handle that too by indicating that each questioner has to be given a fair chance.

PrEPArING AN OuTlINE

An outline is a framework in which are fitted the bits and pieces of your presentation material. It serves as a guide to show you the right path for your presentation. So spending time in developing an outline never goes waste. In fact, you should use an outline as your ‘script’, but be prepared to deviate in response to audience feedback.

Suppose you are the project leader of a team, which has taken up a project on developing a new product for the company. You have to present before a committee the new product, which is going to be launched in the market. This may be a 10 minute presentation about the facilities the product offers, its functioning, etc. Your outline can be in the form of words, phrases, or sentences: 1. Introduction 2. Product appearance 3. Various parts

4. Functioning 5. Facilities 6. Conclusions

You may have to work out the sub-headings under each or some of these main topics. But as already said, you should be ready to skip or add some topics if your audience wants you to do so.

DElIVEry

The discussion that follows provides you not only with these ideas but also with some suggestions so as to enable you to deliver presentations with greater effectiveness.

Types of DeliverySelecting one particular mode of delivery, or a combination of modes, is an important task for the preparatory stage, as this selection has bearings on the way in which you need to prepare the presentation. Presentations can be delivered in any of the following four modes:• speakingfromnotes• speakingimpromptu

• recitingfrommemory• readingfromamanuscript

Speaking from notes This mode of delivery, alternatively known as extemp oraneous delivery, is planned and rehearsed, though not word for word. You can deliver your presentations with the help of an outline, note cards, or visual aids. You have a good chance of delivering an extemporaneous speech that appears spontaneous and effortless to the audience, if you plan and prepare carefully and rehearse your presentation several times in front of a mirror, your friends, or colleagues.

The advantages of extemporaneous presentations are:• Conversational quality With their own control over language, speakers sound spontaneous. • Adaptability It is often used for a wide range of situations because of its effectiveness.• Control Speakers have a more precise control over ideas and language. • Effective non-verbal cues Speakers will be able to freely use the non-verbal cues appropriate to the

situation, as they are not restricted by the language in a written manuscript.

Speaking impromptu Unexpected, off-the-cuff talks are categorized as impromptu presentations. For example, you may discover all of a sudden at a weekly meeting that your subordinates are unaware of a

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process, the knowledge of which is necessary to understand the new project that your division is going to take up. To meet such unforeseen demands, you may have to deliver an impromptu talk. Similarly, you may be asked at a gathering to ‘say a few words’ or your superior may suddenly ask you to give a background to some problem.

It is possible to give impromptu presentations by following these guidelines:• Anticipatethatyoumaybeaskedtospeak• Decideimmediatelyuponthepointstobespoken• Presentyourviewpoint• Beasbriefaspossible

Speaking from memory This is, by far, the most difficult of all the four modes of delivery. Unless you are a trained performer, avoid memorizing your speech as you are likely to forget your lines and the speech will end up sounding stilted. You might have noticed some novice speakers who fail to make purposeful eye contact with their audience when they try to recall sentences. They often focus on the ceiling or a particular location in the hall every time they search their memory, losing rapport with their audience. However, memorizing a quotation, a story, an incident, or an opening/concluding remark, always strengthens your delivery.

Reading from a manuscript Some presentations require verbatim reading from the manuscript. You may be aware that Presidents and Prime Ministers read from a text when they deliver some important messages to the nation because the omission or addition of some word/s may be interpreted differently by their audience. Similarly, while delivering a highly technical or complex presentation, you may want to use this mode.

Guidelines for DeliverySuccess of a business presentation also depends on the various elements—verbal, non-verbal, vocal, and visual—used during your presentation.

Verbal ElementsWord pictures Give your speech a graphic quality, by painting word pictures that allow an audience’s own imagination to take over. Specific details allow an audience to see the scenes you are describing. Your major job as a speaker is to tell somebody something. Present your point clearly and just enough so that the listener clearly understands the message you intended.

Warm words Cold words leave us uneasy and unsure while warm words make us feel secure and comfortable. Words are powerful. They conjure images, evoke emotions, and trigger responses deep within us and we react, often without knowing why.

