communication module 3

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ORGANIZATIONAL

COMMUNICATION

Module 3

System of pathways through which messages flow.



Interpersonal Dynamics 1

Functions of Communication

Communication Functions

1. Control member behavior.

2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.

3. Provide a release for emotional expression.4. Provide information needed to make

decisions.

Communication

The transference and the understanding of meaning.




The Communication Process Model

Communication ProcessThe steps between a source and a receiver that result

in the transference and understanding of meaning.




The Communication Process

Channel The medium selected by the sender through

which the message travels to the receiver.

Types of Channels

Formal Channels� Are established by the organization and transmit

messages that are related to the professional activities of

members.

Informal Channels

� Used to transmit personal or social messages in theorganization. These informal channels are spontaneous

and emerge as a response to individual choices.




Direction of Communication

Upward

Downward

Lateral




Interpersonal Communication

Oral Communication Advantages: Speed and feedback.

Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.

Written Communication

A

dvantages: Tangible and verifiable. Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks

feedback.

Nonverbal Communication

Advantages: Supports other communications

and provides observable expression of emotionsand feelings.

Disadvantage: Misperception of body languageor gestures can influence receiversinterpretation of message.




Three Common Formal Small-Group Networks




Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness

Criteria

NETWORKS

Criteria Chain Wheel All Channel

Speed Moderate Fast Fast

Accuracy High High Moderate

Emergence of a leader Moderate High None

Member satisfaction Moderate Low High




Grapevine

Grapevine Characteristics

Informal, not controlled by management.

Perceived by most employees as being morebelievable and reliable than formal

communications. Largely used to serve the self-interests of

those who use it.

Results from:

� Desire for information about important situations� Ambiguous conditions

� Conditions that cause anxiety




Suggestions for Reducing the Negative

Consequences of Rumors

1. Announce timetables for making important decisions.

2. Explain decisions and behaviors that may appear

inconsistent or secretive.

3. Emphasize the downside, as well as the upside, of current

decisions and future plans.

4. Openly discuss worst-case possibilities²it is almost never

as anxiety-provoking as the unspoken fantasy.

Source: Adapted from L. Hirschhorn, ³Managing Rumors,´ in L. Hirschhorn (ed.), Cutting Back (San Francisco:Jossey-Bass, 1983), pp. 54±56.




Computer-Aided Communication

E-mail

Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored;low cost for distribution.

Disadvantages: information overload, lack of

emotional content, cold and impersonal.

Instant messaging

Advantage: real time e-mail transmittedstraight to the receivers desktop.

Disadvantage: can be intrusive and distracting.




Computer-Aided Communication (cont¶d)

Intranet

A private organization-wide informationnetwork.

Extranet

An information network connecting employeeswith external suppliers, customers, andstrategic partners.

Videoconferencing

An extension of an intranet or extranet thatpermits face-to-face virtual meetings via videolinks.




Choice of Communication Channel

Characteristics of Rich Channels

1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.

2. Facilitate rapid feedback.

3. Are ver y personal in context.

Channel Richness

The amount of information that can be transmittedduring a communication episode.



Interpersonal Dynamics13

Information Richness of Communication

Channels

Low channel richness High channel richness

Routine Nonroutine

Source: Based on R.H. Lengel and D.L. Daft, ³The Selection of Communication Media as an Executive Skill,´ Academy of Management Executive, August

1988, pp. 225±32; and R.L. Daft and R.H. Lengel, ³Organizational Information Requirements, Media Richness, and Structural Design,´ Managerial S cience,

May 1996, pp. 554±72. Reproduced from R.L. Daft and R. A. Noe, Organizati onal Behavi or (Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, 2001), p. 311.




Barriers to Effective Communication

Filtering

A senders manipulation of information so that it willbe seen more favorably by the receiver.

Selective Perception

People selectively interpret what they see on thebasis of their interests, background, experience, andattitudes.

Information Overload

A condition in which information inflow exceeds anindividuals processing capacity.




Barriers to Effective Communication (cont¶d)

Emotions

How a receiver feels at the time a message is receivedwill influence how the message is interpreted.

Language

Words have different meanings to different people.

Communication Apprehension

Undue tension and anxiety about oralcommunication, written communication, or both.




³Politically Correct´ Communication

Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insultindividuals.

In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be

sensitive to how words might offend others.

Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly Replaced with: physically challenged, visually

impaired, and senior.

Removing certain words from the vocabular y

makes it harder to communicate accurately.

Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.

Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome,postconsumer waste materials, educationalequity, and people of gender.




Cross-Cultural Communication

Cultural Barriers

Semantics

Tone differences

Differences among

perceptions

Cultural Guide

Assume differencesuntil similarity isproven.

Emphasize descriptionrather thaninterpretation orevaluation.

Practice empathy.

Treat yourinterpretations as aworking hypothesis.




Communication Barriers and Cultural Context

³High context" and ³Low context" (Edward Hall)

High context refers to societies or groups where people have

close connections over a long period of time. Many aspects of

cultural behavior are not made explicit because most membersknow what to do and what to think from years of interaction with

each other.

