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FRAMEWORK CONTRACT COMMISSION 2007 Lot nr 4
Contract Nr 2009/218990
CIVIL SOCIETY MAPPING IN ASIA
OPERATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL NOTE
December 2010
Expert: Gianfrancesco Costantini
This project is funded by the European Union A project implemented by
The contents of this publication is the sole responsibility of Soges S.p.A and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union
S.p.A
FRAMEWORK CONTRACT COMMISSION 2007
Lot nr. 4 – Contract Nr. 2009/218990
Study on Civil Society Mapping in Asia
Operational and Methodological Note
December 2010
S. p. A
1
CONTENTS
1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 2
2. CSOs in the European Cooperation Policy..................................................................................................... 2
3. Civil Society in Asia ........................................................................................................................................ 3
3.1. A diversified and rich society.................................................................................................................. 4
3.2. Asian Civil Societies arise from the combination of a variety of processes ........................................... 5
3.3. A rough typology of Asian CSOs ............................................................................................................. 7
3.4. The role of CSOs in the peace building process ................................................................................... 10
3.5. The role in the representation of minorities........................................................................................ 12
3.6. Gender Issues and Women’s Organizations......................................................................................... 13
3.7. Modalities of CS involvement in EC Development Cooperation in Asian Countries ........................... 15
4. Carrying out a Civil Society Mapping in Asia ............................................................................................... 16
4.1. Building up on previous experiences.................................................................................................... 16
4.2. Methodological recommendations ...................................................................................................... 21
4.3. Practical tips ......................................................................................................................................... 22
5. Operational and policy implications............................................................................................................ 26
2
1. Introduction
The goal of this guide is to provide the EU Delegations and their partners a set of tools to improve the
involvement of Civil Society actors in EU Development initiatives, to design strategies to strengthen these
actors and to identify new key actors and partners and actions to be carried out.
This guide is not a handbook of Civil Society Organisations Mapping. However, it is designed to support the
design of initiatives aimed at improving the knowledge of the characteristics and dynamics of Civil Society
and the formulation of relevant strategies to enhance CSOs’ involvement in policy making and
implementation of development policies.
2. CSOs in the European Cooperation Policy
Together with state institutions at central level and Local Authorities, the private sector and other Non
State Actors, Civil Society Organisations play an important role in the development of Asian countries, and
namely in:
Supporting the building of effective and participative democracies, by:
• Supporting the establishment of good governance and of accountable public authorities;
• Improving the targeting and implementation of public policies;
• Providing services where the States are unable to deliver, such as in remote geographic areas and
to marginalized social groups;
• Representing the interests of different groups in increasingly diversified societies.
The relevance of CSOs’ role in development has been recognized since the 1990s by the international
development community, firstly in the practice of development initiatives, and then in international
meetings and agendas: from the Rio Declaration in 1992, to the Millennium Development Goals and the
Monterey Consensus (2002), up to the more recent Paris Declaration (2005) and Accra Agenda for Action
(2008).
Following the experiences in ACP countries1, the European Union has recognized in the cooperation
agreements with Asian countries the need to involve CSOs as indispensable partners in development policy.
This was also formally recognized in the regulation (EC) No 1905/2006 of 18 December 2006 establishing
the financing instrument for development cooperation: introductive paragraphs 14 and 22; Article 3:
general principles, comma N. 3.3; 3.8 (b); 10; Article 5, geographic programmes, comma 2 (g); article 7,
Asia, comma b; and Article 11 Thematic programmes (a); Article 19 Geographic strategy papers and
multiannual indicative Programmes, comma 3 and 8; Article 20 Strategy papers for thematic programmes,
comma 2) . The implementation of this policy requires that EU institutions move from a rather episodic to a
more systematic and strategic consultation of CSOs2 and from project-based support initiatives to local
strategic support initiatives, integrating the different available funding instruments3.
1 The recognition of NSAs as partners for Development initiatives is among the main innovations in the 10
th European
Development Fund. 2 In some Asian Countries, the EU Delegations carried out CSOs consultations on the Country Strategy Papers (CSP)
2007 – 2013. In almost all countries CSOs were consulted in the framework of the Mid Term Review of the strategy
3
A strategic involvement of CSOs in development policies is not always easy. In addition to the complexity of
European institutions, it faces an important obstacle in the complexity and opacity of Civil Society. Given
the wide variety of CSOs and Civil Society stakeholders, and considering the complexity of the dynamics in
which these stakeholders and organizations participate, it is not always a simple task to identify the
strategic actors to be involved in EU activities and to identify relevant initiatives to support them. However,
this task may be facilitated by making available specific instruments to support policy making, such as –
among others – CSOs mapping.
Civil society and Non-state Actors (NSAs)
A universally agreed definition of the concepts of Civil Society and Non State Actors does not exist. A lively discussion
exists on these concepts, including the attempt to adapt a set of concepts, elaborated by “Western” Social Sciences, to
the local contexts in Asia, Africa and Latin America.
In this guide therefore a choice is necessary, in order to refer to an agreed operational definition of these terms.
Reference is made to the official documents of the European Commission, without opening again a theoretical debate
that risks being irrelevant for the purpose of this guide.
The Communication of the Commission on the “Participation of Non-State Actors in EC Development Policy” provides
the following definition:
“The term NSAs is used to describe a range of organizations that bring together the principal, existing or emerging,
structures of the society outside the government and public administration. NSAs are created voluntarily by citizens,
their aim being to promote an issue or an interest, either general or specific. They are independent of the state and
can be profit or non-profit making organizations.”
A further element is provided by the Cotonou Agreement, which includes among NSAs: the private sector; the social
and economic stakeholders; trade unions; and civil society organizations of all kinds according to national
characteristics.
The EC therefore seems to adopt a very general definition of the term Civil Society, including all kinds of organizations
that are outside the state and the private sector.
Although the debate on Civil Society is still open, a generally accepted broad definition that can be used as a general
reference for the purpose of this guide is the one provided by CIVICUS (an international NGO involved in studying
citizenship worldwide). According to CIVICUS, Civil Society is “the arena, outside of the family, the state and the
market where people associate to advance common interests”
3. Civil Society in Asia
When looking at Civil Society a complex reality emerges.
This is true for Europe, Africa and the Pacific, Latin America and Asia. An important element of this
complexity is the fact that Civil Society development is the product of the merging of some global trends –
papers (2009). Other consultation activities have been carried out by some of the EU Delegations, particularly for the
identification of the main themes and issues to be considered in the framework of the European Initiative on
Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR) and the thematic programme Non State Actors and Local Authorities (NSA –
LA). 3 Thus integrating the geographic initiatives and the thematic programmes: Investing in People, Environment and
sustainable management of natural resources including energy, Non-State actors and local authorities in
development, Food security, Migration and asylum.
4
such as the increasing capacity of people to self-organize, to analyze their situations and problems, to
produce social representations and to mobilize energies and resources to implement actions – with the
local social, cultural and economic processes.
In Asia this produces a situation that may be recognized as somehow particular, because of the great
diversity of this region. Despite the differences, some common features and processes can be identified.
3.1. A diversified and rich society
The social and political reality in which CSOs are emerging is very diversified and very rich from several
points of view. Some elements that influence the complexity of Asian Civil Societies are mentioned here
below:
- Cultures and Ethnic groups: all countries – also those in which a cultural-ethnic majority exists –
show a great variety of cultural and ethnic groups, often involved in conflict situations or in
discrimination and social exclusion dynamics;
- Religion: while in some cases there is a dominant religion – also because of political and historical
dynamics - in almost all countries there are many religions, or at least some religious minorities are
present, and they may often be involved in situations of discrimination;
- the political regimes and institutions: varying from multiparty federal system, on the one extreme,
to mono-party centralized system, on the other;
- the degree of decentralization: while most Asian countries have started decentralization or
devolution processes in the last years, the degree of decentralization is very different. In some
countries decentralized systems are “de facto” ruled by the central state authorities, in some
others the states limits its role to the setting of general rules;
- the economic processes: while most countries are experiencing a sort of “free market” economy,
differences exist in the participation to “globalization processes”, or the nature of local economy;
- the social stratification and social inclusion dynamics: rigid stratifications exist in many countries –
in some cases also based on a cultural/religious origin, as in the caste system – while social mobility
is a relevant feature in other countries; moreover, in many cases new “social groups” emerge as
new actors on the national and local scene, while social inclusion or social exclusion dynamics
assume several forms;
- the geographic space and the organization of territory and human settlements: in addition to the
Urban – Rural divide, in many Asian countries other divides exist, between plain, hills and
mountains, mainland and islands, areas served by roads and remote areas, etc.; the differentiation
in the organization of the physical space generates different dynamics which influence the
development of CSOs.
