classroom units 1-16 condensed chemistry review … · 2017-11-02 · page 9 of 45 periodic trends...
TRANSCRIPT
Page 1 of 4
5
Year End Condensed Honors Chemistry Review
Important N
otes: T
his handout is
a summary of th
e concepts. P
ractic
e ite
ms for all c
oncepts
have not b
een provided in
this packet. A
dditio
nal p
ractic
e may also be found in
the
Chemistry EOC Review Practic
e Handout, E
xample Problems by Goal prepared for th
e
Foldable Project, w
ebsite
links, and in
practic
e tests provided by your teacher. T
he majority
of th
is in
formatio
n can be found on th
e teacher website
s. I a
lso recommend reviewing th
e
chapter summaries for any chapters referenced in
this handout. F
or Overall V
ocab and
Scientists/Atomic Theory review, see the separate handouts devoted to these topics!!
**Be sure to
practic
e th
e NCSCOS Goal 1 Questio
ns Provided by your teacher as separate
practic
e ite
ms for Goal 1 are not p
osted on th
e NCDPI w
ebsite
!!**
Unit 1
- Chapters 1 & 2; Laboratory Safety, Laboratory Equipment &
Scientific
Method,
Dim
ensional A
nalysis, SI, e
tc.
Signific
ant F
igures (R
ules in
textbook p. 47):
Calculatio
ns with
Signific
ant F
igures
Ad
ditio
n o
r Su
btra
ctio
n w
ith
Sig
nific
an
t Fig
ure
s
�W
hen
ad
din
g o
r su
btra
ctin
g
de
cim
als
, the
an
sw
er m
ust h
ave
the
sa
me
nu
mb
er o
f dig
its to
the
righ
t of
the
de
cim
al p
oin
t as th
ere
are
in th
e
me
asu
rem
en
t ha
vin
g th
e fe
we
st
dig
its to
the
righ
t of th
e d
ecim
al
po
int.
Mu
ltiplic
atio
n a
nd
Div
isio
n
with
Sig
nific
an
t Fig
ure
s
�F
or m
ultip
lica
tion
or d
ivis
ion
,
the
an
sw
er c
an
ha
ve
no
mo
re s
ign
ifica
nt fig
ure
s th
an
are
in th
e m
easu
rem
en
t with
the
few
est n
um
be
r of
sig
nific
an
t figu
res.
If the decim
al is
PRESENT
Start a
t the Pacific.
Come to
the firs
t real d
igit
and co
unt a
ll remaining digits
Ex.
a. 3
2.02 _________
b. 0
.00235 _______
If the decim
al is
NOT PRESENT
Start a
t the Atla
ntic.
Come to
the firs
t real d
igit a
nd
count a
ll remaining digits
Ex.
a. 4
2500 _________
b. 6
20350 ________
Lim
it and ro
und your a
nsw
er to
the least n
umber o
f decim
al
places in
any of th
e numbers th
at m
ake up your a
nsw
er.
123.25 m
L +
46.0 m
L +
86.257 m
L =
255.507 m
L
The answ
er is e
xpresse
d as 2
55.5 m
L sin
ce 46.0 m
L has o
nly
one decim
al p
lace.
Lim
it and ro
und to
the least n
umber o
f sig fig
s in any of th
e
values.
23.0 cm
x 4
32 cm
x 19 cm
= 1
88,784 cm
3
The answ
er is e
xpresse
d as 1
90,000 cm
3 sin
ce 19 cm
has o
nly
two sig
figs.
Page 2 of 4
5
Density
Calculatio
ns: K
now how to
do density
by volume displacement a
nd how to
use Density
as a Conversion Factor!
density
= mass/volume;
D = m
Be able to
solve for any variable!
V
Dim
ensional A
nalysis – Factor Label M
ethod and th
e Metric System
Page 3 of 4
5
Accuracy & Precision
Accuracy re
fers to
the clo
seness o
f measurements to
the co
rrect o
r acce
pted value of th
e
quantity
measured.
examples: b
aseball p
itcher th
rowing strik
es; b
asketball g
oing in
the hoop; la
b data is th
e co
rrect
answ
er
Precision re
fers to
the clo
seness o
f a se
t of m
easurements o
f the sa
me quantity
made in
the
same way.
examples: b
aseball p
itcher th
rowing strik
es in
the sa
me locatio
n or k
eeps th
rowing balls in
the
same locatio
n; b
asketball sh
ots a
re all n
et e
very tim
e or b
asketball sh
ots a
re m
issed by bouncin
g
of th
e rim
in th
e sa
me locatio
n; la
b data give th
e sa
me re
sults o
ver a
nd over (p
ossib
ly rig
ht o
r
wrong)
**Questio
ns regarding understanding of p
recision/accuracy are usually
given in
the
form of in
terpretin
g data ta
bles – practic
e th
ose Goal 1 Questio
ns mentio
ned above!!**
Percentage Error
Practic
ing Measuring Liquid Volume
Page 4 of 4
5
Unit 2
- Selected Topics: C
hapters 1, 3, &
4: B
ohr’s Model, M
atte
r, A
tomic Structure
1. Diffe
rentia
te betw
een a ch
emica
l and physica
l change.
physica
l – does n
ot in
volve a ch
ange in
the id
entity
of th
e m
ateria
l or su
bsta
nce
chemica
l – occu
rs when one or m
ore su
bsta
nces a
re co
nverte
d in
to diffe
rent su
bsta
nces
The four signs of a chemical change are:
change in
temperature
form
atio
n of a
gas
form
atio
n of a
precip
itate (a
solid
from tw
o so
lutio
ns)
a co
lor ch
ange (so
metim
es☺)
2. Describ
e th
e 3 sta
tes o
f matte
r.
Solid
– defin
ite sh
ape and volume – particle
s packed very clo
sely to
gether
Liquid – no defin
ite sh
ape; d
efin
ite volume – particle
s packed m
ore loosely but still “to
gether”
Gas –
no defin
ite sh
ape; n
o defin
ite volume – particle
s “far a
part”
3. How is a
pure su
bsta
nce diffe
rent fro
m a m
ixture?
