CLASS #1: APCLASS #2: AP/AdvPCLASS #3: AdvP, PPCLASS #4: PPCLASS #5: ADVERBIALSCLASS #6: ADVERBIALSCLASS #7: ADVERBIALS AND MIDTERM OVERVIEW

CLASS #8: MIDTERM OVERVIEW and SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #9: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #10: SIMPLE SENTENCECLASS #11: PHONETICS OVERDOSE (NO GEJ)CLASS #12: GEJ2 OVERDOSE: COMPLEX SENTENCECLASS #13: COMPLEX SENTENCE , WRAP-UP & ORAL EXAM HINTS

MIDTERM

SCHEDULE FOR THE REMAINING CLASSES

We have 3 (but it’s actually TWO) classes remaining! May 23 (NEXT WEEK): NO GEJ2 LECTURE

> TWO LECTURES IN PHONETICS May 30: TWO GEJ2 LECTURES > WE

START AT NOON (WE’LL TALK ABOUT COMPLEX SENTENCES).

June 6: TRAINING FOR THE WRITTEN EXAM (examples from previous exams + hints) & TRAINING FOR THE ORAL EXAM (several question combinations from the oral exam + hints, tips and tricks)

THE SIMPLE SENTENCELECTURE #3 – 2012-05-16

WHAT DID WE DO LAST TIME?

REVIEW LAST WEEKS AGO WE DISCUSSED:

SENTENCE ELEMENTS – SYNTACTICALLY DEFINED (what structures are used to realize a particular sentence element: e.g. Od can be an NP or a nominal clause) > ONLY FINAL NOTES, COMMENTS, ETC.

SENTENCE ELEMENTS – SEMANTICALLY DEFINED (what are the possible roles/meanings of each sentence element)

CONCORD – grammatical agreement between sentence elements in respect to categories such as person, number and gender.

SEMANTICALLY

SENTENCE ELEMENTSDEFINED

SUBJECT – semantically defined

DIRECT OBJECT – semantically defined

INDIRECT OBJECT – semantically defined

COMPLEMENTS – semantically defined

CONCORD

CONCORD – types ofCONCORD

Depending on

SENTENCE ELEMENTSubject-verb

concord

Subject-complement

concord

Object-complement

concord

Depending on

GRAMMATICAL

FEATURESConcord of NUMBER

Concord of PERSON

Concord of GENDER

COORDINATIVE APPOSITION This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad

taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT: His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his

collected papers was with him at his deathbed. His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his

collected papers were with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR

ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).

COORDINATIVE APPOSITION This temple of ugliness and memorial to Victorian bad

taste was erected in the main street of the city. BUT: His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his

collected papers was with him at his deathbed. His aged servant and the subsequent editor of his

collected papers were with him at his deathbed. SINGULAR IS USED IF THE SERVANT AND THE EDITOR

ARE THE SAME PERSON (APPOSITIVE COORDINATION) AND PLURAL IS USED IF THEY ARE TWO DIFFERENT PERSONS (COORDINATION PROPER).

COORDINATION WITH OR AND NOR

1. Either the Mayor or her deputy IS (ARE) bound to come.2. What I say or what I think IS(ARE) no business of yours.3. Either the strikers of the bosses (HAS) HAVE misunderstood the

claim.4. Either your brakes or your eyesight IS (ARE) at fault.5. Either your eyesight or your brakes ARE (IS) at fault.When coordinated items have the same number, there is pure

grammatical concord: when they are both singular (1 and 2) the verb is also singular, when they are both plural (3), the verb is also plural.

When coordinated items do not have the same number, English follows the principle of PROXIMITY: whichever phrase comes last determines the number of the verb. (4 and 5).

NOT…BUT and NOT ONLY…BUT behave like EITHER…OR.

INDEFINITE EXPRESSIONS AS SUBJECT - CONCORD INDEFINITE PRONOUNS (anyone/anybody, no

one/nobody, someone/somebody, everyone/everybody) and NOUNS OF DUAL GENDER (student, teacher, lawyer, judge, etc.) can be referred to by personal pronouns in THREE WAYS: UNMARKED HE (now considered sexist): Everyone

thinks he has the answer to that question. HE OR SHE (politically correct, but long and clumsy):

Someone has to make up his or her mind. THEY (the most politically correct form):

Everyone thinks they or her have the answer.Nobody called did they.Every applicant should hand in their application form now.

Nowadays the best choice because of PC.