Words also suggest that something is good or bad. Use words that strengthen your arguments and weaken those of your opponents. For example, look at the following words:

Good Bad Independent Unaccountable Well-regulated Red tape Free-thinking Wishy-washy Appropriately rewarded Fat cat

Similes and metaphors Though technical presentations do not require the use of similes and metaphors, we cannot deny that they not only add flavour to a business speech but also make abstract

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ideas imaginable. Try the following metaphors in your business speeches: As inflexible as an epitaph As cold as outer space Building a business is like building an empire As profitable as a gold mine Delay is the deadliest form of denial

Impact words ‘We’ and ‘you’ are the most important words of all. You cannot stir the audience up if you do not address them directly and relate them to you and your topic. Remember the five-to-one rule: Every time you use the singular ‘I’, try to follow it with five plurals. Given below are some words that you may use in your presentations or speeches to get desired results:

discovery, guarantee, love, proven, safely, easy, health, vigour, money, results, save, protect, interest, challenge, opportunity, excitement, enthusiasm, flourish, progress, favorable, adaptation, circumstances

Supporting material Solid ideas will not always impress your audience. You need to back up your well-organized points in a way that makes the audience notice, understand, and accept your message. In other words, you need to use plenty of supporting material or develop your core points adequately.

Supporting material not only clarifies the main ideas, but also makes them more vivid and meaningful to your audience. In addition, they prove your main statement.

As Table 2.3 shows, there are several kinds of supporting material.

Table 2.2 Examples of supporting material

main statement Supporting statement

Replacing the lens in the laser projector is not as complicated as it seems.

Let me show a diagram that demonstrates how to do it.

Wecouldincreasesalesbyextendingthetime until late in the evening.

An article in Business Today cites statistics showing that shops that extended their working hours to 10 p.m., boost profits by more than 20% of the direct overheads involved with longer business day.

Our HR unit could develop the academic skills of our junior executives.

Forexample,Wiprosupportsitsnewly-inductedexecutivestofurthertheireducationthroughtheoff-campusprogramsofferedbyBITS,Pilani.

Table 2.3 Kinds of supporting material

Type Definition Function Speech occasions Tips

Definition Explaining difficult term(s) with the help of simple terms

To clarify Used in informative/technical presentations

Use easy and known terms

Example A brief reference that illustrates a point

To clarify and add interest

Used in all types of presentations

Use situations with which your audience may be familiar

Statistics Quantification of the main point

To clarify, prove, and add interest

Used widely in presentations where sales figures, survey results, etc., are to be explained.

Round off the numbers, support with visuals, and explainadequately

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Type Definition Function Speech occasions Tips

Analogy Process that shows how one idea resembles another

To clarify, add interest, and prove

Make the comparisons vivid; select familiar analogies

Used in business presentations involving products, processes, and procedures

Testimony Opinion of experts, peers, or celebrities

To clarify, add interest, and prove

Used in sales presentations Memorize/paraphrase/read verbatim, cite source, use sources credible to your audience, andfollowupwithre-statement or explanation

Non-verbal ElementsYour appearance, facial expressions, eye contact, postures, and gestures—all communicate your interest, enthusiasm, dynamism, intention, and confidence to your audience. Whatever the occasion, the following tips will help you to use non-verbal cues effectively during your presentation:• Appearance Though appearance is important in any setting, how you dress is even more important

when you stand in front of an audience for delivering a message. However, dressing effectively does not always mean dressing up. If the occasion calls for casual attire, an overly formal appearance can be inappropriate.

• Posture The best stance for delivering a presentation is relaxed, but firm. Your feet should be planted firmly on the ground, and spaced at shoulder-width. Your body should face your audience with your head upright, turning naturally to look at them.

Moving about can add life to your presentation and help you release nervous energy. You can move towards the visual aids, walk away from them, return to your original position, and then approach your audience.

You may have observed that many presentations are delivered in small groups of 5–6 people. On such occasions, you may have to remain seated during the presentation. Sit up straight and lean forward since lounging back in your chair indicates indifference. Sit naturally in a posture that reveals your dynamism and interest, much as you sit while conversing with your friends.

Gestures People are more likely to pay attention to what we are showing them from the stage, rather than what we are telling them. Remember these helpful hints during your next presentation:• Gesture in your personal power zone. It is the length of your arm span, out in front of you and above

your head. The gestures may feel ‘big’ at first, but they will look natural to your audience.• Refrain from pointing at your audience.• Resist the temptation to stick your hands in your pockets or behind your back. Your audience may

think you are hiding something from them.

Eye contact The impression that brings in success is possible to cultivate only when you talk directly to your audience, sharing your involvement and sincerity. Make real, rather than desultory, eye contact with individuals in your audience, as if you are talking one-on-one with each person for three to five seconds. Divide the room into quadrants and alternate your focus to avoid favouring one side of the room (a common tendency among amateur presenters). If the audience is too large for you to make eye contact with each one, select a few people in different parts of the hall, making eye contact with each one for a few seconds.