A pure su
bsta
nce has a
fixed co
mpositio
n; every sa
mple has th
e exact sa
me ch
aracte
ristic
propertie
s and every sa
mple has th
e exact sa
me ch
emica
l compositio
n.
Element –
pure su
bsta
nce of o
nly one kind of a
tom
Compound – su
bsta
nce is m
ade fro
m th
e atoms o
f two or m
ore elements th
at a
re ch
emica
lly
bonded
Page 5 of 4
5
Atomic Theory Development
I. Dem
ocritu
s (40
0B
.C.)
First u
sed term
“atom
”
II. D
alto
n’s m
od
el (18
03
)
Cred
ited w
ith m
od
ern ato
mic th
eory
4 m
ajor id
eas
III. Go
ldstein
Disco
vers P
roto
ns (1
88
6)
IV
. Th
om
son
's mo
del ( 1
89
7)
Cred
ited w
ith D
iscov
ery o
f the electro
n
V
. Ru
therfo
rd's m
od
el (19
11
)
-“go
ld fo
il” exp
erimen
t
-Pro
po
sed th
e atom
had
a nu
cleus (m
ass con
centrated
in th
e nu
cleus) an
d th
at an ato
m is m
ostly
emp
ty sp
ace
Page 6 of 4
5
V
I. Bo
hr’s m
od
el (19
13
)
- Electro
ns m
ov
e in fix
ed o
rbits
-Bo
hr’s M
od
el used
for w
avelen
gth
and
frequ
ency
calculatio
ns
Mo
del o
nly
wo
rks fo
r the h
yd
rog
en (H
) atom
VII. M
illika
n d
iscov
ers electron
cha
rge a
nd
Ma
ss of a
n electro
n (1
90
9)
VIII. C
ha
dw
ick d
iscov
ers Neu
tron
(19
32
)
IX. D
e Bro
glie (F
rench
ma
n) p
rop
oses p
article w
av
e beh
av
ior o
f Electro
n a
lso k
now
n a
s pa
rticle-wa
ve
du
ality
((19
23
)
X. S
chro
din
ger w
rites an
equ
atio
n to
determ
ine p
rob
ab
ility o
f electron
loca
tion
(qu
an
tum
theo
ry)
X
I. Electro
n-clo
ud
mo
del (p
resent)
Oth
ers:
Pla
nck
describ
ed p
ackets o
f energ
y call q
uan
ta
Ein
stein d
escribed
the p
ho
toelectric effect an
d th
e wav
e-particle d
uality
of rad
iation
(act as a wav
e and
a
particle) –
deB
roglie also
is credited
with
the latter.
Page 7 of 4
5
Atomic Structure
Atomic # (z) =
# of p
rotons
Identifie
s (ID’s) a
n element –
UNIQ
UE for e
ach element
Elements in
order o
n th
e perio
dic ta
ble by atomic #
Because atoms m
ust b
e neutra
l; (z) also
= #e-
Mass # - to
tal #
of p
+ and n
o
Ions = Charged Atoms
charge occu
rs from gaining or lo
sing e
- (not p
+)
(+) =
lost e
-
(−) =
gained e
-
Isotopes and Average Atomic Mass
Isotope = (n
uclid
e)
2 w
ays to
represen
t isotopes: h
yphen
notatio
n or n
uclea
r symbol
mass #
↑
Uranium-235
or
U
23
59
2 →
element sy
mbol
↓
↓
↓
element m
ass #
atomic #
Isotopes & Average Atomic Mass
Page 8 of 4
5
Bohr’s Model S
ummary: P
ractic
e!!
When to
use it:
When th
e problem has w
ording about e
-s jumping fro
m one level to
another, e
.g., n
=4 to
n=2.
How to
use it:
Use it to
find th
e wavelength of th
e electro
magnetic ra
diatio
n in
nm or m
(must u
se m
in
calcu
latio
ns!)
Know Relatio
nships betw
een Energy (E
), Wavelength (λ
), and Frequency (ν):
Long W
avelength �
Lower F
requency �
Lower E
nergy
Short W
avelength �
Higher F
requency �
Higher E
nergy
c = λυ a
nd E = hυ
Unit 3
: Chapters 4 & 5: A
tomic Structure, E
lectron Config
uratio
n, P
eriodicity
Review & Practic
e Electron Config
uratio
n (F
ull &
Noble Gas)
s,p,d,f o
rbita
ls – shapes of s & p, how many e
-s can each sublevel h
old, etc.
s orbita
l – sphere shaped
p o
rbital –
du
mb
bell sh
aped
Valence Electrons: B
e able to
count th
em from th
e electron config
uratio
n and by looking at
the periodic ta
ble.
Lewis Dot D
iagrams
Page 9 of 4
5
Periodic Trends & Propertie
s – Practic
e!
Page 10 of 4
5
Groups of th
e Periodic Table
Unit 4
- Chapter 7 – Nomenclature
Common Polyatomic Io
ns (m
ost c
ommon liste
d fro
m NCSCOS)
Acetate
C2 H
3 O2 1
-
Ammonium N
H4 1+
Carbonate
CO
32-
Nitra
te
NO
31-
Sulfa
te
SO
42-
Use re
ference ta
bles fo
r all o
thers!!
Common Acids
Hydrochloric A
cid
HCl
Nitric A
cid
HNO
3
Acetic A
cid
HC2 H
3 O2 o
r CH
3 COOH
Sulfu
ric Acid
H2 SO
4
Practic
e Naming & Formula Writin
g!!!
**Be sure to notice if th
e compound is an acid, is ionic or is molecular before naming**
Page 11 of 4
5
Page 12 of 4
5
Unit 5
- Chapters 3 & 7 – The Mole – Math with
Chemical F
ormulas
Avogadro’s Number
Calculatio
n of M
olar Mass from atomic masses on th
e periodic ta
ble
Mole Conversions of A
ll Types: (p
artic
le ty
pes: atoms, m
olecules, fo
rmula units, io
ns)
g to
mol
mol to
g
partic
les to
mol
mol to
partic
les
g to
partic
les
partic
les to
g
Practic
e Mole Conversion Problems!