END OF REVIEW

NOW…

…SOMETHING A BIT DIFFERENT…

…AND RATHER NEGATIVE…

BASIC INFORMATION

NEGATION

NEGATION Negation is a LOGICAL OPERATION of

implying the opposite or absence of something that is without negation regarded as actual, positive, or affirmative.

GENERAL TYPES OF NEGATION CLAUSE NEGATION – the whole clause is syntactically

treated as negative: Rosie's [not an attractive elephant in any respect] (, is she?)

LOCAL NEGATION – one constituent/sentence element is negated (often depends on pronunciation): [Nothing] agrees with me more than oysters. LOCAL NEGATION

Eating nothing agrees with me more than eating oysters. LOCAL NEGATION [Nothing agrees with me more than oysters]. CLAUSAL NEGATION

Oysters agree with me more than anything else CLAUSE NEGATION PHRASAL NEGATION – one phrase is negated:

She gave me [not even a moment] to somehow collect my thoughts. PREDICATION NEGATION – very rare, applies to

predication only after certain auxiliaries (usually depends on pronunciation): They may [not go swimming]. [=They are allowed not to go swimming]NEGATION IS REALIZED THROUGH USE OF NEGATIVE

ITEMS.

NEGATIVE ITEMS NEGATION is RELIZED through NEGATIVE ITEMS. SYNTACTIC BEHAVIOR of NEGATIVE ITEMS:

NEGATIVE ITEMS trigger the use of NONASSERTIVE FORMS: John is not coming either. I don’t have many friends. I seldom get any sleep.

When NEGATIVE ITEMS are placed in the position BEFORE THE SUBJECT, they can cause a SUBJECT-OPERATOR INVERSION (a.k.a. NEGATIVE INVERSION): Never have I seen anything like that before! Seldom has a truer word been spoken.

NEGATIVE ITEMS are followed by POSITIVE QUESTION TAGS: She rarely visits you, does she?

Remember them from GEJ1? Those are the words that

only appear in nonassertive sentences: any, anybody,

yet, either, any longer, much, etc.

NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS

The clause can be negated: EITHER BY NEGATING THE VERB (VERBAL NEGATION), OR BY NEGATING OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS (NON-

VERBAL NEGATION). Depending on what sentence element is being negated,

it is necessary to use different negative items: VERB NEGATION: the negative particle NOT is always used:

He does not drink. She is not a model wife. NEGATION OF OTHER SENTENCE ELEMENTS can be achieved

using DIFFERENT NEGATIVE ITEMS: Words negative in form and meaning (NUCLEAR NEGATIVES): no,

none, never, not Word negative in meaning only (not negative in form): rarely,

seldom, scarcely, barely, little, few VERBS, ADJECTIVE, PREPOSTIONS with IMPLIED NEGATIVE MEANING:

refuse, deny, fail; reluctant, unaware; without, against; unless

NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS

Nuclear negatives (non-verbal explicitly negative items) can be classified into:

NEGATIVE PRONOUNS (e.g. in S or O position): Nobody came. None of the passengers were hurt. I saw nothing.

NEGATIVE MODIFYING ADVERBS: I felt [none the worse] for it. > modifying AP [Not many] people turned up. > modifying DETERMINER [Not even] the president of Pakistan was informed. > modifying

ADVERB NEGATIVE DETERMINERS:

I expected [no reply]. [Neither team manager] was informed. NEGATIVE COORDINATORS:

Neither today nor tomorrow is suitable. NEGATIVE ADJUNCTS:

Elephants never forget. We found nowhere to stay.

NEGATION via NEGATIVE ITEMS

Negatives with positive-word form (rarely, seldom, scarcely, hardly, little, few, barely, only, etc.) are treated as NEGATIVE FORMS because:

THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY NON-ASSERTIVE FORMS: I seldom get ANY sleep. I’ve spoken to hardly ANYONE. Few changes in government have EVER taken so many people by

surprise. Only two of us had ANY experience in sailing.

WHEN THEY ARE PLACED IN THE INITIAL POSITION, THEY CAUSE NEGATIVE INVERSION:

Rarely DOES crime PAY so well as Mr Benn seems to think. Little NEED I DWELL upon the hope that she actually loves me.

THEY ARE FOLLOWED BY POSITIVE TAG-QUESTIONS: She scarcely seems to care for you, DOES SHE?

VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION

We’ve had some lunch.

He saw one man or the other.

We’ve had some.

We haven’t had any lunch.We had no lunch.He didn’t see either man.He saw neither man. (unusual)We haven’t had any.We’ve had none.

ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE)

VERBAL NEGATION vs. NON-VERBAL NEGATION

He saw one or other of the men.

I’ve bought something for you.

She sometimes visits me.