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Vocal ElementsYour voice can serve as an important tool to support your verbal message. How you sound is as important as how you look or what you say. Try the following tips to help you use your vocal elements to enhance the impact of your presentation: • speak with enthusiasm and sincerity • adjust the volume of your voice • avoid disfluencies or vocalized pauses • use your optimal pitch

• avoid fast delivery • use silence and pauses effectively • articulate each word clearly

Visual Elements People find your message more interesting, grasp it more easily, and retain it longer when you use visual support along with your words. Besides increasing the clarity of the message, visuals make presentations more interesting. For example, investment brokers often use an array of well-prepared charts, tables, models, and so on, to add variety to information that would be dull without them.

Graphics can also boost your image in ways that extend beyond the presentation. They add a professional flavour to your presentation. Finally, your audience remembers a visual message longer than the verbal message.

CONTrOllING NErVOuSNESS AND STAGE FrIGhT

Before you learn how to deliver a speech, it is important to be ready to deliver your lines. Stage fright is a phenomenon that you must learn to control. Stage fright is not the most accurate term for the nervousness that occurs when considering a speaking engagement. In fact, most of the fear occurs before you step on-stage. Once you are up there, the fear usually goes away.

Strategies for reducing Stage Fright• Concentrate on how good you are. • Pretend you are just chatting with a group of friends. • Close your eyes and imagine the audience listening, laughing, and applauding.• Remember happy moments from your past.• Think about your love for and desire to help the audience.

Strategies in Advance of the Presentation• Even if you do not like the topic, develop an interest in it.• Be extremely well-prepared. • Anticipate hard as well as easy questions. • Organize. • Memorize your opening statement.• Practice.

Strategies Just before the PresentationRemember, stage fright usually goes away after you start. The tricky time is before you start. • Be in the room at least an hour early, if possible, to triple check everything. You can also mingle with

the participants arriving early.• Take quick drinks of tepid water.

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• Concentrate on the ideas. • Concentrate on your audience. • Say something to someone to make sure your voice is ready to go. • Use eye contact.• Breathe deeply, evenly, and slowly for several minutes.

Strategies when the Presentation Begins• If your legs are trembling lean on a lectern/table or shift your legs or move about.• Use eye contact. It will make you feel less isolated. • Look at the friendliest faces in the audience. • Do not comment on your nervousness. Before each presentation, make a short list of the items you think will make you feel better. Use these steps to control stage fright so that it does not control you.

On-camera Techniques• If your presentation is being videotaped before a live audience, ignore the camera. Likewise, if you

are being interviewed before a camera, the viewer expects to see you communicating with your ‘live’ audience or interviewer.

• If you are interviewed by a television reporter, keep your comments short and to the point.• If you must face a hostile interview on-camera, avoid the appearance of surprise. The only preparation is

to expect an opening question that is hostile, direct, unfair, and unexpected. Do not let them lead you into unwarranted confessions, admissions, or explanations.

SAmPlE PrESENTATION

Sample This is a sample outline of a speech on computer-mediated communication (CMC). This is an extended speaking outline in which the key words and phrases are longer than they should be on the real speaking outline.

1. Introduction1.1. Attention-getter:Howmanyofyoucanactuallyrememberthedayswhenyouhadtocommunicate

viathephoneorthroughletters,whenyouhadtoactuallywritechequesandpresentthemtopeople to get cash, or had to go to the library to do literally all of your research?

1.2. LinktoAudience:Mostofuscannotimaginelifewithoute-mail,ATMmachines,ortheInternet,because we rely on these things every day to make our lives easier.

1.3. SpeakerCredibility:Besidesbeinganaviduserofeachofthesetechnologies,Ihavedoneresearchon the pros and cons of commuter mediated communication (CMC).

1.4. ThesisSentence:Today,IamheretoconvinceyouthatCMCisjustasusefulasface-to-facecommunication, and in some ways, even better.

1.5. PreviewofSpeech:First,IwanttotalkaboutthewaysthatCMCcanhelpbuildstronginter-personalrelationships.Next,IwillshowhowCMCcanpositivelyaffecttheworkplace,andfinally,IwilldiscusshowCMCcanmakeinter-grouprelationshipsinalarge-scaleorganizationbetter.

Transition:LetusbeginbytalkingaboutthewayinwhichthemostcommonformsofCMCcanhelpbuildstronginter-personalrelationships.

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2. Main Point #1 2.1. Stronginter-personalrelationships:Somepeoplearguethate-mailisnotagoodformofinter-

personalcommunication,becausewedonotseepeople’snon-verbalcues,becausethefeedbackisnot instant, or because we may be less of an individual when typing.