- Cross-border conflicts: they are another typical feature of the Asia region (Pakistan-India,
Bangladesh-Myanmar, Cambodia-Thailand, etc.) and they obviously affect the possibilities of
collaboration between civil societies of neighbouring countries. It is interesting to note that in these
cases civil society can play a positive role in conflict mitigation4
4 For example, the role of Indian and Pakistani NGOs in promoting peace is a topic that would deserve a specific
analysis
5
These factors influence the development of civil society across the Asian Region. While in some countries
civil society organizations are still in a very incipient situation, in others s they are strong and well
recognized actors. A differentiated approach based on the countries’ specific contexts is therefore
necessary.
3.2. Asian Civil Societies arise from the combination of a variety of processes
The current state of CSOs in the different countries is linked to various processes that have interested the
whole region, through different modalities, and often with different time-frames.
These processes include:
- The Democratization and liberation movements: many countries have been characterized by the
presence of authoritarian states or governments (from military regimes to “communist” states); in
most countries therefore a democratic movement took shape, very often through civil society
organizations engaged in supporting poor and discriminated social groups, as well as in advocating
for democracy and the respect of Human rights. Ann environmentalist movement emerged as well
in many of these countries to defend the communities’ access to natural resources. In some cases,
these groups were able to mobilize public opinion and to create large social movements, while in
others they maintained a smaller “associative” dimension. In most countries, the “heritage” and
memory of democratization and liberation movements is still an important feature of many CSOs
and very often it is an important determinant of the attitudes and representations shared among
public officers and sometimes by the ordinary people. The representation of CSOs as a sort of
“political opposition” is very frequent, also in countries in which there are well structured forms of
collaboration between public authorities and CSOs.
- Since the 1970s, the experience of international cooperation and the presence of International
NGOs (INGO) have been important social phenomena. In several cases the organizational and
institutional shape of local Civil Society Organizations are very much linked to that of INGOs.
Moreover, INGOs have offered organizational and operational examples to civic organizations for
voluntary or professional work aimed at supporting communities. From the experience of
international cooperation and the presence of INGOs some other consequences derive, such as an
(unevenly distributed) capacity to deal, negotiate and manage partnership with external actors, a
tendency to accommodate the local organizations’ agendas to the agendas of international donors,
a certain “donors dependency” and a growing competition among CSOs and among local and
international NGOs.
- The self-help and community mobilization to solve local problems and to facilitate service
provision. In most countries the bulk of Civil Society does not consist of the “formally” and legally
established organizations, but of thousands of more or less informal Community Based
Organisations (CBOs). These organizations mainly developed from the mobilization of a community
or a group of people facing common problems and working together to find solutions. In several
cases this mobilization directly involved the concerned population in delivering the needed
services, as in the housing and water infrastructure self–help groups that exist in many Asian urban
areas. In other cases, the mobilization was mainly focused on advocating for service provision,
interacting with Public Authorities, local NGOs, or international agencies and NGOs.
- A long established custom of traditional solidarity initiatives. In most Asian countries, some kinds
of traditional community work and labour sharing initiatives exist. In some cases these initiatives
are faith based, like in the cases of the organization of religious festivals, of “faith based charitable
initiatives” that exist in most countries since centuries, but they are very often related to traditional
6
forms of organization of community life and to the relationships between families, for example in
the cases of most agricultural labour sharing in harvesting, land preparation and seeding. The
presence of such traditions in countries diverse as Philippines, India or Thailand, constitutes a
fertile ground for CSOs.
- The emerging of new professional groups. Most Asian countries host a strong and vibrant
education sector that has produced powerful professional groups. In the last decades, also because
of the change in the world economic environment, new professional groups emerged specialized in
the use of new technologies or in development initiatives. These professional groups find
important job opportunities in the development of CSOs and NGOs.
The different ways these processes merge in national experiences created a diversified situation, even
though with some common elements such as the existence of many organizations at grassroots and
community level, the diffusion of civic engagement in service delivery and solidarity activities5 and – in
most countries where a democratic regime is established – the presence of resource organizations and of a
local capacity in institutional strengthening. In such a situation the impact of citizens' activities is widely
recognized, particularly when it comes to social assistance activities (health, food and nutrition, education,
etc.). Such a presence and diffusion of Civil Society has been also recognized by international research, such
as the Civil Society Index (CSI). According CSI analysis, civil society has a greater development in Asia than in
other continental regions (such as Africa). Among the “dimensions” of civil society the one contributing to
the high score of the Asian CSI is that of impact6. An issue that is identified in the CSI studies as common to
most Asian countries is the relationships between the state and civil society organizations.
Indeed, while in all countries a tradition exists of civic engagement that has its origin in faith based
initiatives and in community relationships, the emergence of civil society as an “autonomous” part of
society is in some cases a subject of discussions as it is perceived as a threat to the existing “balance of
powers”.
Some typical situations can be identified across the Asia region:
� f a civil society negotiating an higher participation to policy making, and partially achieving it, Such a
situation may in different ways be that of India, Bangladesh, Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and to
some extent also South Korea and Sri Lanka, in which CSOs’ engagement is strong in service
provision, advocacy and policy action, and many possibilities for CSOs’ strengthening exist, but in
which the democratic process is characterized by transformation processes that also affect the
space of civil society;
a civil society still looking for being recognized as an autonomous actor, as it often happens in
countries characterized by a current or past authoritarian regimes; in these countries the space for
political participation and policy debate of CSOs is often to be disputed not only with government but
also with government affiliated “mass organizations”. It is possible to identify in this situation the civil
societies of countries such as Pakistan, Vietnam, Laos, and, to a certain extent, China.
� a civil society still in an early development period, where the lack of resources is an important
feature of CSOs, in terms of institutional capacities, availability of support and the capacity to
5 This creates what can be identified as a set of cultural values that can feed civil society. However, it is necessary to
stress that very often these values are very different from those normally linked to civil society in European cultures
(e.g. universalism, equality, freedom and openness, transparency, etc.). 6 The CSI approach has been applied in the years 2005 – 2007 in 66 countries worldwide. It is based on the analysis of
four dimensions: the level of organization of civil society; the practice of values; the perceived impact and the
environment. The countries in which the CSI results higher are those of Western Europe, while African countries have
the lower CSI. Latin America and Asia have similar indexes. In the Asian countries the index given to the “impact”
dimension is higher than the indexes evaluating the environment, the values, and the structure of civil societies.
7
create a network; this is often the case of countries in which a transition to democracy or armed
conflicts are in progress (Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan, etc.).
3.3. A rough typology of Asian CSOs
Based on the processes mentioned above a great variety of CSOs exist in the Asian countries. These
different types of organisations, shortly described below, can be identified as belonging to different levels,
according to their social features and functions. Namely we refer to the four levels of CSOs that have been
identified in previous CSOs mapping studies, ranging from grassroots, self-help and community
organizations to the national and regional civil society platforms7.
- Community Based Organizations (CBOs) are generally created to directly address the immediate
concerns and needs of their members. Community based organisations exist in most Asian
countries, where they provide services at grassroots levels, and also – as the case of the Indian
organisations participating to the CCBOS - in many cases advocating for a constructive policy
environment at local level.
- People Organizations (POs) is the name given to most CBOs in the Philippines. These organizations
can be informal and temporary, or can assume a more formal and permanent character and can
even be registered by local authorities as actors participating in local policy making or in the
delivery of public services.
- Tenants and neighbourhood associations are typical organization of the urban population – both in
slum or squatter areas and in the areas of the so-called “formal city”. These organizations usually
mobilize people to advocate for better services and an improved management of the urban space,
protesting against or supporting the actions of the Public authorities. Slum dwellers organisations
are particularly important in some Asian countries where they created federations that negotiate
and partner with local authorities in designing urban policies: among others is the case of
Cambodia, Thailand and India.
- Community development organizations, resource-user groups and water-user groups: at local
level, particularly in rural areas, forms of aggregation exist in order to manage common resources –
such as water for irrigation and forests – and to promote the improvement of local livelihood or
infrastructures. These groups are often based on traditional kinds of organization. Sometimes they
are promoted by public officers or by the representatives of the state at local level. This kind of
groups is very common all over the Asian countries and often is bordering with traditional labour
sharing or resource management organisations, as in Thailand and in Nepal.
- Self Help groups, including support groups in which members provide each other with various
types of help, usually nonprofessional and nonmaterial, for a particular shared, usually
burdensome, characteristic, and saving groups that usually involve women or micro-entrepreneurs
with homogenous social and economic backgrounds., Bangladesh became famous for these groups
and their relevance in setting up micro-finance system. However similar groups are among the
most diffused in all South Asia. In most countries self help groups developed as a way to deal with
HIV-AIDS.
- NGOs – or Non Governmental Organizations – normally include all non-for-profit organizations
that are independent from the State; however, the meaning of the term “NGO” has shifted to
7 A description of the four levels of Civil Society Organisations is provided in paragraph 4.1. The adoption of an
approach differentiating among various organisation levels allows a differentiated analysis of functions and capacities
of CSOs, and then a more focused identification of their needs.
8
indicate professional, intermediary organizations that provide or advocate the provision of
services addressing social and humanitarian issues.. NGOs developed in most Asian countries since
the ‘70s. However in some countries where democratic transitions are in progress or where still
authoritarian regimes exist they are still a recent phenomenon.