He didn’t see either of the men.He saw neither of the men.I haven’t bought anything for you.I’ve bought nothing for you.She doesn’t ever visit me.She never visits me.

ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE (NON-ASSERTIVE NEGATIVE)

• OBVIOUSLY, IN THE VAST MAJORITY OF INSTANCES THE SPEAKER HAS A CHOICE BETWEEN USING THE VERBAL NEGATION (VERB+NOT) OR NON-VERBAL NEGATION (NONE, NOTHING, ETC.).

• HOWEVER, ALTHOUGH THESE TWO FORMS ARE SEMANTICALLY EQUIVALENT, THEY ARE RARELY APPROPRIATE IN THE SAME STYLE OR REGISTER.

• NON-VERBAL NEGATION IS MUCH MORE FREQUENT IN FORMAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE, WHILE VERBAL NEGATION IS MORE INFORMAL.

DIGRESSION: multiple negation Unlike most other languages, standard

national forms of English (BrE, AmE, CaE, AuE, etc.) DO NOT FAVOR MULTIPLE NEGATION. Multiple negation is allowed in SUB-STANDARD

varieties of English, e.g. AAVE: Yo, I’m telling you man, nobody ain’t seen nothing.

The negative item MUST BE FOLLOWED THROUGHOUT THE REST OF THE CLAUSE BY ONE OR MORE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS.\ I haven’t said ANYTHING to ANYBODY YET.

DIGRESSION: multiple negation However, even in standard English it is

occasionally permissible to have two negations if each negative element negates its own part of the sentence. I ca[n’t] [not obey]. [Not many people] have [nowhere to live]. [No one] has [nothing to offer to society]. [Not many Spaniards] have [no knowledge of bull

fighting]. [Nobody here] has [never at any time told a lie]. Neighbours [should not be] [uncooperative].

THE FACT THAT THESE SENTENCES ARE

GRAMMATICAL HAS TO DO WITH SOMETHING CALLED

“SCOPE OF NEGATION”

NEGATION: SCOPE OF NEGATION The SCOPE OF NEGATION is the stretch of

language OVER WHICH THE NEGATIVE MEANING OPERATES AND WHERE NON-ASSERTIVE ITEMS MUST BE USED.

The SCOPE OF NEGATION EXTENDS FROM THE NEGATIVE ITEM TO: THE END OF THE CLAUSE (NOT NECESSARILY

THE END OF THE SENTENCE), THE END OF THE NEGATED PHRASE (IF ONLY A

SINGLE PHRASE IS NEGATED), OR THE BEGINNING OF THE FINAL ADJUNCT.

WHY IS THIS SUCH A BIG DEAL?

The POSITION OF THE NEGATIVE ITEM may

drastically INFLUENCE THE MEANING OF THE WHOLE

SENTENCE:

SCOPE OF NEGATION Nothing agrees with me more than

oysters.= There is nothing else that I like more

than oysters.

Nothing agrees with me more than oysters.

= I would much rather eat nothing than oysters.

SCOPE OF NEGATION I definitely didn’t speak to him.= It is definite that I did not.

I didn’t definitely speak to him.= It is not definite that I did.

SCOPE OF NEGATION I wasn’t LISTENING all the time.= For the whole time, I wasn’t listening.

I wasn’t listening ALL the time.= It’s not true that I was listening all the time.

SO, WHEN AN ADJUNCT IS FINAL, IT MAY OR MAY NOT LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.

SCOPE OF NEGATION I didn’t listen to some of them.= There were some of the speakers that I didn’t

listen to.

I didn’t listen to any of them.= There were not any speakers that I listened to.

SO, IF AN ASSERTIVE ITEM IS USED IN THE ADJUNCT, THE ADJUNCT MUST LIE OUTSIDE THE SCOPE OF NEGATION.

FOCUS OF NEGATION The FOCUS OF NEGATION is the part of

the sentence within the scope of negation that bears special stress. E.g.

I didn’t take the <GRAMMAR> exam last week.

I didn’t take the grammar <EXAM> last week.

I didn’t take the grammar exam <LAST> week.

I didn’t take the grammar exam last <WEEK>.

FOCUS OF NEGATION – add-on

Focus of negation is a SPECIAL/CONTRASTIVE NUCLEAR STRESS which is placed on a particular part of the clause in order to indicate that the contrast of meaning implicit in THE NEGATION IS LOCATED AT THAT SPOT and also that THE REST OF THE CLAUSE CAN BE UNDERSTOOD IN A POSITIVE SENSE.

The focus of negation can split the scope of negation so that the scope becomes DISCONTINUOUS.