Page 13 of 4
5
Percent C
ompositio
n
� Perce
nt co
mpositio
n is th
e perce
nt b
y m
ass o
f each element in
a co
mpound.
� Perce
nt co
mpositio
n is th
e sa
me, re
gardless o
f the siz
e of th
e sa
mple.
Percent Compositio
n Calculations
% co
mp =
mass o
f element
X 100%
= %
element in
the co
mpound
molar m
ass o
f cpd
Empirical F
ormulas
� Empirica
l Form
ula = Sim
plest F
orm
ula
To fin
d th
e empirical fo
rmula from data:
1. Assu
me 100% sa
mple; ch
ange % to
grams fo
r each element (%
to mass)
2. Find m
oles fro
m th
e grams o
f each element (m
ass to mol)
3. Find th
e sm
alle
st whole # ra
tio by dividing by th
e sm
alle
st number o
f moles (d
ivide by small)
4. If n
ecessa
ry, m
ultip
ly to
get rid
of fra
ctions. (m
ultip
ly to whole!)
Molecular Formulas
� Molecular F
orm
ula = Actu
al F
orm
ula
Example:
C2 H
6
CH
3
molecular
empirica
l
MF = (E
F)x
where X
=
Molecular m
ass
Empirica
l mass
Moles in
Solutio
n (M
olarity
)
� Molarity
is the te
rm used fo
r moles d
issolved in
solutio
n
� Symbol fo
r Molarity
= M
� Defin
ition – m
oles o
f solute per lite
r of so
lutio
n
� Form
ula
M =
moles so
lute (m
ol)
lite
r solutio
n (L
) **Be able to calculate Molarity or grams of solute needed.**
Page 14 of 4
5
Unit 6
- Chapter 6 – Bonding & Molecular Structures
Bond Ty
pes Ta
ble
Bond Ty
pe
Type(s) o
f Atoms
involved
Force
Propertie
s
Examples
IONIC
tra
nsfe
r
of
electro
ns
Metal &
Nonmetal
Attra
ction betw
een
ions, o
pposite
charges a
ttract;
transfe
r of
electro
ns
High m
eltin
g point
Water so
luble
Crysta
lline
Aquesous so
lutio
ns
conduct a
curre
nt
NaCl
MgO
CaS
COVALENT
Sharin
g
of
electro
ns
Two Nonmetals
Polar
= unequal sh
arin
g
= partia
l charge
Nonpolar = equal
sharin
g = no ch
arge
Sharin
g of e
lectro
ns
Low m
eltin
g point
Brittle
Nonconducto
rs
Water
CO
2
NH
3
METALLIC
Free flo
w of
Electro
ns
Two Metals
Sharin
g of e
lectro
ns
between all a
toms
Good co
nducto
rs
Malle
able
Ductile
Copper w
ire
Iron bar
**Be able to use electronegativity values to determine bond type – see foldable! **
Page 15 of 4
5
VSEPR & M
olecular G
eometry
Molecular S
hape
Type of M
olecule
ABy E
z
Atoms B
onded to
Centra
l Atom
Lone Pairs o
f e-s
on Centra
l Atom
Linear
AB2
2
0
Bent
AB2 E
2
1
Trigonal Planar
AB3
3
0
Tetra
hedral
AB4
4
0
Trigonal
Pyramidal
AB3 E
3
1
Bent
AB2 E
2
2
2
Be able to draw the Lewis Dot Structures for the 7 diatomic molecules and know the #
of bonds in each! (I
2, Br2 , C
l2 , F
2 , O2, N
2 , H2 )
LEWIS STRUCTURE:
Element Symbol =
nucle
i and in
ner-sh
ell e
lectro
ns
Dashes = sh
ared electro
n pairs in
covalent b
ond
Dots = unshared electro
ns
Be able to
draw Lewis Structure for molecules and determine bond & molecule polarity
.
VSEPR Th
eory – be able to
predict m
olecular sh
ape
valence-sh
ell, e
lectro
n pair re
pulsio
n
Way to
predict m
olecular g
eometry
(shape)
There is a
repulsio
n betw
een valence e
- pairs
Page 16 of 4
5
Unit 7
- Chapter 8 – Chemical E
quatio
ns
BALANCING EQUATIONS: 4
steps:
1. S
tart w
ith a word equatio
n
2. C
onvert to
a form
ula equatio
n (d
on’t fo
rget th
e diatomic m
olecules!)
3. B
alance with
coefficie
nts:
balance each atom one at a
time
balance polyatomic io
ns o
n each sid
e of th
e equatio
n as o
ne unit
balance H and O la
st (they ofte
n appear in
more th
an one co
mpound)
4. C
heck; if co
efficie
nts a
re not th
e lowest p
ossib
le; re
duce down.
REACTIO
N TY
PES – Be able to
Use Reference Ta
bles –
the equatio
n ty
pes a
nd su
btypes a
re in
there!
You must b
e able to
predict p
roducts and write
balanced chemical equatio
ns.
1. Synthesis: (o
r compositio
n):
2 or m
ore su
bsta
nces co
mbine to
form
1 new su
bsta
nce
A + X �
AX
2. Decompositio
n:
A sin
gle su
bsta
nce produces 2
or m
ore sim
pler su
bsta
nces
AX �
A + X
3. Single Displacement (R
eplacement):
1 element re
places a
simila
r element in
a cm
pd
A +
BX �
AX +
B
Hint: In
reactio
ns w
rite water a
s HOH.
4. D
ouble Displacement (R
eplacement):
The ions o
f 2 cm
pds sw
itch places to
form
2 new cm
pds.
AX +
BY �
AY + BX
5. C
ombustio
n:
When a su
bsta
nce co
mbines w
ith oxygen re
leasin
g a la
rge amount o
f energy in
the form
of lig
ht a
nd
heat.