2.1.1. Wearebeginningtofindwaystoaddexpressiveness: a. punctuation b. writingnon-verbalexpressions2.1.2. Wehaveunlimitedinteractionoverthecomputerasopposedtolimitedinteractionwhenusingthe

phoneorinface-to-facecommunication: a. we are driven as humans to communicate b. it may take longer with computers, but we will still learn as much about others2.1.3. WiththeInternet,itismucheasiertofindmanyfriendswiththesameinterests: a. web sites b. chat roomsTransition:Besidesagreatwaytomeetandvisitwithpeopleinterpersonally,CMCwillbringpositivechanges in the workplace. Main Point #2 2.2.1. Workplace: a. Wewillbemoreflexible2.2.2. Wewillneedlesshierarchy: a. one person can communicate with many b. communicationflowwillfollowworkflow2.2.3. More contact among ranks2.2.4. More efficient use of expertise Transition:CMCwillnotonlypositivelyaffectthewaywedobusiness,itwillhelpustocommunicateinter-personallywithourco-workers.Main Point #3 2.3. Inter-personalrelationshipsintheworkplace:2.3.1. Informalitywillincrease2.3.2. Morepeoplewillbeinvolvedindecision-makingTransition:Letusgobackoverwhatwehavelearnedtoday.3. Conclusion 3.1. Re-statethesis:Today,IhaveexplainedtoyouwhyCMCwillpositivelyaffectourlives.3.2. Re-statemainpoints:First,wetalkedabouthowCMCwillhelpusbuildstrongrelationships,then

we talked about how CMC will make the work better, and finally, we discussed how CMC can make the workplace a better place.

3.3. Call-to-action:IencourageyoutolearnallthatyoucanaboutCMCnotonlybecauseitisthewaveofthe future, but also because CMC will soon be an inevitable part of our lives.

3.4. Clincher:Itistimetogetontheinformationhighway,beforeyougetrunover.

TIPS FOr EFFECTIVE PrESENTATION• Keep control of the presentation, but do so in a relaxed way. If you do not know the answer to a

question, do not waffle. Admit that you do not know and promise to get back with an answer later, and make sure you do.

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• Never knock the competition. It undermines your credibility and integrity. Do not even imply anything derogatory about the competition.

• If appropriate, issue notes or a copy of your presentation. • Use props, samples, and demonstrations, if relevant and helpful, and make sure it all works properly. • During the presentation, seek feedback, confirmation, and agreement as to the relevance of what you

are saying, but do not be put off if people stay quiet. • Invite questions at the end, and if you are comfortable and in control of things, invite questions at any

time, even at the outset.• Whether presenting one-to-one or to a stern group, relax and be friendly. Let your personality and

natural enthusiasm shine through. People buy from people who love and have faith in their products and companies.

exercises1. How does effectiveness in speaking help man-

agers in their professions?2. Whatarethefiveimportantaspectstobecon-

sidered while planning for your presentation?3. Discuss the contents of an introduction to a

speech.4. What are the ways in which you can develop

your presentation contents?5. How can you overcome stage fright during a

presentation?6. Do you agree that language plays an important

role in ineffective presentations? Justify your answer.

7. Appropriate vocal cues enhance the impact of your business presentation. Discuss this state-ment with suitable examples.

8. You are the CEO of a multinational company who is looking for new recruits. You want to project the best image of your organization, to make all the prospective employees aware of your com-pany’s annual turnover, policies, procedures, etc. You decide on a 15 minute presentation before you start on the interviews. Now prepare a full text of your presentation, which should contain a catchy introduction, organized main body, and an emphatic conclusion.

9. Prepare a set of PowerPoint slides for profes-sionalpresentationsonthefollowingtopics:

(a) Role of Communication in HRD

(b) Use of Technology for Effective Com-munication

(c) Significance of Time Management (d) WebAdvertising10. Recall any presentation made in your class by

oneofyourfellowclassmates.Examinethenon-verbal signals/cues sent by him. How do the speaker’s gestures, facial expressions, eye con-tact, and posture contribute to the message? Do thesenon-verbalsignalsdetractfromyourcon-fidence in the speaker? Do you detect any signs ofnervousness?Isthereanyaspectofhisorherdelivery that you think this speaker should work on to improve? Explain.

11. Writeashortnoteontheartofpublicspeaking.12. Projects

(a) Using your favourite search engine, surf the Internet tofind tips foreffectivepresenta-tions.Identifyandwritedowntentipsthathave not been included in this chapter. Dis-cuss them in a group and decide which is the most powerful.

(b) Visit your nearest library or bookshop to iden-tify a book containing some classic speeches. Read at least two of them and discuss the success factors that have contributed to the greatness of such speeches. Then present one of them in your own style and ask your friends to critically evaluate the same.

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