FOCUS OF NEGATION I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL

today.= I forgot to do so. (FALLING INTONATION)

I didn’t take JOAN to swim in the pool today.

= I took Mary instead.

FOCUS OF NEGATION I didn’t take Joan to SWIM in the pool

today.= I just took her there to see the pool.

I didn’t take Joan to swim in the POOL today.

= I took her to the lake instead. (RISING INTONATION)

FOCUS OF NEGATION I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool

TODAY.= I took her there last week.

I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today.

= It was my brother who took her.

SCOPE AND FOCUS Scope and focus of negation are

INTERRELATED, such that the scope must include the focus.

So, one way of signaling the extent of the scope of negation is by the position of the focus.

One example of this is when the scope of negation is atypically extended to include a subordinate clause, with a contrastive fall-rise to emphasize this:

SCOPE AND FOCUS I didn’t leave HOME because I was afraid

of my FATHER.= Because I was afraid of my father, I

didn’t leave home.

I didn’t leave home because I was afraid of my FATHER.

= I left home, but it wasn’t because I was afraid of my father.

SCOPE AND FOCUS She didn’t come to SEE him when he

ASKED.= When he asked, she didn’t come to see

him.

She didn’t come to see him when he ASKED.

= She came to see him, but not at the time he asked her to come to see him.

THE ENDOF SIMPLE SENTENCE.

BUT THE BEGINNING OF…

COMPLEX SENTENCEINTRODUCTION

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

Based on the number and type of clauses in a sentence, there are three types of sentences:

SENTENCE

SIMPLECOMPOUNDCOMPLEX

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES SIMPLE SENTENCE = SINGLE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE,

all sentence elements are realized as phrases:[The members] [did not know] [the scope of the problem]. S (NP) V (VP) O (NP)

COMPLEX SENTENCE = ONE INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSE AND AT LEAST ONE DEPENDENT/SUBORDINATE CLAUSE, at least one sentence element is realized as a clause:[The members] [know] [that the problem has a wide scope]. S (NP) V (VP) O (clause)[The members] [knew] [the answer] [when the chairman asked]. S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) (A) (clause)

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES

COMPOUND SENTENCE = AT LEAST TWO INDEPENDENT/MAIN CLAUSES:[She] [took] [the test] [in June] and [she] [passed] [it] [easily].S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) A (PP) CONJ. S(NP) V (VP) O (NP) (A) (AdvP)[Mary] [likes] [dogs] but [she] [doesn’t like] [hamsters].S (NP) V (VP) O (NP) CONJ. S(NP) V (VP) O (NP)

LINKERS LINKERS are syntactic items which link two

syntactic element. Depending on the type of syntactic elements

which are linked, linkers can be classified into two groups:

CONJUNCTS – they link SENTENCES, e.g.He studied hard. However, he didn’t pass the exam.

CONJUNCTIONS – they link CLAUSES, and according to their function they can be further divided into: Coordinators (and, but, or) Subordinators (if, although, that, when, etc.)

SUBORDINATION vs. COORDINATION

Both SUBORDINATION and COORDINATION are processes of linking of at least two syntactic units.

However, they are different HIERARCHICALLY: SUBORDINATION: syntactic units being linked are

NOT on the same syntactic level. COORDINATION: syntactic units being linked ARE

ON THE SAME syntactic level. Why do we talk about SYNTACTIC UNITS and not

CLAUSES? Because, both CLAUES and PHRASES can be

COORDINATED (but, phrases CANNOT be SUBORDINATED)

SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES

SUBORDINATION (← OR →) is a non-symmetrical relation holding between 2 clauses in such a way that one is a constituent of the other (MAIN/MATRIX CLAUSE has SUBORDINATE CLAUSE as ITS CONSTITUENT).

They think that she can succeed if she tries hard enough.S V O

conj. S ------V------ -------------(ADV)---------- conj. S V -----

(ADV)-----THIS MEANS THAT SUBORDINATION IS RECURSIVE:A subordinate clause itself can have as its constituent another subordinate clause (that she can succeed if she tries hard enough).

SUBORDINATION OF CLAUSES

The relationship of subordination can be represented graphically with a TREE DIAGRAM:

They think

that she can succeed

if she tries hard enough

COORDINATION COORDINATION (↔) is a symmetrical

relation holding between 2 clauses which are of EQUAL STATUS.

Why do we mention EQUAL STATUS? Because, the two coordinated clauses

can be either two MAIN/INDEPENDENT clauses (=COMPOUND sentence), or two SUBORDINATE/DEPENDENT clauses.