Low context refers to societies where people tend to have many

connections but of shorter duration or for some specific reason. Inthese societies, cultural behavior and beliefs may need to be

spelled out explicitly so that those coming into the cultural

environment know how to behave.




High context cultures ± features

Less verbally explicit communication, less written/formalinformation

More internalized understandings of what is communicated

Multiple cross-cutting ties and intersections with others

Long term relationships

Strong boundaries- who is accepted as belonging vs who isconsidered an "outsider"

Knowledge is situational, relational.

Decisions and activities focus around personal face-to-face

relationships, often around a central person who has authority.

Examples: Small religious congregations, a party with friends,family gatherings, expensive gourmet restaurants and

neighborhood restaurants with a regular clientele, hosting a

friend in your home overnight.




Low context cultures ± features

Rule oriented, people play by external rules More knowledge is codified, public, external, and

accessible.

Sequencing, separation--of time, of space, of

activities, of relationships More interpersonal connections of shorter duration

Knowledge is more often transferable

Task-centered. Decisions and activities focus around

what needs to be done, division of responsibilities.Examples: large airports, a chain supermarket, a

cafeteria, a convenience store, sports where rules

are clearly laid out, a motel.




High-

vs.

Low-Context

Cultures




Sharing Knowledge is Power?!




COMMUNICATION AND CONNECTEDNESS

³Six Degrees of Separation´ Small World Experiment ± Stanley Milgram & Jeffrey

Travers

± A single ³target´ in Boston

± 300 initial ³senders´ in Boston and Omaha

± Each sender asked to forward a packet to a friend who was

³closer´ to the target

± The friends got the same instructions

± Travers and Milgram¶s protocol generated 300 ³letter chains´

of which 64 reached the target.

± Found that typical chain length was 6

± Led to the famous phrase




NETWORKS

Network is a system comprising many individualsbetween which some relation can be defined can

be mapped.

How do the networks affect behavior ? Collective Problem Solving

Collective Decision Making

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The Hidden Power of Social Networks (Cross, 2004)

Networks of informal relationships have a criticalinfluence on work and innovation

Research shows that appropriate connectivity in

well-managed networks within organizations canhave a substantial impact on performance,learning, and innovation

Actors/nodes (individuals/units) and links/arcs

(relationships/ties)




Conducting a Social Network Analysis

Step 1: Identif y a Strategically Important Group

Typically limit to 250 people (upper bound)

Ask each person to rate his/her interactions with other members of

the group

Step 2: Assess Meaningful and ActionableRelationships

Relationships that reveal collaboration in a network (e.g.,Communication, Information, Problem solving, Innovation)

Relationships that reveal the information sharing potential of a

network (e.g., access) Relationships that reveal rigidity in a network (e.g., decision

making, influence)

Relationships that reveal well-being and supportiveness in anetwork (e.g., liking, friendship, trust)




SURVEY

Confidentiality Full disclosure of the results via an all-employee

debriefing or other communication

A llow only one person or a select group to see the fullresults so that helpful action can be taken

Disclose no names whatsoever

Step 3: Visually Analyze the Results




EXAMPLE : general advice in a formal group




Junior-Senior Staff Relationships




Network Diagram: Subject Matter Expertise




Step 4: Quantitatively Analyze the Results

(Individual Network Measures)

In-degree centrality (the number of incoming ties a person has for a

given relationship (such as communication or trust)

Out-degree centrality (the number of outgoing ties a person has for

a given relationship)

Betweenness centrality (the extent to which a particular person lies

³between´ the various other people in the network²networks that

contain individuals with high betweenness are vulnerable to having

info flows disrupted by power plays or key individuals leaving)

Closeness centrality (the extent to which a person lies at short

distances to many other people in the network. Persons highly

central with respect to closeness tend to hear info sooner than others)




Group Measures in a network

Coordinators (people who broker connections within the same group)

Gatekeepers (people who broker connections between their own

group and another)

Liaisons (those who broker connections between 2 different groups)

Density (the number of individuals who have a given type of tie with

each other, expressed as a % of the maximum possible²if each

person were connected to every other person in the network, the

density would be 100%)

Cohesion (the average of the shortest paths between every pair of

people in the network)




Identif ying Types of Individuals in the Network

Central Connectors

Unsung Hero: ³Invisible´ work but critical to the network and can

consume many hours each day (may be completely

unrecognized by senior management)

The Bottleneck: some people become so central to the

organization that they end up holding the group back

Boundar y Spanners

Provide critical links between 2 groups of people that are defined

by functional affiliation, physical location, or hierarchical level

Can play important roles in large-scale change efforts




Types cont«

Information Brokers

Indirect connectors between people who don¶t know each other

Peripheral Specialists

Have one connection each and are not linked to each other

Some people are ³stuck´ (e.g., newcomers) on the periphery

and others may ³choose´ (e.g., experts) to be on the periphery




Usefulness of networks

Social groups and positions in groups can be visualized by considering the strength of connections betweenindividuals (proximity data)

Realizing 9/11 Al- QaedaNetwork.

Build a grass roots political campaign.Determine influential journalists and other experts in different

fields

Map executive's personal network based on email flows.

Discover the network of Innovators in a regional economy.

Analyze book selling patterns to position a new book andmany more««

communication module 3

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