Ofte
n co
mbustio
ns in
volve a hydrocarbon : cm
pd co
ntaining C and H
C
x Hy +
O2 �
CO
2 + H
2 O
Page 17 of 4
5
Unit 8
Chapter 9 – Stoichiometry
You must b
e able to
do stoichiometric calculatio
ns by using th
e mol ratio
s from a balanced
chemical equatio
n!
mol to
mol:
mol to
g:
g to mol:
g to g:
Page 18 of 4
5
Mole Roadmap
MO
LE
S
GIV
EN
MO
LE
S
WA
NT
ED
1.
2.
PA
RT
ICL
ES
G
IVE
N
4.
PA
RT
ICL
ES
W
AN
TE
D
5.
3.
Lim
iting Reagent (R
eactant) –
(LR)
Contro
ls the amt. o
f product fo
rmed
Completely co
nsumed in
the rx
n.
“ru
ns o
ut” first
Example:
People on plane �
300 people; 2
50 se
ats
**Seats a
re th
e lim
iting fa
ctor**
Lim
iting Reagent P
roblems
Do m
ass –
mass (g
to g) ca
lc. for a
ll reacta
nts.
Which
ever re
acta
nt p
roduces th
e least is th
e Lim
iting Reagent (L
R)
Excess Reactant (E
R)
To fin
d th
e amount o
f excess re
acta
nt le
ftover a
fter a
rxn:
Do tw
o m
ass-m
ass (g
to g) p
roblems to
find LR
Use LR to
calcu
late excess re
acta
nt u
sed.
Subtra
ct excess re
acta
nt u
sed fro
m orig
inal a
mt. o
f excess re
acta
nt =
lefto
ver e
xcess
reacta
nt
Percent Y
ield
% yield =
a
ctual y
ield
X 100%
theoretica
l yield
theoretica
l yield:
� maxim
um amt. o
f product (w
hat y
ou sh
ould “h
ave gotte
n”)
� fro
m m
ass-m
ass (g
to g) p
roblem
actu
al y
ield:
� actu
al a
mt. o
f product (w
hat y
ou “g
ot”)
� fro
m la
b re
sult; o
r given in
a problem
MA
SS
Giv
en
M
AS
S W
an
ted
Mo
le R
atio
fro
m
Ba
lan
ce
d
Eq
ua
tion
VO
LU
ME
Giv
en
V
OL
UM
E W
an
ted
Page 19 of 4
5
Unit 9
- Chapters 1
0 & 12 – Kinetic
Molecular Th
eory (K
MT)
I. Unit V
ocabulary
Absolute Zero- n
o m
olecular m
ovement a
t this te
mperature (0
K, -2
730C)
Amorphous- n
on-cry
stallin
e su
bsta
nce su
ch as g
lass th
at a
ppears to
be so
lid but is a
super co
oled liq
uid
Anhydrous - w
ithout w
ater
Barometer- a
manometer u
sed to
measure atm
ospheric p
ressu
re
Capilla
ry Actio
n - th
e attra
ction of th
e su
rface of a
liquid to
the su
rface of a
solid
Condensatio
n- ch
ange in
state fro
m a gas to
a liq
uid
Depositio
n – ch
ange in
state dire
ctly fro
m a gas to
a so
lid
Diffu
sion – m
ixing of 2
or m
ore gases
Effu
sion – m
ovement o
f a gas th
rough a sm
all o
pening
Evaporatio
n- ch
ange in
state fro
m a liq
uid to
gas
Fluids – gases a
nd liq
uids, flo
w
Ideal gas – im
aginary gas th
at fits a
ll the assu
mptio
ns o
f the kinetic m
olecular th
eory
Kelvin – SI u
nit o
f temperature
Kinetic
Theory- g
roup of id
eas e
xplaining th
e in
teractio
n of m
atte
r and energy due to
particle
motio
n
Meltin
g – ch
ange in
state fro
m a so
lid to
a liq
uid
Molar heat o
f fusion – heat n
eeded to
melt o
ne m
ole a su
bsta
nce at its m
eltin
g pt
Molar heat o
f vaporizatio
n – Heat n
eeded to
vaporiz
e one m
ole of a
substa
nce at its b
oilin
g pt.
Plasma- h
igh energy sta
te of m
atte
r composed of io
ns th
at a
re knocked apart b
y co
llisions
Pressure - th
e number a
nd sp
eed of co
llisions o
n a wall o
f a co
ntainer
States of M
atte
r- so
lid, liq
uid, gas, a
nd plasm
a are th
e fo
ur sta
tes o
f matte
r
STP – sta
ndard te
mperature and pressu
re
Sublim
atio
n -ch
ange in
state dire
ctly fro
m a so
lid to
a gas
Surface tension- th
e apparent sk
in on su
rface due to
force
s holding a liq
uid to
gether
Triple point –
all th
ree m
ajor sta
tes o
f matte
r are in
equilib
rium at th
is temperature and pressu
re
Vapor- g
aseous sta
te for su
bsta
nces th
at a
re norm
ally
a liq
uid or a
solid
at ro
om te
mperature
Viscosity
- resista
nce of liq
uids to
flow
Volatile
– a liq
uid th
at e
vaporates re
adily
II. KMT –
Fundamental C
oncepts
What is a
n id
eal g
as?
~an id
eal gas is an im
aginary gas th
at p
erfectly
fits all th
e assumptio
ns of th
e kinetic
molecular th
eory
What is th
e kinetic-m
olecular th
eory?
~a th
eory based on th
e id
ea th
at p
artic
les of m
atte
r are always in
motio
n
What a
re th
e fiv
e assu
mptio
ns o
f the KMT?
1. Gases consist o
f large numbers of tin
y partic
les th
at a
re far apart relativ
e to
their size.
2. Collis
ions betw
een gas partic
les and betw
een partic
les and container walls are elastic
collis
ions.
3. Gas Partic
les are in
contin
uous, rapid, random motio
n. T
hey th
erefore possess kinetic
energy, w
hich is energy of m
otio
n.
4. There are no forces of attr
actio
n or repulsion betw
een gas partic
les.
5. The average kinetic
energy of gas partic
les depends on th
e temperature of th
e gas.