- Faith Based organizations, including religious based groups organized around a place of religious
worship or congregation, a specialized religious institution, or a registered or unregistered
institution with a religious character or mission. Faith Based Organisations are an important reality
particularly in South Asia, and are developed among all communities, from Muslims to Buddhists.
- Foundations, that include philanthropic and charitable organizations set up by individuals or
institutions as a legal entity (a corporation or trust) that support causes consistent with the goals of
the foundation Foundations are emerging as one of the main forms of Corporate Social
Responsibility and are increasingly considered an important source of funding of the activities of
other CSOs. In some Asian countries, such as India, these organisations represent a widespread
phenomenon; in others as in Nepal or in the Philippines they are a relatively new one .
- International NGOs. International NGOs include organizations having their headquarters in a
“developed country” and carrying out development and socially beneficial activities in developing
countries. Very often international NGOs have permanent local or national chapters, with differing
degrees of autonomy.
- Professional Associations include organizations representing the interests of their members who
typically engage in a certain occupation, practice or specific profession. In some cases professional
associations are among the main actors in public service reforms, e.g. in the health sector were
doctors and nurses associations often assume a pivotal role. This has been for instance the case of
Philippines.
- Research Institutes, training institutes and resource centres, include organizations that, apart from
the academy and State institutions, conduct research and analysis, or knowledge accumulation and
dissemination activities, relating to public policy issues, development and social welfare and that
disseminate their findings and recommendations to influence decision makers.. Countries where a
strong presence of research institutes may be observed among CSOs include India, Bangladesh,
Philippines, and Thailand.
- Labour Unions and Trade Unions, workers’ formally organized associations, having as goal the
advancement of working and living conditions (wages, hours of work, working conditions, etc.)..
The public sector unions are particularly strong in the region. They frequently associate themselves
in umbrella organizations and federations at local, national and international level. In some cases,
labour unions are affiliated to political parties, and tend to report to them rather than to their
members (it is among others the case of Nepal and that of Philippines). In the region it is also
frequent to have labour unions that are organized or managed by the States (as in Vietnam, China,
Laos, Myanmar…). In this case a gap emerges between the needs and orientations of the members
and those represented by Trade Unions’ policies.
9
The boundaries of Civil Society
As the concept of Non State Actors, also the concept of Civil Society (CS) is the matter of a lively discussion. However,
common to most definition of CS is the identification of a social space that is distinct and autonomous from the
space of the State and from the space of the Market, with some uncertain areas like Trade Unions, Media,
professional organizations, etc
Moreover, in most cases CS is also considered separated from other institutional spaces, such as those of religions
and of families, even though the boundaries between civil society, and, for example, religious associations and
churches are a matter of debate.
A further development of the concept frequently takes into account the motivation and orientation of the actors
involved in CS: these must refer to “common interest” and “common good”.
Under a similar approach CSOs should be autonomous from the state and the government (such as public institutions
on one side and political parties, on the other), from private companies and economic operators and from the actors
that refer to other institutional spaces. However, when looking at the real situation, often CSOs’ autonomy is not so
evident; in many cases CSOs are politically biased or are faith based, in some other cases they appear to be promoted
by State organizations (as in the case of many CBOs around the Asian region) or to advocate for the interests of
specific groups. Moreover, in many cases it is difficult to identify the constituency of CSOs and their capacity to
represent others than their members.
The boundaries of CS and of the CSOs community are therefore flexible and dynamic: organizations that have been
created through State initiative are sometimes more able to represent local communities and to move in an
autonomous way than formally autonomous NGOs that respond to private or political party interests. It is often
difficult to define “a priori” the belonging of an organization to CS: in some cases Trade Unions are important actors in
Civil Society, in others they are so linked to political parties or to the state (or even to the private sector) that they
must considered within the State arena.
A similar situation may be observed for the Foundations: sometimes they are “private” initiatives that fully participate
to CS because they refer to a collective constituency and have an orientation to the “common good”, but very often
they relate to corporate needs and orientations, and should be identified as belonging to the private sector, even
though they are active in the social space.
Quite often belonging to CS is considered a “formal” feature of organizations, so that sometimes, CSOs are identified
with NGOs. This is, however, a misleading approach: rather than being a formal feature, belonging to CS consists in the
participation in social processes. Mapping CSOs thus requires focusing on these processes.
Associations of organizations, “Umbrella” or “Peek” organizations, Coalitions and Federations exist
among CSOs, both as permanent or temporary forms of organization. These “collectives” of CSOs can have
different objectives:
- Fostering CSOs’ common interests – for instance advocating the attribution of a privileged status to
CSOs or the reform of existing legal frameworks that in many cases tend to control rather than to
sustain Civil Society development;
- Promoting a common perspective – in some countries a National Agenda for Development has
been agreed by NGOs;
- Building sector or theme based policies;
- Coordinating the actors dealing with a specific theme;
- Coordinating the organizations working in the same geographic area, and advocating for such an
area (ex. the MINCODE – Mindanao Coalition of NGOs and People Organizations, in the
Philippines);
10
- Carrying out specific initiatives or projects like Social Watch’s experience in different countries, in
monitoring MDGs at local level.
These “collectives” can be established at local or at national level, and can be organized through “local
chapters” or as “communities” around themes (this is the case of the Indian Confederation of Community
Based Organisations).
Community based and local organizations (self-help groups, tenants associations, etc.) follow social rules
and play a social role that are different from those that characterize NGOs and intermediary organizations,
and differences also exist between the functions and dynamics of these last and those concerning umbrella
organizations and coalitions.
On the basis of what has been outlined in the previous pages, in order to define appropriate strategies for
the involvement of CSOs or for strengthening their capacities it is necessary to carry out an analysis that
takes into account the differences in social rules and functions among the various categories of
organizations.
In many cases these different CSOs are involved in the mobilization of wider Social Movements that include
large social groupings of individuals and/or organizations and attempt to promote social and political
changes through sustained, organized, collective actions. Sometimes social movements adopt a permanent
institutional form, but mostly they are not permanent institutions. They tend to coalesce, pursue their aims
and then dissolve. Examples are represented by the so-called “People Movement II” that led to the return
of democracy in Nepal in 2006 or by the movements against the Narmada Dam construction in India.
3.4. The role of CSOs in the peace building process
Many Asian countries have experienced in last decades conflict situations. Moreover, in many countries
latent or active conflicts are still an important element of the social and political environment. In some
cases conflicts arise from social and economic imbalances, in others they are based on national and ethnic
divides, in some other o cases they are linked to the relationships among States.
Generally, conflicts result in the fragmentation of social fabric, in the decrease of human rights' respect and
enforcement, and in the crisis of the democratic governance system, at local and at national levels. Since
the last decade of XX century a special role is recognized to CSOs in peace building and conflict resolution.
Particularly CSOs are seen as relevant actors for:
- Mediation, negotiation and fostering of agreements among the conflicting parties;
- Building up peaceful communities, at grassroots level;
- Reconstruction of social fabric and social trust at local level;
- Creating a culture of peace, particularly gathering together different groups and overcoming
cultural, social and political barriers;
- Peace monitoring and establishment of early warning systems.
Moreover, and perhaps most often, CSOs have been involved in conflict areas as service providers and in
some cases in the establishment of formal and informal local “peace committees” that assume a variety of
roles such as the administration of “proximity justice” and the facilitation of conciliation among litigants, or
the management of local resources.
As in other geographical areas (e.g. Central America, Africa) these functions have been often played by
CSOs, also in Asia relevant experiences can be identified in several countries, from Sri Lanka to Nepal, to
Philippines and India. However a closer look at Asian CSOs would show that not all of them play a role in
11
the reconstruction of social fabric or in peace building. As a matter of fact, it is possible to identify different
situations and positions:
- an important group of organizations emerged in most Asian countries having as main focus the
ethnic, national and religious identity and the defence of the interests of their constituent group:
very often these civil society organizations do not facilitate peace building and reconciliation at
community level (a typical case is that of Hindu nationalism8); in many cases, however, involving
this group of organisations may be crucial for understanding and for removing some factors in the
conflicts situations; moreover in some countries it is particularly in the framework of this group of
organisations that new and innovative actors are emerging in the local civil societies9;
- a second group of organisations involved in conflict situations includes “rights defenders” and
advocacy organizations: those belonging to this group can be found at community level, as well as
at national and regional level. Very often these organizations are considered “confrontational” by
national governments, by local authorities and sometimes also by other CSOs. However, these
organizations play a key role in re-establishing and monitoring the rule of law10
. A key group in this
context is that of women organisations: gender based violence is in fact an important
phenomenon in conflict areas11
;
- a third group of organisations that play a relevant role in this context includes NGOs and
intermediary organisations carrying out service delivery activities in conflict areas. In some cases
these organisations are just “implementing bodies”, and are totally dependent from international
NGOs and donors, or by the national and local authorities; in other cases they are more
autonomous; their role can be very delicate: targeting and implementation of humanitarian and
support activities may involve in various ways the conflicting parties and it may therefore produce
a tightening of the conflicts12
;
- a fourth group is that of “Community based organisations a rather diversified group that often
includes organisations created or stimulated by public authorities for managing and maintaining
infrastructures and social services; “peace committees”; organisations having “de facto” an ethnic
base or a religious foundation; organisations established to manage community resources and
infrastructures and to mediate the relations among competing users (this is for instance the case of
