coca cultivation in the andean region...iii preface coca cultivation remained stable in the andean...
TRANSCRIPT
COCA CULTIVATION IN THE ANDEAN REGION
June
200
6
A survey of Bolivia, Colombia and Peru
Government of PeruGovernment of Bolivia Government of Colombia
UNODC's Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme (ICMP) promotes the development and maintenance of a global network of illicit crop monitoring systems in the context of the illicit crop elimination objective set by the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on Drugs. It provides overall coordination and direct technical support and supervision to UNODC supported annual illicit crop surveys at the country level.
This reports presents the results of the annual coca cultivation surveys in Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru, which were conducted jointly by UNODC (ICMP) and the respective Governments with a regional perspective.
The implementation of UNODC's Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme in the Andean countries was made possible thanks to financial contributions from the Governments of the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Spain, Italy, France and Austria.
This report and other ICMP survey reports can be downloaded from:
www.unodc.org/unodc/en/crop_monitoring.html
The boundaries, names and designations used in all maps in this document do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations.
This document has not been formally edited.
i
CONTENTS
Preface......................................................................................................................................iii
Part 1. Regional Overview .......................................................................................................1
Introduction .............................................................................................................................1
Coca cultivation in the Andean region....................................................................................7
Eradication........................................................................................................................... 10
Production of coca leaf and derivatives............................................................................... 10
Cocaine seizures and seized coca processing laboratories................................................ 12
Farm-gate values and farm-gate prices............................................................................... 13
Cocaine abuse in Latin America.......................................................................................... 15
Poverty and development.................................................................................................... 15
Part 2. Environmental effects of illicit drug cultivation and processing ......................... 17
Deforestation and illicit crops............................................................................................... 19
Illicit drug cultivation and processing impacts on soils and water sources.......................... 30
The effects of illicit drugs on protected areas...................................................................... 32
Effects of illicit crops on biodiversity .................................................................................... 37
Effects of illicit drug cultivation on local people ................................................................... 43
Effects of illicit drug eradication on the environment and local people................................ 43
Issues for analysis of the environmental effects of illicit drug cultivation in the Andes ....... 44
Part 3. Bolivia Coca Cultivation Survey ...............................................................................49
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................55
Findings ................................................................................................................................57
Part 4. Colombia Coca Cultivation Survey.........................................................................103
Introduction .........................................................................................................................108
Findings ..............................................................................................................................110
Part 5. Peru Coca Cultivation Survey .................................................................................183
Introduction .........................................................................................................................189
Findings ..............................................................................................................................190
iii
PREFACE
Coca cultivation remained stable in the Andean region in 2005. There were slight decreases in Bolivia and Peru, offset by an increase in Colombia.
This year, when carrying out the Colombia coca crop survey, UNODC – in co-operation with the Colombian Government – did new field research that measured the yield of coca leaf harvested and how much cocaine base farmers get from the leaves. This research compliments the annual monitoring of the amount of land under cultivation. These new field studies show that there is a higher yield of cocaine from the coca crop than previously estimated. A similar review can be expected in Bolivia and Peru. UNODC has reflected this new evidence in its 2004 and 2005 coca production figures. The resultant higher bars in the histograms reflect the new estimation method and should not be read as a change in the trend.
The fact that there are higher than expected average annual yields for pure cocaine hydrochloride may help to explain why the price and purity of cocaine have remained steady on the streets of consuming countries despite the overall reduction in world supply and a dramatic increase in cocaine seizures.
At the same time, there is evidence that giving farmers alternative sources of income so they do not have to grow coca can work. Products such as coffee resulting from alternative development projects are competing on the open market. However, the scale is still very small and needs to be multiplied at least tenfold in order to reach all impoverished farmers who need support. This is a major undertaking, but it could reduce poverty and the world supply of cocaine at the same time.
Otherwise, further reductions in supply may be resisted by farmers who oppose forced eradication. Ideally, farmers would see for themselves the merits of alternative development, pull up their illicit crops and switch to licit, sustainable livelihoods.