Page 20 of 4
5
Ex
plain
the p
rop
erties of ex
pan
sion
, fluid
ity, lo
w d
ensity
and
com
pressib
ility.
1.
exp
an
sion
- ga
ses com
pletely
fill an
y co
nta
iner in
wh
ich th
ey a
re enclo
sed, a
nd
they
tak
e its shap
e.
2.
fluid
ity - g
as p
articles g
lide ea
sily p
ast o
ne a
no
ther b
ecau
se the a
ttractiv
e forces a
re insig
nifica
nt;
beca
use liq
uid
s an
d g
ases flo
w, th
ey a
re referred to
as flu
ids.
3.
low
den
sity –
ga
ses are a
bo
ut 1
/10
00
as d
ense a
s the sa
me su
bsta
nce in
the liq
uid
or so
lid sta
te.
4.
com
pressib
ility –
vo
lum
e of a
giv
en sa
mp
le of g
as ca
n b
e grea
tly d
ecreased
beca
use th
e pa
rticles
wh
ich a
re initia
lly v
ery fa
r ap
art ca
n b
e forced
closer to
geth
er (com
pressed
).
Three Phases of M
atte
r
STP: Standard te
mperature and Pressu
re; 0
0 C(273K) and 1 atm
Pressu
re co
nversio
ns (a
ll of th
ese values a
re equal to
each other a
nd any tw
o ca
n be se
t-up as a
ratio
to be used in
a fa
ctor la
bel p
roblem! T
his in
fo is a
lso in
the re
ference ta
bles!!)
1 atm
= 760 to
rr = 760 m
m H
g = 101.3 kPa = 1.01 x 105 P
a
Molar Heat o
f Fusion & Molar Heat o
f Vaporizatio
n Problem Examples
(covered in
Unit 1
4):
Page 21 of 4
5
Phase Diagrams for Water & Carbon Dioxide:
phase diagram – a graph of p
ressure versus temperature th
at shows th
e conditio
ns under
which th
e phases of a substance exist
triple point – th
e temperature and pressure conditio
ns at w
hich th
e solid
, liquid, and vapor of
substance can coexist a
t equilib
rium
critic
al p
oint – in
dicates th
e critic
al te
mperature and critic
al p
ressure of a substance
critic
al te
mperature – th
e temperature above which a substance cannot exist in
the liq
uid
state
critic
al p
ressure – th
e lowest p
ressure at w
hich a substance can exist a
s a liq
uid at th
e
critic
al te
mperature
NOTE: S
olid
H2 O
is less d
ense th
an th
e liq
uid in
dica
ted by th
e negativ
e slo
pe of th
e equilib
rium lin
e
betw
een th
e so
lid and liq
uid phases. T
he opposite
is true for C
O2
(notice
the positiv
e slo
pe of th
is same equilib
rium lin
e.
Page 22 of 4
5
Heatin
g & Coolin
g Curves
**See Unit 1
4 for Calculatio
ns along each step of th
e curve**
HE
AT
ING
CU
RV
E F
OR
WA
TE
R
EN
DO
TH
ER
MIC
-50 0
50
100
150
0100
200
300
400
Heat a
dd
ed
, time
∆ q
( in k
J, fo
r 100 g
H2 O
) —→
Temperature
(°C)
CO
OL
ING
CU
RV
E F
OR
WA
TE
R
EX
OT
HE
RM
IC
-50 0
50
10
0
15
0
01
00
20
03
00
40
0H
ea
t lost, tim
e
-∆ q
( in k
J, fo
r 10
0 g
H2 O
) —→
Temperature
(°C)
Page 23 of 45
Page 24 of 4
5
Vapor Pressure Curves:
A liq
uid will b
oil w
hen its
vapor pressure equals atm
ospheric pressure.
Unit 1
0 - C
hapters 1
0 & 11 – G
ases, G
as La
ws, a
nd Gas S
toichiometry
Stoichiometry
Roadmap in
cluding gases…
….
Page 25 of 45
Gas Laws Summary Table
Definitions:
P = pressure n = # of moles
V = volume R = gas constant (0.0821 L•atm/mol•K); this is the most common one
T = temperature (in Kelvin always for gas laws!) molar volume: 1 mol/22.4 L or 22.4L/1 mol of any gas at STP
STP: standard temperature = 00C or 273 K K = 0C + 273
standard pressure = 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr = 101.3 kPa M = Molar Mass (on EOC packet M is molarity – it is italicized!!)
**Highlighted Info Given in NCDPI EOC Reference Tables** Version 1: February 22, 2009
Page 26 of 4
5
Unit 1
1 - C
hapters 1
3 & 14 – Solutio
ns a
nd Collig
ative Propertie
s
From th
e Chemistry Reference Tables Packet:
Solute = what is b
eing disso
lved
Dilu
te = ?
Solvent =
disso
lving m
edium (o
ften water)
Concentrated = ?
Solutio
ns = so
lute and so
lvent to
gether
Molarity
- M A
way to
measure so
lutio
n co
ncentra
tion. It’s th
e m
ost co
mmon ch
emistry
concentra
tion unit.
M = m
oles so
lute
lite
rs of so
lutio
n
Page 27 of 4
5
Making a Molar Solutio
n
Molarity
Calculatio
ns (also in
Unit 5
):
� Molarity
is the te
rm used fo
r moles d
issolved in
solutio
n
� Symbol fo
r Molarity
= M
� Defin
ition – m
oles o
f solute per lite
r of so
lutio
n
� Form
ula
M =
moles so
lute (m
ol)
lite
r solutio
n (L
)
**Be able to calculate Molarity or grams of solute needed.**
Page 28 of 4
5
Molarity
By Dilu
tion Calculatio
ns:
Molality
= m
- another w
ay to
measure so
lutio
n co
ncentra
tion; it is in
dependent o
f temperature
(volu
me ca
n ch
ange w
ith tem
pera
ture, so
M ca
n be a
ffected by ch
anges in
tempera
ture)
m = m
oles o
f solute
Kg of so
lvent
Making a Molal S
olutio
n
Net Io
nic Equatio
ns:
Steps fo
r writin
g a net io
nic e
quatio
n
1. Write
a balanced equatio
n.