8 Gellner D. (ed.), Ethnic activism and Civil Society in South Asia, Sage, London, 2009.
9 While often traditional NGOs – established following up the model of International NGOs – are an expression of
social and professional elites (English speaking, having access to international community, “adopting a social
responsibility” towards the communities, etc.) in many Asian countries, the organisations representing ethnic and
socially excluded groups are an expression of the deprived and excluded communities. This implies that the capacities
of these organisations are weaker. However, because of their genuine capacity to represent local needs they should
be taken into consideration by development programs. 10
These organisations are usually considered as key actors by International agencies and NGOs, and they are targeted
by international aid initiatives aimed at strengthening civil society. Moreover, these organisations are often very
active in the promotion of coalitions and platforms, both at national level and international level. 11
In many cases, the conflicts between two parties (e.g. the government and the Maoist guerrilla in Nepal) left the
field to more complex conflicts, in which many parties are involved. In such a case a consequence of the armed
conflict is the intensification and emergence of the many latent conflicts existing in the society, such as those linked to
social positions, those linked to “ethnicity” (that is often a contemporary construct, rather than a traditional one) and
those linked to gender. 12
Very often BOG (basic operational guidelines) are issued by NGOs and international agencies have the goal to
reduce the unexpected negative impact of aid on conflict situations: the main focus of such guidelines are the
principles of “not producing harm” and of “equal distance” among the parties. However, in the case of a complex
situation in which many parties exist and in which political violence is often melting with common crime (this is often
the situation in a “post.-conflict” setting), these kinds of guidelines risk having little impact.
12
forestry management groups in Nepal); not always have these organizations a formal statute and
nature; on the contrary, they are very often informal aggregations;
- a role in peace building is not only played by CSOs at local and community level; in several cases an
important role is played by Civil Society platforms, coalitions and movements at national level (the
so called “People Movement II” that was among the main actors in fostering the negotiation
between the guerrilla and the government in Nepal, and then in promoting a return to democracy);
examples exist also of local and regional coalitions, advocating for peace in localised conflicts, such
as in the case of Mindanao in the Philippines.
These different groups of CSOs play diverse roles and functions in the peace building and conflict recovery
processes: attributing to an organisation a role that is not consistent with its nature and functions would
easily result in unexpected and undesired results, such as the development of new conflicts. And the same
can be said when looking at project support and funding, as in the case of the “reconstruction or peace-
building funds” that have been set up as a main measure for facilitating local development and peace
recovery through the provision of funds to local and national NGOs and CBOs.
In this sense, mapping and understanding the existing CSOs at the different levels represent a necessary
step in conflict management.
3.5. The role in the representation of minorities
A relatively new phenomenon in Asian civil societies is the development of CSOs having as main
constituency special groups, such as ethnic and religious minorities or socially marginalised groups, as Dalit
in India and Nepal.
The identification and analysis of this set of organisations is not easy, because of the lack of clarity of the
concept of minority (ethnic and social minorities are not the same in each country, being strongly linked to
local social and political processes) and because the complexity and the dynamics of Asian countries in
many cases make the attribution of the minority status a variable one. It was therefore necessary, in the
context of this document, to use an operational definition based on two main elements: the self-definition
of the organisations and their recognition as “representing minorities” within the framework of EU
experiences of cooperation. However, it is important to stress the need for a further analysis on the
category itself, on the identification of the relevant social groups, and on the policy implications that derive
from it.
CSOs representing minorities and socially marginalised groups exist at different levels and assume a variety
of roles.
The representation of the interests of ethnic minorities, geographic areas and marginalised groups is
becoming in many countries a major area of action for CSOs and – particularly where a democratic
transition is in progress - it is a sector in which capacities are not always available. Such capacities are
particularly needed to avoid some possible risks in the representation of interests, such as the cooptation
and assimilation to political parties or the strumentalization within the context of political arena or conflict.
Since in many countries CSOs representing ethnic minorities and socially marginalised groups are a
relatively recent phenomenon, these CSOs lack capacities more than the others. In many cases these
organisations – also at national level – involve people from strata of population that have the lower access
to education and economic opportunities.
While in most cases the CSOs representing ethnic minorities are adopting a kind of progressive role
fostering greater participation of marginalised people, the danger exists for them to function as self-
segregating or as “bonding” mechanisms, that separate the involved group from the mainstream society,
13
as well as from others players in the civil society arena. This risk is particularly important when these groups
adopt a “nationalistic” or secessionist perspective based on the protection and the promotion of
“traditional values”: this case - that is visible in the Indian experience (see the already cited study from
Gellner) - has also implications concerning gender relations and inter-ethnic relations.
Considering the importance of these organizations as representatives of social phenomena characteristic of
the region, any policy designed by the EU in the area of civil society should take them into due
consideration.
3.6. Gender Issues and Women’s Organizations
A double perspective appears necessary when considering the role of women’s organizations in South and
East Asia: on the one side, gender is generally a key issue in the region; on the other side, women’s
organisations play an important role in most areas, from peace building, to education, to innovation in
livelihood and habitat.
Women’s double victimization
Despite the progress of the last twenty years and the general policies approved first in Beijing (1995) and
then further stressed in the MDGs in 200013
, in Asian countries women are often under the risk of a double
victimization: as women and as persons belonging to social groups in a risky situation, such as the poor, the
indigenous peoples, the groups involved in armed conflicts, etc..
As a matter of fact, in most Asian countries because of cultural, religious, social, and – often - legal reasons,
women are a discriminated group. Without considering the great degree of difference existing among
South and East Asian Countries, and without any pretension of completeness, gender discrimination
phenomena include:
- limited access to health services and health rights;
- lack of access to education, sometimes even at primary level, and often de facto to higher
education;
- exclusion or limited access to property and heritage;
- lack of access to political decision making, particularly in local governments and local governance
systems
- discrimination in the access to employment, including in some countries the access to career
opportunities and to leadership positions;
- lack of adequate protection from gender based violence – including rape, forced abortion, forced
marriage, forced pregnancy, deliberate infection with HIV/AIDS, trafficking - both within and
outside of families;
- lack of support in bearing the burden of family care and social obligations, including community
functions such as those regarding food, water and hygiene.
Because of this situation, women represent an important target group for actions related to democracy,
human rights and peace building, as well as actions addressing economic development, local development
and the fight against poverty and social exclusion (including water supply and sanitation and health
programmes).
13
Equal opportunities and equal access to services and resources are among the Millennium Development Goals
formulated in 2000. In 1995 the UN World Conference on Women was held in Beijing.
14
Women’s organizations
Despite this condition of double victimization, Women’s organisations are among the most vital and the
most pervasive expressions of civil societies in Asia. Women are actors that should be always fully
recognized and that must be involved in policy making and implementation. As a matter of fact, any
development action risks failing if it does not recognise women as important stakeholders and if
consequently it does not ensure an effective participation of women’s organisations.
Women’s organizations are present at all organizational levels of civil society: from grassroots, to national
and international platforms. Particularly after the UN World Conference on Women, networking among
women’s organisations emerged both at national and at international level. More than other kinds of civil
society organizations, women’s organizations are linked – at least in an indirect way – to a global and long
term social movement focusing on women’s rights and actively participate in the setting of development
agendas. As many examples show, more frequently than in other kinds of organisations, women groups
associate the engagement in service provision with participation to policy dialogue.
These special features make it necessary, when dealing with women’s groups, to identify and adopt a
specific strategic perspective as the specific problems of women and women’s organizations are not
necessarily those of the civil society as a whole.
In most Asian countries women’s organisations appear to be relatively strong and widespread.
- Women’s groups exist in most countries at grassroots level, as “mothers” groups, as “save & credit”
groups, as “health groups” etc. Very often women promote local development projects, both with
the support of external national and international NGOs. Women are often considered as group
easier to aggregate and to organize. Women groups at grassroots level are identified as a tool for
“organising” beneficiaries and are not recognised as an actor able to bring into the debate and
policy making valuable information and opinions.
- Women’s NGOs and second level organisations support grassroots organisations, but are very often
directly engaged in the provision of services, including micro-credit and enterprise creation, health;
legal advice and the protection of basic rights, empowerment and training, housing water and
sanitation, education, etc. Moreover, NGOs take part to policy debate, not only at central or
national level, but also at local level – sometime acting as “local actors” in front of public
authorities or international donors. Relevant examples can be offered by organisations such as
WOREC and LACC, or WHR - Women for Human Rights in Nepal. In some cases, organisations
having a stronger linkage with women’s and/or human rights movement have a greater orientation
to recognise and support grassroots organisations as local actors, as in the case of Woman Health
or Likahan in the Philippines.