To further reduce the world supply of cocaine, a number of points should be considered:
Richer countries – the consumers of cocaine – need to invest more in alternative development in the countries that produce cocaine in order to enable farmers to have viable alternatives to illicit crops. Crop eradication will not work over the long term if there is no legal economy to replace it;
Rural communities in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru are among the poorest in the world. Eradicating illicit crops – grown by some of the poorest and most vulnerable members of these poor societies – needs to be considered in the broader context of social and economic development;
Inter-agency and international law enforcement is improving, manifested by an increase in cocaine seizures. The same efficiency and enthusiasm should be shown to tackling corruption and organized crime in order to go after the billions of dollars that are being made through the narco-economy – money that is empowering cartels, funding insurgency and even financing terrorism;
Illegal cocaine laboratories are becoming more effective in their production techniques, but represent a weak link since coca can not be converted into cocaine without them. More attention needs to be placed on intercepting precursor chemicals and targeting the labs;
Demand for cocaine remains high and is growing in Europe. This is a trend that Europe ignores at its peril. The West needs to curb its appetite for cocaine, or be prepared for increased health, social, and crime problems.
The drug control balance in the Andean region is fragile. Governments are trying to hold the line on the significant reductions that have been made in the past five years – overall figures remain
iv
one third below their peak of 2000. But this can only be done through a social contract at home, based on significant international assistance. This should provide farmers with tangible benefits as well as hope for a better future based on sustainable livelihoods.
There also needs to be a stronger commitment from wealthier countries – the main consumers of cocaine – to reduce demand for a product that fuels addiction, illness, social disorder, and organized crime. This is a shared responsibility.
We need to redouble our efforts, not only to avoid an unravelling of the significant progress that has been made in reducing the world’s supply of cocaine, but to provide sustainable long-term strategies to eradicate poverty and improve security in countries and communities blighted by the threat posed by drug cartels, traffickers and dealers.
This is more than a short-term process that can be measured through annual surveys. Both sound domestic policies and steady international engagement are required to address the root causes of the problem and seek sustainable solutions that will build safer, more prosperous, and healthier communities.
Antonio Maria Costa Executive Director
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
PART 1. REGIONAL OVERVIEW
Regional Overview
1
REGIONAL OVERVIEW
Introduction
In 1998, the United Nations General Assembly Special Session on Drugs (UNGASS) convened in New York. At that meeting, Members States pledged to work towards achieving significant reductions in illicit crop cultivation by the year 2008. To this end, UNODC established an Illicit Crop Monitoring Programme (ICMP) to assist countries assess their progress in meeting UNGASS targets. Through ICMP, UNODC supports the Governments of Bolivia, Colombia and Peru in the implementation of national coca monitoring systems. While these monitoring systems primarily focus on assessing the extend of coca cultivation, over the years they have gradually integrated other important aspects related to the production and trafficking of coca leaf and its derivates, such as prices or yields.
This report presents the results of the surveys on coca cultivation in the Andean region in 2005, which were conducted jointly by the governments and UNODC. The regional overview in part one summarizes the three country surveys, and discusses their results in a regional context. Part two reviews environmental issues, which play an important role in the discussion on coca cultivation in recent years. The following parts present the detailed results from Bolivia, Colombia and Peru.
Regional Overview
2
FACT SHEET - ANDEAN COCA SURVEYS FOR 2005
2004 2005 Variation Global coca cultivation 158,000 ha 159,600 ha +1%
Colombia 80,000 ha 86,000 ha +8%
Peru 50,300 ha 48,200 ha -4%
Bolivia 27,700 ha 25,400 ha -8%
Farm-gate value of coca cultivation US$ 1,330 million
Colombia (coca products)1 US$ 843 million
Peru (coca leaf) US$ 304 million US$ 307 million +1%
Bolivia (coca leaf) US$ 240 million US$ 180 million -25%
Farmgate value of coca cultivation in % of GDP Colombia 0.7%
Peru 0.4% 0.4%
Bolivia 3.0% 2.1%
Global cocaine production 937 mt 910 mt -3%
Colombia 6401 mt 640 mt 0%
Peru 190 mt 180 mt -5%
Bolivia 107 mt 90 mt -16%
Average wholesale price of cocaine
Colombia (in main cities) US$ 1,710/kg US$ 1,860/kg +9%
Peru (in producing regions) US$ 890/kg US$ 890/kg 0%
Bolivia (in main cities) US$ 1,800/kg US$ 1,800/kg 0%
Europe US$ 45,830/kg US$ 47,690/kg +2%
United States US$ 22,070/kg n.a.
Reported eradication of coca cultivation Colombia 142,786 ha 170,042 ha +19%
Peru 10,399 ha 12,232 ha +18%
Bolivia 8,437 ha 6,073 ha -28%
Reported seizure of cocaine (HCl) in South America
264 mt n.a.