2. Use your so
lubility
rules to
determ
ine so
lubility
and break so
luble co
mpounds in
to ions (w
ith
charges!). L
eave in
soluble co
mpounds to
gether w
ithout a
ny ch
arges!
3. Cancel out sp
ecta
tor io
ns –
if everything ca
ncels w
rite no net re
actio
n.
4. Write
the fin
al equatio
n – include state symbols!
1. sodium hydroxide + zinc (II) n
itrate �
sodium nitra
te + zinc (II) h
ydroxide
Page 29 of 4
5
Page 30 of 4
5
The 3 Collig
ativ
e propertie
s:
A. Vapor pressure lowering=
B. Freezing point depression and Boilin
g Pt. E
levation:
Page 31 of 4
5
Page 32 of 4
5
Unit 1
2 - C
hapter 1
5 – Acids &
Bases
Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
COMMON ACIDS TO BE MEMORIZED!
Hydrochloric A
cid
HCl
Nitric A
cid
HNO
3
Acetic A
cid
HC2 H
3 O2 or C
H3 COOH
Sulfu
ric Acid
H
2 SO
4
Bronsted-Lowry Acids & Bases
Page 33 of 4
5
Unit 1
3 - C
hapter 1
6 – pH & Titra
tions
Be able to
Use These Six Equatio
ns – In
Reference Tables:
Kw = [O
H-][H
+] = 1 X 10-14
pH + pOH = 14
pH = -lo
g[H
+]
[H+] =
10-pH
pOH = -lo
g[OH
-]
[OH
-] = 10-pOH
Pure H
2 O has:
1 X 10-7 M
H+ (sa
me as H
3 O+)
and 1 X 10-7 M
OH
-1
Because
[H+]=
[OH
-] in water =
neutra
l solutio
n
(remem
ber th
e bra
ckets sta
nd fo
r concen
tratio
n in
molarity
)
When [H
+] > [O
H-1]; th
e so
lutio
n is a a
c ci id di ic c
When [O
H-1] >
[H+]; th
e so
lutio
n is b b
a as si ic c
pH is a
n easie
r way to
express co
ncentra
tion; re
member:
0
( (a ac ci id d) )
7
( (b ba as se e) )
14
{ strong
weak
}{ weak
strong
}
Page 34 of 4
5
Using Titr
atio
n Data to
Determine Molarity
Use th
e 4 follo
wing ste
ps:
1) U
se balanced equatio
n (y
ou m
ay have to
write
it yourse
lf!) for th
e neutra
lizatio
n re
actio
n to
determ
ine th
e ra
tio of m
oles o
f acid
to base.
2) D
eterm
ine th
e m
oles o
f standard so
lutio
n (a
cid or b
ase) u
sed durin
g th
e titra
tion.
3) D
eterm
ine th
e m
oles o
f solute of u
nknown so
lutio
n used durin
g th
e titra
tion.
4) D
eterm
ine th
e m
olarity
(or th
e volume) of th
e unknown so
lutio
n.
**Be able to use data from buret readings to fin
d the volume of titr
ant used in titr
ation
calculations!**
Titr
atio
n Curve for th
e
Titr
atio
n of a Strong Acid
with
a Strong Base
Write th
e Balan
ced E
qu
ation
Acid
Data
Base D
ata
M (m
ol/L
) =
M (m
ol/L
)=
V (m
L) =
V
(mL
) =
(start w
ith th
e sid
e th
at h
as th
e M
OS
T d
ata
)
Mo
le Ratio
Mo
le Co
nv
ersion
from
“giv
en” to
“un
kn
ow
n”
Calcu
late Mo
larity o
r Vo
lum
e of U
nk
no
wn
:
Page 35 of 4
5
Unit 1
4 Chapter 1
7 – Th
erm
ochemistry
, Reactio
n Rates, E
ntro
py, Enthalpy
Heat/E
nergy –
Rem
ember h
eat is o
ne fo
rm of en
ergy and th
e terms a
re often
used
interch
angea
bly.
Heat (q
or Q
) is the energy (E
) transfe
rred due to
the diffe
rence in
temp. (T
).
Unit =
J (jo
ule) or cal (c
alorie)
1 ca
lorie
(cal) =
4.184 J
Food ca
lorie
s are actu
ally
kilo
calorie
s � 1 food ca
lorie
= 1000 “ch
emica
l” calorie
s
Example:
How m
any ca
lorie
s are in
a potato with
686000 J of energy? (C
opy W
ork!)
Specific
Heat (c
or cp ): th
e amount o
f heat e
nergy re
quire
d to
raise
the te
mperature of o
ne
gram of a
substa
nce by 1 0C
(one degree Celsiu
s) or 1
K (o
ne kelvin) –
beca
use th
e sizes of th
e
deg
ree divisio
ns o
n both
scales a
re equal.
**Specific h
eat is u
sually
mea
sured
under co
nsta
nt p
ressure co
nditio
ns –
the su
bscrip
t p (C
p ) – is
used
as a
remin
der.
Specific h
eat is a
consta
nt fo
r a su
bsta
nce. Y
ou m
ust n
otice
the sta
te of m
atte
r (s,l,g) w
hen
selectin
g th
e co
rrect co
nsta
nt v
alue fro
m th
e specific
heat fr
om th
e reference packet.
For w
ater (l), c =
4.18 J/g
0C - g
iven in
packet! A
lso given fo
r ice and ste
am!
Q = mCp ∆T (E
OC pack
et)
Use w
hen
there is a
change in
Tem
pera
ture
where
C= sp
ecific h
eat
q = heat g
ained or lo
st in J
m = m
ass in
g
∆T = ch
ange in
temperature; IM
PORTANT: ∆
T = T
f - Ti, in
0C or K
Equatio
n ca
n be re
arra
nged to
Cp =
q
m ∆T
To ca
lculate th
e heat re
quire
d fo
r changes o
f state (at constant te
mperature), u
se
q = mH
v for b
oilin
g/co
ndensin
g a
nd q
= mH
f for fre
ezing/m
eltin
g
for w
ater: H
v = 2,260 J/g a
nd H
f = 334J/g (a
ll of th
is is in th
e packet!)