- National and international platforms had a fast and remarkable development in the decade of UN
international conferences on development in the 90s, as a way to have a louder voice in the
discussion and in the setting of international agendas on women and as a tool to participate to the
follow up of international conferences and engagements (e.g. the Beijing Agenda and the MDGs)
and to the monitoring of the implementation of the national plans on women. While the
relationships among the platforms and the second level organisations are often satisfactory, not
always does an effective communication exist with first level and local organisations in peripheral
geographical areas. In some cases, networks and platforms emerged to intervene in the local and
national setting, particularly in post-conflict situations in which the possibility for local
organisations to find support opportunities at national level is often a crucial issue: an example is
that of Shantimalika and WAPDCCA in Nepal.
15
- Apart from gender based organisations, women are an important component within the general
environment of civil society organisations. Despite the policies recently introduced to “make the
most of differences” and for “equal opportunities” within CSOs, many obstacles still exist
concerning the actual access of women to leadership and decision making processes14
.
Considering this situation a special approach is needed to support women’s organisations. Such an
approach would require on one side an analysis of the gender related processes in local societies and in
local civil society organisations, and on the other a strategic analysis of women’s organisations and their
roles.
3.7. Modalities of CS involvement in EC Development Cooperation in Asian Countries 15
Civil Society’s involvement has become a common practice in the framework of EC Development
Cooperation in Asian Countries. In addition to the initiatives of CS involvement fostered by the EU
headquarters (i.e. the global calls for proposals on thematic budget lines and the consultation of Civil
Society representatives held in Brussels and elsewhere on European cooperation policy), all Asian EU
Delegations fostered the involvement of Civil Society Organisations.
The main activities carried out in this framework include:
- the launch of local calls for proposal in the framework of Thematic Budget Lines, particularly within
EIDHR (European Initiative Democracy and Human Rights); the NSA – LA initiative; the Food
Security initiative, etc.
- the implementation of information meetings addressed to INGOs and local CSOs for the
presentation of the calls for projects;
- the consultation of INGOs and local CSOs for setting the priorities in the framework of local calls
for EIDHR and NSA-LA initiatives;
- the organization of consultations with INGOs and national CSOs on the CSP and NIP;
- the organization of consultations with INGOs and national CSOs for the Mid Term Review of the
CSP 2007 - 2013;
- the implementation of focused formal and informal consultations with INGO and local CSOs.
In some cases, also other activities have been fostered, such as:
- the involvement of CSOs in the implementation of cooperation initiatives foreseen in the NIP (Sri
Lanka, Philippines);
- the implementation of special studies aimed at assessing the capacities and the needs of national
CSOs (Sri Lanka);
- the facilitation of CSOs relations with the government and state institutions (Sri Lanka,
Philippines);
- the setting of policy forum at national level concerning the general relationships with EU and the
establishment of a relationship with European NSAs (India).
However, one of the findings of the Desk Review (see footnote 14) is the very limited involvement
of CSOs in geographic programs and new aid modalities like sector and general budget support.
14
Under the pressure from international donors and NGOs, frequently CSOs started to include women in their boards.
However this presence does not necessarily mean that women actually exercise power within the organizations. 15
For a more detailed analysis, see also the “Desk Review of the Modalities of Civil Society Involvement in EU
cooperation in Asian Countries”, one of the reports prepared under this assignment.
16
In most Asian countries, the access to European funds is still limited to few national NGOs, because of the
uneven diffusion of capacities among the CSOs, because of the existence of a large number of CSOs (in
quite all countries CSOs amount at thousands, also if in some cases only a few hundreds of them are
considered to be actually working) and because of the difficulties that often exist in the use of English
language.
Moreover, in the case of some budget lines, such as EIDHR, in countries where democracy is still limited or
a situation exists of limitation of civil freedom, the access to funds is “de facto” limited to international
NGOs.
CSOs’ consultation in many cases still involves a small number of organisations, and in some cases is still
oriented towards the collection of feedbacks from international NGOs. Few examples can be cited in which
national organisations involved in the consultation activities outnumber the International NGOs and can be
measured in hundreds. A case is that of the Philippines (in which the consultation was carried out
organising regional meetings), another one is that of Pakistan (in which over 300 local organisations have
been consulted). In other cases, like India, the Delegation held a 2-day Civil Society consultation as part of
the Mid Term Review of the India Country Strategy Paper (2007 – 2013).
4. Carrying out a Civil Society Mapping in Asia
By using the term “Civil Society Mapping“ we refer to a research instrument aimed at providing a
panoramic and dynamic vision of CSOs, of their networks and of their relations with other actors, such as
the government, donors and other partners.
More specifically a mapping requires:
- the identification of the key actors in a given country or sector, in order to better understand how
they are participating in development processes and their relevant dynamics;
- an analysis of the role and position of these actors, as well as of their relationships with other
actors , of their strengths and weaknesses, of their orientations and needs
- a dynamic approach, in order to take into consideration the orientations and actions of the actors
that seem to be relevant in local development processes, rather than simply providing a static
picture of “the existing organizations” without any strategic relevance.
An important feature of CSOs mapping is its linkage with time and with processes and events. A CSOs
mapping cannot produce findings that are valid forever: because of the changing nature of CSOs and of
their environment, the mapping exercise needs to be replicated after some time (a suitable timing to
replicate a mapping could be every two years, balancing on one side the time and efforts necessary to
complete such exercise and on the other the need of an updated picture in rapidly evolving situations.
4.1. Building up on previous experiences
CSO mapping is not new in the framework of European Union cooperation. Moreover, some specific pilot
experiences in Asia have been produced in the context of the preparation of these methodological
guidelines.
17
These experiences provide a relevant background for building up a CSO mapping approach adapted to the
needs emerging in European Cooperation in the Asian region.
The Mapping in European Cooperation: ACP and Latin America
CSOs mapping studies are now a common exercise of EU delegations in ACP countries. The most frequent
use of mapping has been in these countries to support the identification and formulation of projects and
programmes to support Civil Society or NSAs. Moreover, in some cases, CSOs mappings were carried out
as an aid to e existing programmes or to mid-term and final evaluation exercises.
The main goals of CSOs’ mapping are:
- To have a diachronic vision of these actors, looking to the dynamics that led to their emergence
- To have a vision of the dynamics in which these actors are participating and of the core issues
related to their active participation in the national and local development
- To have a vision of the ways CSOs participate in the sectors relevant to EU cooperation
- To have a vision of the available resources to support CSOs’ development and activities
- To have a vision of the strengths, resources, and capacity building needs of CSOs, in order to
support them in adopting an active role as partners in the national and local development
Some important methodological and theoretical instruments can be drawn from ACP16
and Latin American
mapping experiences, such as:
� The adoption of a strategic approach, consisting in the fact that the mapping is not aimed at
producing a “still life” picture of the current situation of CSOs or a directory of existing organisations,
but adopts as a main focus the identification of the processes in which CSOs are involved and of the
stakes that are linked to civil society development.
� The adoption of a differential approach, considering different families and different levels of civil
society organizations. The four levels include different groups of CSOs, aggregated by considering their
features and functions:
- the first level includes community based organizations, self-help groups and other informal and
formal grassroots organizations;
- the second level is composed by NGOs, research and training institutes, intermediary organizations
and other groups supporting a ”beneficiary population”;
- the third level comprises the aggregations of CSOs focusing on a sector or a geographical area, such
as networks, forums, etc.;
- the fourth level consists of the general aggregations of the CSOs, such as the national civil society
platforms or the CSOs’ federations that adopt the main role of advocacy on general issues in front
of the national government.
� The adoption of a selective approach, focusing the analysis not on all NSAs or organizations, but only
on those that express an intention and operate in favour of social and economical development in
16
Floridi M., B. Sanz-Corella, S.Verdecchia, Capacity Building Support Programmes for Non State Actors under the 9th
EDF, Bruxelles, 2009
18
their own territory in the interest of the collective, often through the creation of public good or
services of public interest.
� The adoption of a multidimensional concept of “capacity building”17
, based on the identification of
three main capacity areas:
- the individual skills, where the questions linked to professional capacities of the staff and the
questions linked to strategic leadership are handled;
- the organizational internal dynamics, that include the presence of organizational conditions
allowing making the most of individual skills and available resources, with specific attention paid to
the aspects of identity, as well as to the criteria of efficiency and effectiveness;
- the organization’s interactions with other actors and the context, in which the capacities to
interact with the environment and to manage available opportunities and possibilities are the focus
of the process.
Some tools to facilitate CSOs analysis
A further effort to facilitate CSOs mapping has been made through the production of the “Methodological Guide for
Implementing a Mapping of Civil Society Actors in Latin American Countries” (Michel Falisse, Beatriz Sanz-Corella,
2009). The guide proposes a set of techniques that can facilitate the analysis of CSOs and the identification of relevant
issues and dilemmas. These include:
Circle matrix in which the sectors and the main actors within each of them are presented can make clear where the
CSOs are in relation with other State Actors and Non State Actors, and the respective positions of CSOs groups and
categories
Graphic matrix (two, four, six or more entries matrix), that can be used to represent the geographical distribution of
the different kinds of organizations, or their distribution across the various sectors or social areas (i.e.
private/collective/public, centre/periphery, urban/rural, etc.);
Timeline matrix, to represent diachronically parallel processes and facilitate the understanding of CSOs development
in front of the evolution of other sectors;
Tensions at work matrixes, to give a graphical representation to the tensions and contradictions that are working
within the considered context, by identifying opposites ends linked to relevant issues and graphically positioning the
actors in relation to them;
Graphical representation of CSOs levels, by referring to a pyramidal matrix in which the peak is where a higher
degree of cooperation exists among CSOs.
The Mapping of CSOs in Asia 18
In Asia a great deal of experiences exists in studying civil society. Two experiences that can be considered as
typologies of mapping were carried out by the CIVICUS international NGO and by the Asian Development
Bank.
17
Floridi M., B. Sanz-Corella, S.Verdecchia, Capacity Building Support Programmes for Non State Actors under the 9th
EDF, Bruxelles, 2009 18
See also the “Desk review of existing civil society mapping exercises conducted by EU Delegations and/or other
donors and institutions in Asia “, one of the reports produces under this assignment
19
In collaboration with local research institutes, CIVICUS carried out a set of research studies on the state of
Civil Society in different Asian countries19
, under the global initiative “Civil Society Index (CSI)”. These
studies were implemented following the same research design, based on the analysis of four dimensions:
1) the structure of civil society (the organisations);
2) the socioeconomic environment for civil society;
3) the values of civil society (the practice of values); and
4) the impact of civil society activities.
To these four dimensions a fifth one was added for the mapping that will be carried out in 2010 and later:
the dimension of “Civic engagement”.
These four dimensions were analyzed using 77 indicators (some new indicators will be introduced in next
CSI studies), that were validated by a national Stakeholder Assessment Group (SAG). The SAG produces a
score for each indicator in a predefined scoring matrix. All together, the scoring of the four dimensions
constitutes a civil society “diamond” representing the strengths and weaknesses of the four dimensions.
Each indicator is given a score from 0 to 3 and the indicators are aggregated to create a four-sided figure,
the “diamond”, as shown in the picture below:
Source: www.civicus.org
The process took place in several rounds, with a preliminary report outlined by the researchers before the
first scoring and the full country report written between and after the scoring meetings. The final diamond
reflects both the information and data collected in the report and the scoring of the SAG.
While it can offer a very general vision of Civil Society and a tool for comparing civil society development
across the different countries and continents, the CSI is unable to provide relevant indications for policy
making: the abstraction made for producing the index is too strong and the linkages with actually existing
organisations risk to be lost. Moreover, considering all together the different families and levels of CSOs,
the CSI studies cannot provide information on the existing needs. What appears to be most interesting in
the CSI studies is the process of consultation that is carried out to define and evaluate the indicators
concerning the various dimensions taken into consideration. This process generates a debate and a self-
analysis involving the representatives of CSOs and it may result in a greater consciousness about the issues
at stake and the role of civil society.
19
Namely: China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Nepal, Orissa (India), South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam.
20
The Asian Development Bank - NGO Center produced “NGOs and Civil Society Overview” for most of the
countries in which the ADB operates. These overviews are based on documentary studies and provide a set
of information about:
- the history of CS in the country;
- international NGOs and national NGOs and their activities;
- the existing umbrella organizations and thematic forums;
- the legal framework;
- the Government / NGOs relations;
- the funding agencies (with a special focus on ADB cooperation with NGOs).
The aim of the ADB NGOs and Civil Society Overviews is to provide a basis to facilitate the involvement of
civil society organizations within the Bank’s activities. However, such involvement consists mostly in the
contracting of service provision or in the consultation of stakeholders to avoid the emergence of conflicts in
project implementation. Therefore, normally these overviews do not focus their attention on civil society
position within the national development processes and are not aimed at facilitating the identification of
policies for supporting civil society in the adoption of a specific role.
In most cases all typologies of CSOs are considered together, as a whole, without differentiating among the
organisations according to their social functions, roles and features. This approach sometimes leads to a
quasi-exclusive attention towards NGOs and quite always to the identification of very general needs for
capacity strengthening. Nevertheless, the ADB NGOs and Civil Society Overviews – also depending on the
timing of the studies20
- may be used as a starting point for CSO mapping in many countries.
The pilot experiences
Three pilot experiences have been carried out in the preparation of this guideline document:
- a CSOs mapping in Nepal;
- a case study on CSOs in the Health Sector in the Philippines;
- a case study on CSOs and peace building in Sri Lanka.
The three studies have been carried out adapting the theoretical and methodological framework developed
in the ACP and Latin American Countries (i.e. strategic approach; differential analysis of CSOs; reference to
a multidimensional approach to capacity building, etc.).
Adapting these instruments to the Asian reality – and considering the peculiar conditions of CSOs in the
considered countries - the analysis has focused on areas where CSOs in the region can adopt a more
proactive attitude in promoting social change and democracy21
:
� governance and the participation in public policy at local, national and international level;
� service delivery and project implementation: in particular, the orientation towards service delivery to
specific target populations;
� knowledge production and transmission, including information, communication and the creation of
social representations;
20
Some ADB NGOs and Civil Society Overviews were produced in the period 2005 – 2006; some others were produced
5 years earlier and are outdated. 21
These areas are particularly relevant where CSOs are above the basic level of service provision and support to
disadvantaged people. Indeed, by considering these dimensions it is possible to perceive CSOs' strategic capacities and
not only to perceive their sustainability as organizations.
21
� bonding and bridging functions: the orientation towards the strengthening of the internal links and
cohesion in reference social groups vs the orientation to create links with external actors, increasing
social capital and external trust relationships;
� innovation: the orientation towards social, economic, technological and political innovation;
� sustainability: the orientation towards the creation of sustainable structures and initiatives.
4.2. Methodological recommendations
Trying to define an appropriate approach to CSO Mapping in the Asian Countries a very first issue to be
considered is the general development process that interested these countries in the last decades.
Most Asian countries have been witnessing rapid economic growth, fast urbanisation and diversification
of the economic basis. In many countries these changes have also been linked to the development of a
large middle class, as well as of new professional groups, and to the fact that new differences (including
new ethnicities) emerged in societies that were already strongly characterized by complexity and diversity.
In many countries (from Vietnam and Cambodia, to Nepal and Philippines) these changes also interacted
with political and institutional changes: in some cases these changes resulted in the establishment of
democratic (or more democratic) states, in others in decentralisation dynamics and in an increased
dialogue among the various social and political actors; in some cases democratic systems entered in a crisis
situation and the existing spaces for social and political dialogue contracted.
A further general process that influenced the region was its growing centrality in the world economic and
political scenario.
This wide set of changes also interacted with the development of civil societies and civil society
organisations. However, the new roles and the new features assumed by CSOs in this changing
environment have been scarcely analysed and area topic that requires further research and analysis.
Some issues may be specifically identified as worth to be further explored through CSO mapping studies:
- the way CSOs are inter-acting with the widening of middle class and the new professional groups in
urban and rural areas; and how they are dealing with the social crisis that is often related to these
processes (new socially excluded groups and new social exclusion processes, etc.);
- the role played by CSOs in the management of economic, social and technological changes, and
particularly to which extent they adopt an innovative perspective or - on the contrary - a
conservation role;
- the way CSOs are involved in the management of urban development processes and in the delicate
and complex relationship between urban and rural areas;
- the way CSOs are participating in political and institutional processes: to which extent they are
adopting a proactive role or in which measure they are a mute witness or a passive subject in the
enlarging or decreasing democratic processes;
Without a further reflection about the position of CSOs in front of the general development processes of
the Asian region it seems difficult to identify the strategy of the EU in supporting civil society development.
It is in fact worth remembering that “Civil Society” is a complex organism, not limited to NGOs or NGO-type
organizations, and therefore EU policies should take into due consideration the whole range of actors and
the complex interaction with social, economic and political processes.
22
Identifying relevant CSO mapping strategies
Building on the above mentioned experiences it is possible to identify some specific recommendations
concerning mapping of CSOs in Asia.
The first one regards the strategy to be adopted for guiding the mapping. Here the identification of the
main trends in civil society development in Asian countries comes out as a main issue.
As it was already noticed, at least three different typologies of Asian countries can be identified with
respect to civil society development.
� Countries were a strong civil society exists, such as India, Bangladesh, Philippines, etc. A CSOs
mapping should focus in this case on the governance issues and on the space of participation and
dialogue that the CSOs are able to negotiate and to maintain, also through their vertical and
horizontal integration
� Countries (see Pakistan, Vietnam and Laos) were civil society's' contribution to facilitating poor and
marginalized people’s access to basic services is acknowledged, but CSOs are not recognized as an
autonomous actor In such case, civil society mapping should aim at making visible the different
groups of CSOs and analysing the role that they – often in an informal or indirect manner – play in
the development policies formulation, implementation and monitoring. Moreover, in these
countries a key issue is that of identifying the boundaries of civil society. As a matter of fact, very
often these boundaries are mobile or uncertain, as in many cases also the legal framework on CSOs
reveals. In some countries a legal framework does not exist, in others autonomous CSOs,
“governmental NGOs” and politically affiliated “mass organisations” are considered all in the same
category.
� The third setting to be considered in defining mapping strategies is that of weak or early
developing civil societies. In such a setting - see for instance Nepal Bhutan and Afghanistan –
most CSOs are still dealing with the issue of basic capacity and basic sustainability and tend to
adopt the role of implementing agencies for donors and for INGOs. In such a setting, CSO mapping
should focus on the ways CSOs can adopt a proactive role and produce a greater impact on
governance, that would also result in a greater organizations' sustainability
4.3. Practical tips
In addition to the general methodological indications provided above, the pilot experiences of CSO mapping
carried out in Asia suggest some concrete tips on how to carry out mapping initiatives.
The cooperation with the EU Delegations
A first issue to be considered in this framework concerns the cooperation of the experts charged of the
mapping with EU Delegations. Not only is EU Delegations’ staff the main user of the result of the mapping,
but also a precious provider of knowledge and support for the mapping itself. However, considering that EU
Delegations are often overcharged, it may be sometimes difficult to actively involve them in the practical
implementation of the study.
In order to facilitate such an involvement two main elements should be clarified and made visible: the first
one is the utility and possible application of CSO mapping; the second one is the many contributions that
the EU Delegation can provide to the study.
23
As for the first element, on the basis of previous experiences the following applications of a mapping study
can be identified:
- support policies addressed to civil society setting and to – identify relevant actors in priority areas;
- identify partners to consult and define cooperation areas;
- improve the relations with CSOs, by making visible the interest of the EU in CS involvement in
cooperation policies;
- contribute to project identification and formulation and management by identifying key roles of
CSOs in the different phases;
- provide guidance for CSOs consultation: CSOs can be called to discuss about strategies and the
possibilities for cooperating with EU based on an analysis that can be shared and discussed.,
- an input for coordinated actions with other donors.
CSOs mapping as a factor of change
Rather than being a simple research study, CSOs’ mapping may constitute a change process involving several
actors, namely:
- the involved EU Delegation, that through the mapping exercise enters in contact in a new way with other
actors in the development arena, and that is involved in a process influencing policy identification and
implementation;
- the CSOs that participate to the study – either directly because are taking part to consultation activities, or in
an indirect way, because they come to know about the mapping; these organizations are involved in a
reflexive process implying a partial re-construction of self-representation, a partial redefinition of their roles
and initiatives and a redefinition of their ways to interact with EU and other development partners;
- other development partners involved in consultation activities, which are also involved in re-thinking the
ways to cooperate with EU and with CSOs.
The scope of the change process linked to CSOs mapping is directly proportional to the breadth of consultation
activities carried out. The change process will be very limited if the CSOs mapping exercise is based mainly on
interviews to key persons and does not include collective interviews, focus groups and feedback workshops. On
the contrary, the change process can be much more important if many collective consultation activities are
carried out.
As for the second element, EU Delegations may be a precious information source: the experience of project
identification, formulation and management, as well as the experience of formal and informal consultation
with local and international bodies constitute a knowledge tank that can be formalized and exploited in
CSOs’ mappings. Moreover, EU Delegations may support:
- the work planning and the identification of priority areas;
- the definition of the scope and objectives of the work;
- the identification of the geographical areas to be considered:
- the identification of key partners already involved in European cooperation or expressing interest in
EU policy;
- the identification of local experts and expertise to be involved in the study;
- the understanding of key political and social processes;
- the discussion of study results and of research hypotheses.
24
Getting introduced
As in other region, also in Asian countries Civil Society Organisations are often in a “stress” situation: the
relationships with the state can be featuring latent conflicts; competition often exists both between
International NGOs and national NGOs, and among national NGOs; the relationships with donor is often
focused on funding, etc.
All these facts may produce obstacles when consulting local organizations: some organizations may not
trust international agencies that are thought to be supporting the government, some other can refuse to
discuss issues other than funding, some organizations would not desire to be consulted together with
certain others and so on; the advices offered by international agencies and by local NGOs, as well as the
information available through the internet and documents may be biased, etc.
When starting CSOs mapping, most of these conditions are not under control, especially in the case of an
expert on a short mission. Therefore getting introduced into the national/local Civil Society represents one
of the first challenges for CSOs mapping.
Overcoming this set of difficulties can be facilitated by “getting introduced” to the local CSOs community by
a local actor that is aware of dynamics, but is not fully involved in them. Such a role may be often played in
CSOs mapping by a local expert.
Some conditions would facilitate the adoption of such a role by a local expert, such as:
- being a junior expert: this implies that he can facilitate access to local actors, but he would not be
an obstacle to enter in contact with some of them as it may happens with a senior person, having
already established relations and being in a more competitive position for leadership in the local
movement;
- being involved in networking activities and having an organizational capacity, in addition to a
methodological or theoretical one.
Language
Apart from few countries, in most Asian countries English is often used as a common language in the higher
levels of the public administration, of the academic and of the NGO communities, but is not used by the
majority of ordinary citizens. Being able to communicate in the local language/s may therefore be very
useful for the CSOs mapping team to enter into relations with CBOs and with local intermediary and service
organizations.
Rather than using interpreters, a better solution seems to be the involvement of a local expert, who would
also, in case of need, facilitate the identification of suitable “facilitators” for field meetings and focus
groups with first level organizations.
In every case, the language issue shall be considered both in setting the terms of reference for CSOs
mapping activities and in the technical and methodological proposals concerning these activities.
Timing
Timing is a crucial issue in CSOs mapping. On the basis of the experience, a four-phase structure seems to
be the most productive:
25
The Phases of a Mapping
1. -A preliminary phase should be added, not necessary requiring a field mission, to gather
background information, contact key informants by VC, email, etc…. essential to maximize time and
reduce costs
2. the first phase consisting of the first mission would allow to carry out interviews and meeting with
key informants, to organize some focus groups and starting to define research hypotheses;
3. the second phase consisting in an the interval between the planned missions would allow the
implementation of further studies to validate the hypothesis (documentary analysis, small
structured questionnaires surveys) and the preparation of the second mission;
4. the third phase consisting of the second mission would allow the implementation of further focus
groups and of feedback workshops, along with further interviews with key informants
5. the fourth phase consisting of the analysis and interpretation of gathered information would allow
to overcome immediate perceptions and to formalize relevant knowledge.
Geographical scope
The geographical scope of the mapping is another important issue. It must be relevant in front of local
conditions and differences. It does not seem relevant to have one only “mapping” for very large and
differentiated countries (i.e. China, India).
In all Asian countries a great difference exists not only between rural and urban areas, but also among the
different regions. A national mapping should therefore adequately reflect the urban and rural aspects, the
territorial social and economic differences, etc
ICT
ICT offers new opportunities for CSOs mapping. On one side, a great amount of information is now
available on the “Web”, on the other side, in most countries a great majority of second level organizations
(and all the third and fourth level organizations) have access to internet and to e-mail. This could allow –
when time is available – carrying out electronic consultations and electronic based surveys.
Experiences of e-consultations have been carried out in the framework of CSOs mapping studies in some
ACP countries like Angola and Cameroon.
Keep the mapping updated: possible strategies
An important feature of CSOs mapping is its linkage with time and with processes and events.
A CSOs mapping cannot produce findings that are valid forever; because of the changing nature of CSOs
and of their environment, the mapping exercise needs to be replicated (a relevant timing to replicate a
mapping could be every two years). We list here some aspects that should be taken into consideration both
in new mappings and in their updates:
26
• A mapping is a study and an analysis of the characteristics and dynamics of civil society that
requires enough time and resources to be undertaken. Only in exceptional cases do the EU
Delegations have available internal resources, and therefore such project must be “sub-
contracted”.
• As of today, the limited examples of mappings have been undertaken by international
consultants through specific “Framework Contracts”. However, the possibly and
opportunity to involve local organizations and institutions like universities and research
centres should be considered, provided they have the necessary methodological know-
how. The involvement of local actors should enhance the sustainability of the mapping and
contribute to empowering civil society.
• In the design of the mapping the field phases should be give adequate space in terms of
time and resources in order to ensure a participatory approach, that is the involvement of
civil society representatives in the discussion on the characteristic of civil society at country
level
• Mappings should be oriented to providing guidance and operational recommendations for
fine-tuning EU policies towards civil society. They should therefore include specific
suggestions on concrete initiatives, establishment of consultation and co-ordination
mechanisms and, most important, tools to measure the impact of EU policies, programmes
and actions on civil society.
5. Operational and policy implications
From the pilot studies carried out in the framework of this project and from other research exercises
carried out in the Asian countries a broad image emerges: despite the deep differences, in most Asian
countries vibrant civil societies do exist, although they often lack the capacity to fully deploy their influence
on governance and policy making processes, both at local and national – regional level. This lack of capacity
has different forms in the different countries and in the urban and rural environments. Three main typical
situations have been identified:
• the first one is that of a rich and structured set of civil society organisations - capable to provide
quality services, to produce knowledge, and to impact on social reality. These CSOs are often
positively recognized by other actors (NSAs, public authorities, political parties, etc.) – but are
however unable to effectively participate in governance and policy processes because of internal
dynamics (such as the competition among organisations, the focus on organisation's sustainability,
the adoption of a counter-power or conflicting attitude, the widespread orientation toward the
adoption of a “voice”22
role, etc.) or because of external factors such as the contraction of available
spaces for participation and dialogue, the loss of influence in decision making processes;
• the second one is that of civil societies that are structured around citizens’ organizations able to
have an impact on social reality, particularly at local level, but that are not fully recognized, or that
are recognized just as “implementing agencies” or subordinate partners. This is the frequent case
when CSOs are mostly involved in project implementation and service provision and funding is the
main focus of their relationships with public authorities and international donors. Even when
22
The concept of “voice” was used by the economist Albert O. Hirshmann (1970) to describe a condition in which
actors protest rather than actively intervening in a situation; other conditions identified in the same context are those
of “defection” (going away, producing an alternative situation) and that of “loyalty” (remaining in the “setting”,
sometimes also interpreted as adopting a realist attitude).
27
spaces exist they are not fully exploited and difficulties arise in the creation of coalitions and
collective bodies. In such situations civil society has an uncertain identity: which organisations
belong to civil society is an open issue, and the autonomy of CSOs from the political parties, the
government or other social and political actors is still disputed;
the third situation is typical of the least developed civil societies; such a situation is characterized
by the fact that civil society organizations are mainly the beneficiaries of initiatives coming from
international agencies (INGOs and donors) or from the public administration. Civil Society space is
virtually absent, because no actor has the capacity to adopt a proactive role, interpreting and
representing the perspectives and the needs of the people and to translate these into policy
agendas that can be fostered at the various levels, from the very local to the national.
These situations require different approaches and strategies in CSOs Mapping, and they also have
operational consequences for cooperation policy.
The first and most important one is the need to strengthen the role of CSOs as governance actors, and to
support their participation in policy dialogue, at local as well as at regional, national and international
level. Adopting this focus would imply actions concerning the “internal side” or the endogenous processes
that can lead civil society organization to shift their attention from simple advocacy (that is the exercise of
the “voice” from outside) or service provision23
to a proactive participation in policy making.
This general focus needs to be concretized in policies that should be different in each country, taking into
account on the one side the “general degree” of development of civil society and NSAs, and on the other
side the specific processes and actors in each country or sub-national areas24
. CSOs mappings should
therefore be considered as a necessity in order to identify relevant policy options.
The knowledge of local civil societies and their dynamics was the main result of the mapping exercise
carried out in Nepal and the case studies in the Philippines and in Sri Lanka (that can be considered as
preliminary analyses), but these studies had as another important outcome the identification of guidelines
and policy recommendations. In addition to the recommendations to foster a shift to a governance
approach and to support CSOs in the dialogue with public authorities25
, these general indications have been
identified:
� support the institutional capacity building of public administrations and elected public
authorities, with two specific aims: that of increasing the capacity to manage policy dialogue and
governance partnerships with civil society and that to improve standardization and transparency in
the administrative procedures and in the enforcement of regulations concerning civil society (e.g.
the registration of NGOs and grassroots organisations; the setting of contracts and partnership
agreements; the CSOs’ participation to local and national consultative bodies); This could be
pursued for instance through the NSA-LA program
23
In this context, service provision not only regards the delivery of basic services – health, water, education, etc. – but
also in many cases the activities aimed at defending human and citizens and those involving the production of
knowledge and the provision of consultancy work (these last are frequent where CSOs have a recognized experience
and a strong link with academic institutions, such as in the cases of Philippines, India or Thailand). 24
For certain Asian countries, such as China or India, talking about a “national” policy on civil society may appear
difficult or not really effective. In these countries also carrying out a CSO mapping at such a scale seems to be a very
difficult and somehow an un-useful exercise. In such cases, regional or local mappings can be a relevant option. 25
These recommendations have a very different meaning in the Philippines, where spaces for dialogue and
participation exist but are ineffective, and in Nepal, where similar spaces must be built up, or in Sri Lanka, where
dialogue spaces have been restricted in recent times.
28
� provide political support to CSOs in front of public authorities, both in the area of the protection
and advancement of democracy and human rights and in other governance and policy making
areas. This means supporting the recognition of CSOs legitimacy26
and contributions (knowledge,
social sector representation and capacity to establish and maintain governance where the public
authorities cannot arrive without producing unsound effects27
, etc.); For instance, by ensuring that
an adequate space is given to civil society in the discussion on development policies and that the
legislative framework guarantees the rights of CSOs
� increase of dialogue and consultation spaces within the European cooperation initiatives, through
the improvement and greater decentralization of already existing consultation activities (informal
consultation, setting of priorities for local calls and for thematic programmes, discussion of CSP –
NIP, MTR of NIP, consultation of CSOs in the framework of programme evaluation) and through the
opening of new spaces, such as: the involvement of relevant CSOs in the steering committees of
the projects financed under the NIP; the establishment of monitoring mechanisms involving local
civil societies in project areas; the greater involvement of relevant CSOs in the formulation process
of geographical cooperation initiatives;
� support CSOs’ visibility at various levels and their recognition as actors, rather than beneficiaries.
This requires to sustain research, knowledge management and communication activities, both in
the framework of thematic programmes (particularly NSA – LA) and in the framework of NIP – CSP
formulation and Mid-term Review;
� support the improvement of CSO sustainability and effectiveness, through the adoption of new
modalities of cooperation for institutional development, particularly in the framework of thematic
programmes. – Important to this regard would be a greater orientation to the establishment of
basket funds, like the Nepal Peace Trust Fund, the trust funds for post-conflict and post-disaster
reconstruction and development in Sri Lanka, etc.;
� fostering alliances and the vertical and horizontal integration among national CSOs, among these
and the local and national public authorities, and among national and international NGOs, with the
aim to reduce or improve competition among different actors and to allow common perspectives
to emerge and to influence governance and policy making at different levels; in such a way rather
than duplicate or expand the available resources for capacity building a more effective use of
existing resources will be promoted, as well as a greater appropriation of capacities by local actors;
� fostering alliances and partnerships among different NSAs – including the “private non profit
sector” and the trade unions – and the re-definition of civil society borders, through a larger
involvement and participation of the local chapters of “mass organizations” (including the faith
based ones) and a more continuous interaction and resource exchange between NGOs and CBOs
on the one side and the academic and research organisations on the other;
� increasing the support to social inclusion, particularly in post-conflict situation and where latent
and potential conflict exist, focusing cooperation initiatives on the strengthening of bridging
26
While CSOs contribution in service delivery is largely recognized, their legitimacy as a policy actor is disputed in most
countries. Particularly, CSOs are often respected as voluntary service activity but are not recognized as expression of a
collective “subjectivity” that is autonomous from that of political parties and institutions (this is also an important
factor in the attribution of relatively low indexes to “civil society values” in the Civicus studies). 27
Because of long term institutional and political practices and because of recent political history, in many Asian
countries more than elsewhere the direct intervention of public authorities at grassroots level and in some areas of
the society easily results in unsound effects, such as the establishment of patron-client relationships, the violation of
basic rights, the increased dependency of weaker actors; the crisis of local governance; the occupation of social space
by political parties.
29
processes among different ethnic and social groups; this would require – in addition to the
initiatives based on thematic programmes – a greater involvement of ethnic minorities CSOs and of
the movements representing socially marginalized groups such as the Dalit within the formulation
and implementation of NIP initiatives, not only when they refer to social sector but also when they
concern infrastructures and the provision of “budget support” (in this last case, provisions can be
made to increase the weight of minorities representation in decision making);
� support the emergence and strengthening of women organisations and gender sensitive practices
in CSOs, through the identification of specific actions within the formulation of thematic
programmes, and through the opening of special spaces in the framework of NIP related
consultative and management bodies. Although gender and “difference” have been formally
recognized as priority themes in the institutional development of CSOs and in the development
agendas of most Asian countries, and despite women organisations contribution is widely
recognized, gender still remains an unsolved issue in the practice and functioning of Asian CSOs28
.
Considering the Asian context, particularly important are all the actions supporting and making
operational UNSCR 1325 on women and peace and security29
***
28
See Chapter 3.6 for a more detailed analysis of gender issues. 29
UNSCR 1325 was adopted in October 2000 and “reaffirms the important role of women in the prevention and
resolution of conflicts, peace negotiations, peace-building, peacekeeping, humanitarian response and in post-conflict
reconstruction and stresses the importance of their equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the
maintenance and promotion of peace and security”. Other relevant resolutions are UNSCR 1820, 1888 and 1889.