Colombia 188 mt 173 mt
Peru 7,3 mt 2,2 mt
Bolivia 0.5 mt 1.3 mt
Reported seizure of cocaine in West and Central Europe 79 mt n.a. North America 196 mt n.a.
Note: Figures in italics are preliminary.
1 Colombian cocaine production for 2004 has been revised following the field findings obtained in 2005. Farm-gate values for 2004 are not available due to a change in methodology.
Regional Overview
3
Map 1: Coca cultivation density in the Andean Region, 2005
80°W
80°W
70°W
70°W
60°W
60°W20
°S
20°S
10°S
10°S
0° 0°
10°N
10°N
Sources: Governments of Bolivia, Colombia y Peru, National monitoring systems supported by UNODCThe boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
ECUADOR
COLOMBIA
BRAZIL
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Cultivation density(ha/km )2
0.1 - 1.01.1 - 4.0> 4.0InternationalboundariesDepartmentboundaries
PacificOcean
Amazon
Huallaga
Marañon U
cayaliEne
Urubamba
Purus
Apurimac
MadredeDios
LakeTiticaca
^Lima
Geographic coordinates WGS 84
Putumayo
ARGENTINA
PARAGUAY
VENEZUELA
GUYANA
PERU
^Bogota
^La Paz
km0 250 500
Caribbean Sea
Beni
Mamore
Pilcomayo
Caqueta
Guaviare
Vichada
Meta
Magdalena
Atrato
Cauca
Guapare
Chapare
Yungas
La Convencionand LaresApurimac
Ene
AltoHuallaga
NariñoPutumayo -Caqueta
Meta -Guaviare
Norte deAntioquia
CatatumboPANAMA
South America
Peru
Colombia
Bolivia
Regional Overview
4
Map 2: Coca cultivation by region in Bolivia, 2001 – 2005
!
!
^
!
!
!
!
!
!
Rio Pilcomayo
Madera
Madre de Dios
RioMamore
Rio Itenez
Rio Beni
Beni
Santa Cruz
Potosi
La Paz
Pando
Oruro
Tarija
Chuquisaca
Cochabamba
B R A Z I L
A R G E N T I N A
C H I L EPA R A G U AY
PE
RU
Sucre
Oruro
Tarija
Potosi
La Paz
Cobija
Trinidad
Santa Cruz
Cochabamba
65°W
65°W
60°W
60°W
25°S
25°S
20°S
20°S
15°S
15°S
10°S
10°S
Source: Government of Bolivia - National monitoring system supported by UNODCThe boundaries and names shown and the designation used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Chapare
1:8,012,898Geographic coordinates, WGS 1984
0 300150km
Yungas
Titicaca lake
Apolo
n.ap
.30
0ha
300
ha
n.av
.
13,8
00ha
16,2
00ha
17,3
00ha
18,1
00ha
7,30
0ha
10,1
00ha
n.av
.
7,01
1ha
Coca cultivation (ha)
Interpreted coca fieldsCoca fields 2005
2002
2003
2004
2005
n.av.Department boundariesInternational boundaries
Growing areasYun...
Not availableNot applicablen.ap.
Bolivia
SOUTH AMERICA
Regional Overview
5
Map 3: Coca cultivation by region in Colombia, 2001 – 2005
PacificOcean
Caribbean Sea
PANAMA
Central
Meta -Guaviare
Putumayo -Caquetá Amazonia
Orinoco
Pacific
Sierra Nevada
Vichada
Vaupés
Valle
Tolima
Sucre
Santander
RisaraldaQuindío
Putumayo
Norte deSantander
Nariño
Meta
Magdalena
La Guajira
Huila
Guaviare
Guainía
Cundinamarca
Córdoba
Chocó
Cesar
Cauca
Casanare
Caquetá
Caldas
Boyacá
Bolívar
Atlántico
AraucaAntioquia
Amazonas
VENEZUELA
PERU
ECUADOR
BRAZIL
Tumaco
Neiva
PuertoAsís
Popayán
Cucutá
Cartagena
Pasto
Cali
Florencia
Medellín
Barranquilla
Bogotá
Mitú
Leticia
Arauca
PuertoCarreño
75°W
75°W 70°W
70°W
5°S
5°S
0° 0°
5°N
5°N
10°N
10°N
South America
Source: Government of Colombia - National monitoring system supported by UNODCThe boundaries and names shown and the designations used in this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
Colombia
International boundariesDepartment boundaries
Coca cultivation (ha)
17,6
30
25,9
60
15,6
3013
,950
9,71
0
540
2,32
0
Geographic coordinates WGS 84
1500 300km
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Regional Overview
6
Map 4: Coca cultivation by region in Peru, 2001 – 2005
Loreto
Ucayali
Puno
Cusco
JuninLima
Arequipa
Ica
Piura
Madre de Dios
Ancash
San Martin
Ayacucho
Huanuco
Pasco
Amazonas
Cajamarca
Tacna
Apurimac
La Libertad
Moquegua
Lambayeque
Huancavelica
Tumbes
80°W
80°W
75°W
75°W
70°W
70°W
15°S
15°S
10°S
10°S
5°S
5°S
0° 0°
COLOMBIA
BOLIVIA
CHILE
Amazonas
Huallaga
Huallaga
Marañon
Ucayali
Ene
Urubamba
Purus
Apurimac
Madre de Dios
AltoHuallaga
Aguaytia
Palcazú - PichisPachitea
ApurimacEne
La Convencióny Lares
San Gabán
InambariTambopata
Lima
0 150 300km
Putumayo
BRAZIL
Marañón
Putumayo
16,0
39
15,5
30
12,5
03
ECUADORSouth America
Peru
PacificOcean