Page 36 of 4
5
Heatin
g/Coolin
g Curves
Legend for Calculatio
ns:
1.
Q =
m∆
TC
p(so
lid)
2.
Q =
mH
f
3.
Q =
m∆
TC
p(liq
uid
)
4.
Q =
mH
v
5.
Q =
m∆
TC
p(g
as)
Usin
g y
ou
r Referen
ce Ta
bles, list th
e va
lues fo
r the fo
llow
ing
va
riab
les:
Cp
(solid
)
Cp
(liqu
id)
Cp
(ga
s)
Hf
Tem
p
oC
Tim
e (m
in)
1
2
5
4
3
Page 37 of 4
5
Phase Diagrams – See Unit 9
Reactio
n rate depends on fiv
e th
ings:
1. nature of reactants
2. surface area
3. te
mperature
4. concentratio
n
5. presence of a catalyst
Energy Diagrams
http
://ww
w.sask
scho
ols.ca/cu
rr_co
nten
t/chem
30
_0
5/g
raph
ics/2_
grap
hics/ex
o.g
if
http
://ww
w.sask
scho
ols.ca/cu
rr_co
nten
t/chem
30
_0
5/g
raph
ics/2_
grap
hics/en
do
.gif
Red
dash
ed lin
e dem
on
strates the red
uctio
n o
f the activ
ation
energ
y th
rou
gh
the u
se of a cataly
st.
http
://ww
w.b
bc.co
.uk
/scho
ols/g
csebitesize/ch
emistry
/chem
icalreaction
s/2en
ergych
ang
esrev3
.shtm
l
Page 38 of 4
5
Unit 1
5 Chapter 1
8 – Equilib
rium, Le
Chatelie
r’s Prin
ciple, K
Chemical E
quilib
rium
Reversible reactio
n :
Use �
�
Chemical equilib
rium: sta
te of b
alance in
which
the ra
tes o
f opposin
g rx
ns a
re exactly
equal
Dynamic sta
te: re
actio
ns a
re co
ntin
ually
happening
Example: stu
dents ch
anging ro
oms
Equilib
rium constant: K
or K
eq o
r Kc
K = [p
roducts]
coefficie
nts
[reacta
nts]
coefficie
nts
Why use K
?
K = 1
reactio
ns a
re equal �
at eq
uilib
rium!!
K< 1
reverse
reactio
n fa
vored, m
ore re
acta
nts
K> 1
forw
ard re
actio
n fa
vored, m
ore products
Very Im
portant:
K in
cludes o
nly gases a
nd aqueo
us so
lutio
ns; liq
uid
s and so
lids d
o not h
ave a
concen
tratio
n
Acids, B
ases, and Salts
Weak acid: io
nizes (b
reaks d
own) p
artia
lly
Ka =
acid
ioniza
tion or d
issocia
tion co
nsta
nt
Weak base: slig
htly
disso
ciate ju
st like a weak acid
Kb = hydro
lysis co
nsta
nt
Kw = disso
ciatio
n co
nsta
nt fo
r water =
[OH
-1][H+]
Buffe
r: so
lutio
n th
at ca
n re
sist changes in
pH, u
sually
made up of a
weak acid
or b
ase and a sa
lt
of th
e weak acid
or b
ase.
Le Chatelier’s Principle
A sy
stem at e
quilib
rium will sh
ift to adjust to
changes to
stay at e
quilib
rium.
Conditio
ns:
1. Concentration:
A. In
crease/add �
shifts a
way (to
consume excess)
B. D
ecre
ase/Remove �
shifts to
wards (to
replace)
2. Pressure:
A. In
crease �
shifts to
side with
less g
aseous m
oles
B. D
ecre
ase �
shifts to
side with
more gaseous m
oles
3. T
emperature: –
depends o
n if rx
n is e
xotherm
ic or e
ndotherm
ic
Temperature is th
e Only conditio
n th
at changes th
e value of K
Page 39 of 4
5
Page 40 of 4
5
Page 41 of 4
5
Ksp – Solubility
Constant E
xpression
Solubility
: the amount o
f substa
nce re
quire
d to
form
a sa
turated so
lutio
n with
a sp
ecific
amount o
f solvent a
t a sp
ecifie
d te
mperature.
Units =
?
Units – g/L or M
Remember, sa
lts ionize (b
reak down) in
water.
When a so
lutio
n is sa
turated, it is sa
id to
be at e
quilib
rium �
A saturated solution of salt a
nd water is at equilib
rium.
Unit 1
6 Chapters 1
9 & 22 – Redox Rxns, E
lectro
chemistry
& Nuclear C
hemistry
Electrochemistry:
Students should be able to
:
• Determ
ine oxidatio
n number o
f each element in
a REDOX re
actio
n, in
cluding peroxides.
• Determ
ine elements o
xidized and re
duced.
• Write
half re
actio
ns in
dica
ting gain or lo
ss of electro
ns a
nd id
entify
the re
actio
n as e
ither
reductio
n or o
xidatio
n.
Students sh
ould be aware of so
me practica
l applica
tions o
f oxidatio
n/re
ductio
n re
actio
ns. S
ome examples
inclu
de: sim
ple wet ce
ll, dry ce
ll, bleaching, and electro
platin
g.
Oxidatio
n Numbers:
Summary of Rules for Oxidation Numbers:
� Rule 1: A
toms in
a pure element h
ave an oxidatio
n number o
f zero.
� Rule 2: T
he m
ore electro
negativ
e element in
a binary co
mpound is a
ssigned th
e number e
qual to
the negativ
e ch
arge it w
ould have as a
n anion. T
he less-e
lectro
negativ
e atom is a
ssigned th
e
number e
qual to
the positiv
e ch
arge it w
ould have as a
catio
n.
� Rule 3: F
luorin
e has a
n oxidatio
n number o
f -1 in
all o
f its compounds b
ecause it is th
e m
ost
electro
negativ
e element.