COORDINATION Coordination of two MAIN/INDEPENDENT

clauses:She took the test and she passed it.

This structure is actually a COMPOUND SENTENCE.

It too, just as a complex sentence, can be represented graphically.

S V ----O---- Conj./Coord. S V O

COORDINATION

SHE TOOK THE TEST SHE PASSED IT

AND

COORDINATION Coordination of two

SUBORDINATE/DEPENDENT clauses:He said he was worried and that they had

to talk.

This structure is actually a COMPLEX SENTENCE.

It too can be represented graphically.

S V ----------------------------- O ------------------------------S V ----Cs---- Conj./Coord. Sub. S -------

V--------

COORDINATION

He said

and

he was worried

that they had to talk

THE END

THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME!CU NEXT WEEK, BUT ONLY IN PRACTICE CLASSES!

WHAT IS THIS ABOUT?

IT’S ABOUT YOU VOLUNTEERING, SPENDING 20 MINUTES OF YOUR TIME AND TAKING PART IN A

GROUND-BREAKING RESEARCH.

NOTE: This is not my research. This is a research that Randy and I are doing together.

HOWEVER, IT IS NOT NICE TO ASK PEOPLE TO SIGN UP FOR SOMETHING IF THEY DO NOT KNOW

WHAT IT IS THAT THEY ARE SIGNING UP FOR…

SO, LET ME EXPLAIN…

THIS BRINGS ME TO THE TOPIC OF THE RESEARCH THAT I AND RANDY WOULD LIKE YOU

TO TAKE PART IN.

?

Subtitling

Subtitling: also in games

Closed Captioning

Closed Captioning: also on the net

Surtitling

Dubbing

Voiceover

Audio Description

AVT IS EVERYWHERE AROUND US AND THERE ARE MANY MODES OF AVT…

REALISTICALLY, HOWEVER, THERE ARE ONLY TWO MAIN MODES…

SUBTITLING vs. DUBBING

Dubbing vs. SubtitlingExpensiveSlowLess flexible (films, series)Loss of original dialoguePretence to be ‘domestic’Better for (semi)illiterate, childrenLess reduction of textMore manipulation of the originalMore calques from the originalAllows overlapping of voicesRepetitive voices for dubbing actorsRespect of original imagesViewer can concentrate on imagesEasier to followPromotes cinematic illusionViewer can follow plot without watchingLip-syncOne linguistic codeOral > Oral

CheapFastMore flexible (any programmes)Respect of original dialoguePromotes foreign languagesBetter for the deaf, hard of hearing and immigrantsMore reduction of textDifficult to manipulateLess calquesDoes not allow overlappingOriginal voices maintainedPollution of imagesDistracts from imagesMore difficult to followCan detract from cinema illusionViewer needs to watchSpace and time synchronyTwo concurrent linguistic codesOral > Written

However, these statements are

IMPRESSIONISTIC, i.e. they are not based on

verifiable data.

SO, WHAT IS THIS REALLY ABOUT?

HAVE YOU HEARED OF EXERCISE STRESS TESTING?

WE WANT TO STRESS-TEST YOUR BRAIN IN THE CONTEXT OF AUDIO-VISUAL TRANSLATION

I.E. WE WANT TO TEST HOW MUCH (HOW HARD) YOU BRAIN WORKS WHILE BEING EXPOSED TO DIFFERENT

TYPES OF AUDIO-VISUAL TRANSLATION (SUBS vs. DUBS)

THAT WAY WE HOPE TO FINALLY HAVE SCIENTIFICALLY VALID DATA TO VALIDATE (OR REFUTE) CLAIMS THAT SUBTITLING IS

MORE PROCESSING INTENSIVE THAN DUBBING FROM THE POINT OF THE VIEWER….

HOW DO WE PLAN TO DO THAT?

WIRELESS EEG a.k.a. NEUROHEADSET

YOU WATCH THREE VIDEO CLIPS FEATURING SUBTITLES AND DUBBING WHILE WEARING A

NEUROHEADSET.

WHILE YOU’RE WATCHING THE VIDEOS, WE RECORD YOUR BRAIN ACTIVITY AND CREATE

YOUR BRAIN’S ACTIVITY MAP.

WE THINK IT’S BETTER THAN THE ALTERNATIVES…

IS THIS SAFE?

LET ME DEMONSTRATE…

IF YOU ARE WILLING TO PARTICIPATE, PLEASE, SIGN UP.

WE NEED A TOTAL OF 50 VOLUNTEERS

WE ONLY NEED 20 MINUTES OF YOUR TIME.