Geographic coordinates WGS 84
Source: Government of Peru - National of monitoring system supported by UNODCThe boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map do not imply official endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations
TiticacaLake
292
2,25
0
211
917
430
70
200220032004
2001Coca cultivation (ha)
Coca growing areas 2005International boundariesDepartment boundaries
2005
Regional Overview
7
Coca cultivation in the Andean region
In 2005, coca cultivation in the Andean region increased by only one percent from 158,000 in 2004 to 159,600 hectares. This small hike reflects an 8% increase of cultivation in Colombia, while coca cultivation in Bolivia and Peru fell by 8% and 4% respectively.
The majority of all coca cultivation, 54 percent, continues to take place in Colombia, Peru remains second with 30 %, and Bolivia, with 16 %, is in third place. There was no indication of large levels of coca cultivation outside Colombia, Peru and Bolivia.
Figure 1: Coca cultivation in the Andean region (ha), 1994 - 2005
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
hect
ares
Bolivia Colombia Peru
Table 1: Coca cultivation in the Andean Region (ha), 1994-2005
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 % change 2004-2005
Bolivia 48,100 48,600 48,100 45,800 38,000 21,800 14,600 19,900 21,600 23,600 27,700 25,400 -8%Peru 108,600 115,300 94,400 68,800 51,000 38,700 43,400 46,200 46,700 44,200 50,300 48,200 -4%Colombia 44,700 50,900 67,200 79,400 101,800 160,100 163,300 144,800 102,000 86,000 80,000 86,000 8%Total 201,400 214,800 209,700 194,000 190,800 220,600 221,300 210,900 170,300 153,800 158,000 159,600 1%
Sources United States Department of States National Monitoring Systems Supported by UNODC
Regional Overview
8
In 2005, the total area under coca cultivation in Colombia increased by 6,000 hectares to 86,000 hectares, a 8% increase compared to late year’s estimate of 80,000 hectares, despite the continued eradication effort of the Government of Colombia. This is the first increase following four consecutive years of decrease in Colombia. In 2005, a total of 170,780 hectares were eradicated, including 138,780 hectares through aerial spraying and 32,000 hectares manual eradication. The area under coca cultivation in 2005 was still 47% lower compared to the peak annual estimate of 163,300 ha in 2000. The survey covered the whole country and detected coca cultivation in 23 departments out of 32.
The most important increases between 2004 and 2005 were observed in the departments of Putumayo (bordering Ecuador) and Vichada (bordering Venezuela). Most of the new coca fields in Putumayo were established on the foot hills close to the border with Narino and Cauca Departments, where spraying is particularly difficult. The largest decrease took place in the Department of Norte de Santander at the border with Venezuela where some important alternative development projects have been implemented.
Figure 2: Coca cultivation in Colombia (ha), 1995-2005
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
180,000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Sources: US Department of State National Monitoring System supported by UNODC
hect
ares
In 2005, the total area under coca cultivation in Peru was estimated at 48,200 ha. This represents a decrease of 4% over the estimate of 50,300 ha for 2004. The decrease was mainly due to the eradication campaigns implemented in the department of San Martin in Alto Huallaga region and San Gaban valley. In these two regions alone, coca cultivation decreased from 4,000 ha in 2004 to 670 ha in 2005. This decrease was slightly offset by increases in others regions of Alto Huallaga, and by relatively small increases in Apurimac-Ene and Aguaytia. Despite the decrease between 2004 and 2005, coca cultivation in Peru remained the second largest after Colombia. It represents 30% of the 2005 global coca cultivation, compared to 33% in 2004. A percentage that remained much lower than ten years ago, when coca cultivation in Peru accounted for 54% of the cultivation in the world.
Regional Overview
9
Figure 3: Coca cultivation in Peru (ha), 1995-2005
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Sources: US Department of State National Monitoring System supported by UNODC
hect
ares
In 2005, the total area under coca cultivation in Bolivia was estimated at 25,400 ha, a decrease of 8% over to last year’s estimate of 27,700 ha. The decrease at the national level was due to a decrease in the Chapare region, where coca cultivation decreased by 31% between 2004 and 2005. The decrease in Chapare was attributed to the compliance of the farmers to the agreement of October 2004 between the Government and coca growers federation, limiting coca cultivation to 0.16 ha by family.
Coca cultivation in the Yungas increased by 5% between 2004 and 2005 to reach 18,100 ha. The Yungas remained the most important region for coca cultivation in Bolivia, accounting for 71% of the total cultivation in 2005. The total estimate of 25,400 ha also included 12,000 hectares in the Yungas (47% of total cultivation), permitted by the Bolivian Law No. 1008 (Law on the Regime Applicable to Coca and Controlled Substances, 1988) for traditional uses such as leaf chewing, medicinal preparations and coca tea. Further, the total included an additional 3,200 hectares of coca cultivation temporarily authorized in October 2004 by the Bolivian Government in the Chapare region.
Figure 4: Coca cultivation in Bolivia (ha), 1994-2005
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Sources: US Department of State National Monitoring System supported by UNODC
hect
ares
Regional Overview
10
Eradication
In 2005, eradication reached record levels in Colombia, while there was a slight increase in Peru and some decrease in Bolivia. Overall, the levels of eradication remained high in the three countries in 2004.
Reports from the Colombian Government show that 138,775 hectares were sprayed, representing an increase of 2% compared to last year. For the first time in 2005, spraying activities were implemented in the departments of Chocó, Cundinamarca and Valle. In addition to spraying, manual eradication of 31,287 hectares of coca cultivation was reported, a record compared to previous years. The total of both types of eradication (spraying and manual) amounted to 170,042 hectares in 2005.
The Government of Peru reported the eradication of 12,232 ha of coca fields in 2005, of which 8,966 ha were eradicated as part of a forced eradication programme and 3,266 ha as part of a programme of voluntary eradication. Total eradication increased by 19% compared to 2004. In 2005, the Bolivia reported the eradication of 6,073 ha of coca fields. No eradication was reported in the Yungas of La Paz. The level of eradication decreased by 28% compared to 2004. In Peru and Bolivia the eradication of coca cultivation is exclusively manual.
Figure 5: Eradication of coca bush in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru (ha)
-
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
120,000
140,000
160,000
180,000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
year
hect
ares
Bolivia Colombia Peru
Production of coca leaf and derivatives
Bolivia and Peru have areas where coca has been traditionally grown for local use of coca leaf. In Colombia, traditional use of the coca leaf can be considered marginal, and virtually the entire coca leaf production is destined for cocaine production. Therefore, farmers in Colombia trade leaves as fresh or process them to coca paste or cocaine base in small “kitchens” located on the farm. In Peru and Bolivia, farmers trade sun-dried leaves and, in both countries, the sun-dried coca leaf trade for traditional, commercial or industrial uses is regulated by the Government. Leaves traded outside the controlled market are destined for cocaine production.
In Colombia, the Government, jointly with UNODC, implemented a coca leaf yield survey, which indicated that the coca leaf yields were higher than previously thought, establishing at 6,300 kg/hectare/yr of fresh coca leaf (equivalent to 2,700 kg/hectare/year of sun-dried coca leaf). With the information provided by the farmers for coca paste and cocaine base production, and the conversion factors provided by Operation Breakthrough for conversion to pure cocaine, the
Regional Overview
11
average annual yield per hectare for pure cocaine hydrochloride reached 7.7 kg/hectare, compared to 4.7 kg/hectare previously used. Based on this data, the total cocaine production in Colombia for 2005 reached 640 metric tons cocaine.
In Peru, assuming an average sun-dried coca leaf yield of 2,200 kg/ha, the total sun-dried coca leaf production was estimated at 106,000 metric tons. Of this amount, a study of the National Institute of Statistics and Computer Science estimated that about 9,000 metric tons corresponded to the annual demand for coca leaves for traditional, commercial or industrial uses. The balance is used for cocaine production. Assuming a cocaine yield per hectare of 4.1 kg/ha – similar to the average yield obtained in 2004 - the total rounded cocaine production in Peru was estimated at 180 metric tons. Thus, cocaine production in Peru decreased by 5% compared to 190 metric tons produced in 2004.
In Bolivia, the overall area under coca cultivation produced an estimated 42,000 metric tons of sun-dried leaf, of which 30,900 metric tons were estimated to be available for cocaine production. The potential cocaine production in Bolivia amounted to 90 metric tons in 2005. This corresponds to a decrease of 16% compared to the 2004 estimate of 107 metric tons. The significant decrease in cocaine production reflects the large decrease in coca cultivation in the Chapare region (-31%) where coca leaf yield was more than two times higher than elsewhere in the country (2,700 kg/ha compared to 1,200 kg/ha sun-dried leaf).
Potential cocaine production in Colombia accounted for 70%, Peru for 20% and Bolivia for 10% of the global potential cocaine production of 910 metric tons.
Figure 6: Global cocaine production (metric tons), 1990-20052
Table 2: Potential cocaine production in the Andean region (metric tons), 1994-2005
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 % change 2004-2005
Bolivia 255 240 215 200 150 70 43 60 60 79 107 90 -16%Peru 435 460 435 325 240 175 141 150 165 155 190 180 -5%Colombia 201 230 300 350 435 680 695 617 580 550 640 640 0%Total 891 930 950 875 825 925 879 827 805 784 937 910 -3%Source: UNODC World Drug Report 2006
2 Colombian cocaine production data for 2004 and 2005 is based on new field research.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
met
ric
tons
Bolivia Colombia Peru
Regional Overview
12
Cocaine seizures and seized coca processing laboratories
Global cocaine seizures increased by 18% to 588 metric tons in 2004, the highest figure ever recorded. This followed an increase in global cocaine seizures of 34% in 2003. The increase in cocaine seizures appears to be largely the result of better cooperation among law enforcement services and improved sharing of intelligence information.
Most of the globally intercepted cocaine in 2004 was seized in the Americas (86%). South America accounted for 45%, North America for 33% and Central America & the Caribbean for 8% of global seizures.
For the third year in a row, Colombia topped the ranking of world cocaine seizures, with almost 188 metric tons cocaine hydrochloride (HCl) and cocaine base seized in 2004, 32 per cent of the world total and the highest such figure ever reported from any country. This clearly reflects the strong enforcement efforts undertaken by the Colombian authorities over the last few years. An analysis of the trafficking patterns done by the Colombian authorities revealed that more than half of the country’s seizures took place at the ports; 60% of the cocaine left the country via the Pacific coast and 40% via the Atlantic coast in 2004 .
Figure 7: Global cocaine seizures by region, 2004
SEIZURES of COCAINE* (Kg and %) – BY REGION - 2004
264,087
195,968
78,699
29,762
15,107
611
245
187
155
110
104
9
6
1,178
1,798
- 50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000
South America
North America
West & Central Europe
Central America
Caribbean
West and Central Africa
East Africa
Southern Africa
Oceania
Southeast Europe
East and South-East Asia
East Europe
Near and Middle East /South-West Asia
North Africa
South Asia
(45%)
(33%)
(13%)
(5%)
(3% )
Source: UNODC, Annual Reports Questionnaire Data / DELTA
In Peru, seizures of coca paste and cocaine hydrochloride decreased, but destruction and seizures of coca leaves increased between 2004 and 2005. Seizures of cocaine hydrochloride decreased from 7,3 mt in 2004 to 2,1 mt in 2005, while seizures and destruction of coca leaves increased from 916 mt to 1,525 mt. There were, however, regular operations of the anti-narcotics police to destroy coca maceration pits and clandestine laboratories.
In 2005, the Government of Bolivia reported the seizure of 886 metric tons of coca leaves, representing a spectacular increase of 470% compared to the reported seizures of 155 metric tons in 2004. The increase in seizure of coca leaf can be attributed to the strengthening of the special
Regional Overview
13
force for the control of coca leaves, which included the control of additional roads, and improvement in equipment and infrastructure.
In addition, it should be noted that 2.1 metric tons of coca leaves from Peru were seized mostly in La Paz department, representing 0.2% of the total seizure in Bolivia. These seizures occurred mainly during the Bolivian dry season, when there is less coca leaf available in Bolivia.
In 2004, Governments reported the destruction of 8,208 coca processing laboratories worldwide, an almost four-fold increase since 2000 when 2,104 laboratories were reported destroyed.
The destruction of laboratories and production sites reflects the fact that most processing of coca leaf into cocaine takes place close to the cultivating areas in Bolivia, Colombia and Peru. This is true for both the intermediate products coca paste/base and the final product, cocaine hydrochloride. Bolivia, Colombia and Peru reported more than 99 per cent of the global total.
However, some differences exist between the three main coca cultivating countries. Whereas in Bolivia and Peru, destroyed laboratories almost exclusively produced coca paste and cocaine base, some 13 per cent of all coca processing laboratories destroyed in Colombia were manufacturing cocaine. Ninety-four per cent of the 256 cocaine processing laboratories destroyed worldwide were located in Colombia.
Farm-gate values and farm-gate prices
Farm-gate values of coca cultivation in Bolivia and Peru are based on sun-dried coca leaf production. For Colombia, the farm gate value is based on the total production of each product sold by the farmers (fresh leaf, coca paste and cocaine base).
The total farm-gate income value resulting from coca cultivation in Colombia was estimated at about US$ 843 millions in 2005. This is equivalent to 0.7% of the 2005 GDP and 6% of the GDP of the agricultural sector. It should be noted however that this value does not take into account production costs like herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers and wages.
Figure 8: Potential farm gate value of coca cultivation as % of GDP
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Regional Overview
14
In Peru, the potential farm-gate value of the sun-dried coca leaf production amounted to about US$ 307 million, estimated from the sale of 106,000 metric tons of coca leaf at 2.9 US$/kg in 2005. This represented about 0.4% of the 2004 GDP estimated at US$ 68.6 billion .
Farm-gate value of coca leaf production in Bolivia reached US$ 180 million in 2005. This estimate took into account the total value of the controlled market, as well as the farm-gate value of coca leaf outside this market. Total value was equivalent to 2.1% of the country’s GDP for 2005 (US$ 8.4 billion) or 12% of the value of the agricultural sector in 2003 (US$ 1.5 billion).
Although the farm-gate value of coca leaf in Bolivia is the smallest among the three countries, it is equivalent to a much higher proportion of the GDP compared to Colombia and Peru. This indicates the relative importance the coca sector has for the Bolivian economy.
Farm-gate prices
Prices for illicit products are subject to several factors besides the reactions to supply and demand. One should take into consideration that coca cultivation in many areas takes place under the control of armed groups or under the influence of drug cartels that tend to monopolise the coca trade and impose their prices and conditions on the farmers. Besides this, eradication efforts, changes in the currency exchange rate between the local currency and the US dollar, price increases or decrease of agricultural inputs or precursors all play a role in determining price levels.
In Bolivia and Peru, the markets for sun-dried coca leaf are regulated by government institutions. Typically, prices on the government controlled markets are lower than those obtained outside these markets. Coca leaves not traded through the government controlled channels are destined for cocaine production.
Figure 9: Prices for sun-dried coca leaf in Bolivia and Peru (US$/kg), 1990 - 2005
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Following an increase in eradication, farm-gate prices for sun-dried coca leaf in Bolivia reached a peak of around US$ 6 in 2000. Since then, prices fell to below US$ 4 but continued to be substantially higher than in neighbouring Peru (US$ 2.9/kg in 2005). There, prices have shown a rather steady increase since 1996. This was the year, when prices fell drastically after having reached peaks of over US$ 4 in the early 1990s. There is some evidence from seizure data that sun-dried coca leaves are trafficked from Peru to Bolivia.
Regional Overview
15
Converted into dry leaf equivalents, prices for fresh coca leaf in Colombia (US$ 2.56/kg) are comparable to prices for sun-dried leaf in Peru but lower than in Bolivia. After a sharp increase in 2001, which can be seen in connection with the successful efforts of governments to stop the trafficking of cocaine base from Peru to Colombia, prices for coca paste in Colombia tend to oscillate around 2,100,000 Colombian Pesos (US$ 900) per kilogramme.
Figure 10: Colombia, average price for coca paste (COP/kg), 1999 - 2005
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Cocaine abuse in Latin America
A lesser known fact is that South America is the world's third largest market for cocaine use with an estimated 1,981,000 users (2004/5). Prevalence rate of cocaine abuse among the population age 15-64 are as high as those for Europe (0.7%), although considerably lower than in North America (2.3%). The prevalence rate in the main coca cultivation countries is close or above the regional average thus indicating a strong link between illicit crop cultivation, cocaine production and abuse. In Bolivia, which has prevalence rates well over the Latin American average, annual prevalence of cocaine use largely follows the trend of domestic cocaine production. Following strong increases in the early 1990s until 1996, cocaine prevalence rates declined and started increasing again only over the 2000 to 2005 period, reaching 1.6% for cocaine HCl and 1.9% for cocaine base in 2005.
Poverty and development
Despite the obvious geographic association of rural underdevelopment and coca cultivation, it is a much more complex task to assess how coca cultivation and poverty are linked on the household level. Due to the illicit nature of coca cultivation and the security situation in many growing areas, comprehensive data on the household level allowing a direct comparison between coca-growing and non-coca-growing households is scarce. A first assessment can be made by taking into consideration the farm-gate value of coca products and the number of families estimated to be involved in coca cultivation.
Farmers in Colombia, the largest producer of coca leaf, produced US$ 843 million worth of cocaine base. This translates into a gross per capita income of US$ 2,500 for members of coca farming households. However, production costs for fertilizer, agro-chemicals, and hired labour have to be deducted from this amount. It seems that even the gross per capita income derived from coca cultivation is well below the average GDP per capita, confirming that coca farmers belong the economically worse off part of the population. The figures for Peru and Bolivia show a similar scenario.
Regional Overview
16
Table 3: Farm-gate value and per capita income from coca
Potential farm-gate value of coca products 2005 (million US$)
No. of households involved in coca cultivationª
Per capita income from coca (US$)
GDP per capita (US$)
Bolivia 180 40,000 900 974b
Colombia 843 68,600 2,500 2,700c
Peru 307 50,000 1,200 2,490 b
a Estimates for Bolivia and Peru are derived from the average field size per household. The estimate for Colombia is based on field research. b 2004 GDP for Bolivia and Peru, World Bank c 2005 GDP for Colombia, National Department of Statistics, Colombia
A study on coca yield in conducted by the Government of Colombia and UNODC in 2005 also covered some poverty-related aspects of coca cultivation. When asked for the main reason for growing coca, 55% of the farmers mentioned economic reasons, either mentioning openly the profitability of doing so or the fact that coca leaves and derivatives are easily marketable. Another 28% claimed they had no other choice, and the remaining 17% stated that coca cultivation was part of the local culture.
In Bolivia, Human Development Index (HDI) values for 2001 are available at the municipality level. Coca cultivation was found in 17 out of the 326 municipalities in the country. The average HDI for the coca-growing municipalities was 0.54, indicating that their population is slightly worse-off compared to the non-growing municipalities, which had an HDI of 0.57. However, the difference was not statistically significant, so that this result cannot be interpreted as indicating a generally lower HDI in coca-growing municipalities.
Alternative development is an approach specifically designed to discourage farmers from growing illicit crops. Alternative development programmes contribute to prevention and reduction of coca cultivation as well as to the overall development of the local community. However, alternative development currently reach only a fraction of the population involved in illicit crop cultivation or at risk to do so. Alternative development programmes are being carried out by UNODC in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.
In Colombia, a study by the Colombian government and UNODC revealed that only 9% of the coca farmers interviewed reported having received any kind of assistance to stop growing coca plants. In fact, only about 6,800 households are being assisted by UNODC through alternative developments projects in the country. Those that do receive assistance, cultivate around 80,000 hectares of licit crops, a figure almost as high as the total area under coca cultivation. In addition, the Colombian government reaches over 31,000 beneficiaries with its forest warden families programme, which provides incentives to communities to reduce coca cultivation and preserve the environment.
Compared to the estimated number of households involved in coca cultivation, Bolivia has the highest proportion of households assisted by UNODC's alternative development programmes. These 9,100 households cultivate about 210,000 hectares of licit crops, seven times the area under coca.
Alternative development projects started as early as 1986 in Peru. The remarkable success in reducing coca cultivation from 129,000 hectares at its peak in 1992 to below 50,000 hectares in 2005 can be attributed to a combination of eradication efforts, air control to prevent the transport of coca paste towards Colombia, and the implementation of alternative development projects. In some areas targeted by these projects such as Bajo Huallaga, coca cultivation virtually disappeared.