� Rule 4: O
xygen has a
n oxidatio
n number o
f -2 in
alm
ost a
ll compounds.
Excep
tions:
Peroxides, su
ch as H
2 O2 , in
which
its oxidatio
n # is -1
When oxygen is in
compounds w
ith halogens, su
ch as O
F2 , its o
xidatio
n # is +
2.
� Rule 5: H
ydrogen has a
n oxidatio
n # of +
1 in
all co
mpounds th
at a
re m
ore electro
negativ
e th
an it;
it has a
n oxidatio
n # of -1
in co
mpounds w
ith m
etals.
� Rule 6: T
he algebraic su
m of th
e oxidatio
n numbers o
f all a
toms in
a neutra
l compound is z
ero.
� Rule 7: T
he algebraic su
m of th
e oxidatio
n numbers o
f all a
toms in
a polyatomic io
n is e
qual to
the ch
arge of th
e ion.
� Rule 8: R
ules 1
-7 apply to
covalently
bonded atoms; h
owever, o
xidatio
n numbers ca
n also
be
assig
ned to
atoms in
ionic co
mpounds.
Page 42 of 4
5
Oxidatio
n & Reductio
n Notes – Chapter 19
oxidatio
n-re
ductio
n re
actio
ns: re
actio
ns w
hich
involve ch
anges in
oxidatio
n sta
tes d
ue to
an
exchange of e
-s.
Also
called redox reactions.
oxidatio
n: re
actio
n where atoms o
r ions b
ecome more positiv
e (le
ss negative) b
y losing e-s.
example:
2Na(s)
+
Cl2 (g
) →
2NaCl(s)
↓
↓
oxidation #
0
+1
(oxidation # is m
ore positiv
e due to loss o
f 1e-. N
a has been oxidized.)
reductio
n: re
actio
n where atoms o
r ions b
ecome more negative (less positiv
e) b
y gaining e
-s.
example:
2Na(s)
+
Cl2 (g
) →
2NaCl(s)
↓
↓
oxidation #
0
-1
(ox# is m
ore negative due to gain of 1e-. C
l2 has been reduced.)
Use
OIL RIG to R
emember!!
Oxidation I
nvolves L
oss of e- (= m
ore positive
“+”)
Reduction I
nvolves G
ain of e- (= m
ore ne
gative “-“)
Key Points:
Oxidatio
n & Reductio
n always o
ccur to
gether.
e-s lo
st & gained m
ust b
e equal.
If o
xidatio
n #’s d
o not c
hange, it is N
OT a
r re ed do ox x r re e
a ac ct ti io o
n n!!
example:
SO
2
+
H2 O
→
H2 SO
3
+
4 -2
+1 -2
+1 +
4 -2
This is
This is
This is
This is notnotnotnot a redox reaction
!a redox reaction
!a redox reaction
!a redox reaction
!
The compound or e
lement o
n th
e re
actant sid
e containing th
e oxidize
d element is th
e
reducing agent (it c
auses re
ductio
n).
The compound or e
lement o
n th
e re
actant sid
e containing th
e re
duced element is th
e
oxidizin
g agent (it c
auses o
xidatio
n).
Page 43 of 4
5
Nuclear:
A student should be able to
:
• Use th
e sy
mbols fo
r and distin
guish
betw
een alpha ( 2
4He), a
nd beta ( -1
0e) n
ucle
ar p
article
s, and
gamma (γ) ra
diatio
n in
clude re
lativ
e m
ass).
• Use sh
orth
and notatio
n of p
article
s involved in
nucle
ar e
quatio
ns to
balance and so
lve for
unknowns. E
xample: T
he neutro
n is re
presented as (
01n) .
• Discu
ss the penetra
ting ability
of a
lpha, b
eta, and gamma ra
diatio
n.
• Conceptually
describ
e nucle
ar d
ecay, in
cluding:
o Decay as a
random event, in
dependent o
f other e
nergy in
fluences
o Usin
g sy
mbols to
represent sim
ple balanced decay equatio
ns
o Half-life
(inclu
ding sim
ple ca
lculatio
ns)
• Contra
st fission and fu
sion.
Cite
illustra
tions o
f the uses o
f nucle
ar e
nergy, in
cluding, but n
ot lim
ited to
: electricity
, Carbon-14
datin
g, and ra
dioiso
topes fo
r medicin
e (tra
cers, io
nizing ra
diatio
n, gamma ste
rilizatio
n, etc).
Nuclear Decay
Types of d
ecay:
Name
Symbol
Mass
Shielding/Penetratin
g ability
Alpha
α
4 2 H
e
largest m
ass
sto
pped by a sh
eet o
f paper
(Heliu
m nucle
us)
Beta
β
0-1 e
relativ
ely sm
all m
ass
stopped by th
in m
etal
(electro
n emissio
n)
Gamma
γ
00 γ
no m
ass; e
nergy
sto
pped by th
ick lead or
(energy, n
ot w
ritten
Concre
te
in th
e equatio
n)
Neutron
n
10 n
relativ
ely sm
all m
ass
stopped by th
ick co
ncre
te
(neutro
n)
Page 44 of 4
5
Nuclear equatio
ns:
Must b
e balanced on both sides by mass and atomic number!
HALF-LIFE
Half-life
, t1/2 is th
e tim
e re
quire
d fo
r half th
e atoms o
f a ra
dioactiv
e nuclid
e to
decay.
Radioactiv
e datin
g uses k
nowledge of h
alf-liv
es to
approxim
ate th
e age of a
n object.
Radioactiv
e datin
g in
cludes u
sing Carbon -1
4 to
date organic m
ateria
l.
Half-life
calculatio
ns:
Use ra
tio’s to
solve: 1
half-life
= #
of h
alf-liv
es
T
ime of h
alf life
g
iven amount o
f time
Must re
member w
hat a
half-life
means –
½ of th
e orig
inal a
mount d
ecays
Tim
e
amount
Orig
inal
100 %
1 half-life
50 %
2ne half-life
25 %
3rd h
alf-life
12.5 %
4th h
alf-life
6.25 %
Page 45 of 4
5
Fission:
Fusion: