c:itoolswmskcg-macmilan 7860workingfolder9780230354197 … · 2012. 5. 17. · 4 political economy...

May 17, 2012 13:33 MAC/MUNCK Page-vii 9780230354197_01_prexviii

Contents

List of Figures, Tables, Maps and Boxes ix

Preface xi

List of Abbreviations xv

1 Introduction 1Where is Latin America? 1Dependency and Beyond 4Politics of Transformation 7Paths to Modernity 10

2 Settings 13Physical 13Demographic 22Social 27Economic 32

3 History 37Beyond Oligarchy 37Nation-statism 43Military Authoritarianism 49Re-democratization 54

4 Political Economy 61Dependent Development 61State-led Industrialization 66The Neo-liberal Model 70Post-Washington Consensus 76

5 Society 83Social Structures 83Social Relations 87Urbanization 94Poverty and Welfare 99

6 Politics 107Consolidation 107Disenchantment 112

vii

PROOF

May 17, 2012 13:33 MAC/MUNCK Page-viii 9780230354197_01_prexviii

viii Contents

Left Turn 118Challenges 126Conclusion 129

7 Social Movements 133Nationalist Movements 133Labour Movements 137Rural Movements 141New Movements 146

8 Governance 155Electoral and Party Systems 155The (Mis)Rule of Law 161Bureaucracy and Administration 165NGOs: Filling the Gap 171

9 Culture 177Ideologies of Change 177Religion and Society 182The Literary Boom 187Popular Culture 192

10 International Context 199Colonialism to Globalism 199Regional Integration 204Security Issues 211In the World Today 216

11 Futures 223Global Setting 224After Dependency 227After Neo-liberalism 233After Democracy 236After Modernity 242Conclusion 246

Recommended Reading 249

Bibliography 257

Index 273

PROOF

May 17, 2012 10:22 MAC/MUNCK Page-1 9780230354197_02_cha01

1

Introduction

Before entering the detailed description of contemporary LatinAmerica’s social, economic, political and cultural development over thepast decades I would like to delve into some broader introductory issues.The first of these is ‘Where is Latin America?’ in which I seek to getbeyond the platitudes of ‘developing region’ type explanations. Situat-ing or characterizing Latin America is, to my mind, a necessary startingpoint for any analysis. The second theme we need to broach is that of‘dependency’ both as supposed conditioning element of development inLatin America and, arguably, as the region’s major contribution to inter-national development theory. Latin America is also, again arguably, quiteoriginal in terms of the political movements for transformation it has gen-erated. Why has Latin America produced Eva Perón, Ché Guevara, HugoChávez, Lula and Evo Morales? What does this tell us about the politicsof transformation? Our fourth and final theme concerns the even broaderquestion of Latin America’s particular path to modernity. If it is not asimply copy (albeit backward) of the West, or just a part of the ThirdWorld (as for example Africa) what is Latin America’s particular road tomodernity? What might this tell us about global development theories?

Where is Latin America?

There was once a simple answer to this question seeking to place orcategorize Latin America. It was a region transiting along the stagesof economic growth, only behind those already fortunate enough toreach ‘take-off’ stage. According to Walt Rostow, who pioneered thisapproach, we start with traditional society, then according to whether thepreconditions for ‘take off’ exist, take off occurs and there is a ‘drive tomaturity’ that eventually results in the age of mass consumption (Rostow1960). While the likes of North America and Australasia were settled bythose coming from a Europe already in transition, the Latin Americastates were not so lucky: ‘they began with a version of a traditional soci-ety – often a merging of traditional Latin Europe and native traditional

1

PROOF


2 Contemporary Latin America

cultures – which required fundamental change’ (Rostow 1960:18) beforethey could achieve take off to modernization.

There are serious drawbacks, I believe, to this approach even if intu-itively it might make sense at first glance. First, it takes one particularroute to modernity – the United States – and measures other societiesagainst it. Traditional development theories had taken Britain’s industrialrevolution as the model for all countries. Global development has, in fact,followed many routes and taken different shapes. It cannot be reduced tothe one single path. Second, the idea that all countries are travelling alongthe same path to modernity simply ignores the fact that the global econ-omy is an inter-related system and, to put it bluntly, that the playing fieldwas not level at the start of the race. A structural-historical approach, onthe other hand, would pay due attention to the structures of the globalsystem and its historical configuration.

A very different way of placing Latin America would be in terms of itsmembership of the Third World. The term was coined in the mid-1950sas a sociological category to describe the various post-colonial societiesof Asia, Africa and Latin America. The term achieved a certain politi-cal resonance with the anti-colonial Bandung Conference of 1955 and,even more so in the 1960s with the success of the Cuban Revolutionand its sponsorship of the Tricontinental liberation movement. The pur-pose and drive of the term ‘Third World’ was clearly political as was,back in 1920s, the decision of the Communist International to classifyLatin America as part of the East. The West was advanced and ripe forthe socialist revolution and the East was backwards and ready only fora democratic anti-colonial revolution. In both cases Latin America wassqueezed into a category that did not even begin to do justice to the natureof capitalist development in the region.

The main purpose in considering these terms is as an object lesson inhow not to classify in order to control. As Régis Debray writes ‘ “ThirdWorld” is a lumber-room of a term, a shapeless bag in which we jumbletogether . . . nations, classes, races, civilizations and continents’ (1977:35) in much the same way in which the Ancient Greeks called all non-Greeks ‘barbaros’. It is even inadequate as a tool through which togenerate a common anti-colonial movement because of the incompat-ibles it brought together under one banner. Likewise the CommunistInternationalist’s failure to understand the specificity of Latin Americameant ‘there was too great a temptation to tidy away that awkward con-tinent into the pigeon-hole marked East, along with Africa and Asia’(Debray 1977: 43). Here again the complete failure to understand whatcharacterized Latin America would prove politically costly.

PROOF


Introduction 3

It is hard to place Latin America either on an escalator towards a massconsumption society or as part of the Third World or even ‘developingregions’. From the first perspective the definition is based solely on whatLatin America lacks. The second approach lumps Latin America withquite disparate societies with which it has little in common. The thirdapproach as developed later in this introduction – ‘Paths to Modernity’ –will stress the complexity and contradictions of Latin America’s char-acteristics. Over and above the heterogeneity of the continent – whereeven the term ‘Latin’ is dubious – lies its in-between-ness. A regionof preponderantly European immigration, it retains a major indigenouspopulation and a significant proportion of descendants of African slaves.While Western political models are discernible, these are matched bypolitical patterns of radicalization and reaction that might seem not quiteWestern.

The approach underlying this book is that Latin America is a hybridsociety or, put differently, one characterized by mixed temporalities inthe sense that the past is always with us and the future is constantlybeing re-imagined. There is no true ‘essence’ of what Latin America‘really is’. To even begin to think beyond this essentialism we need toimmerse ourselves in the region’s rich literature. Gabriel García Márquezin his classic One Hundred Years of Solitude (Márquez 1970) con-structed the land of Macondo, which has since acted as a byword forLatin American magical realism, a metaphor of the mysteries of LatinAmerica. Macondo – a place where real events such as workers’ strug-gles mix with the mythical, and we magically expand the wings ofwhat is possible. José Joaquín Brunner, a Chilean cultural critic, tellsof how Macondo(ism) has been taken up by those ‘who do not wantto renounce making America a land of promised wonders. The land ofdreams and utopias; the new world out of which an alternative rationalitywill emerge’ (Brunner 2002:15).

Magical realism is not, of course, a global development theory but itcan serve us to re-think the rather wooden or static categories used in bothmainstream and much critical development thinking. There are no sim-ple formulas to deliver development; and to understand the complexityof contemporary Latin America we need to deploy the imagination ratherthan seek to shoehorn Latin America into pre-existing socio-economic orpolitical categories. Another development model is not only possible but,in the current circumstances, probably necessary as well. Latin Americacan be seen thus as a laboratory for social and political experimenta-tion out of which new development practices and political visions mightemerge.

PROOF



Dependency and Beyond

The main Latin American riposte to Walt Rostow’s stages of economicgrowth perspective, subtitled significantly enough, A Non-CommunistManifesto, was the dependency theory or approach. It emerged in Chilein the mid-1960s from a group of social scientists around ECLA (Eco-nomic Commission for Latin America) a United Nations think-tank forthe region. Its clearest exposition was Dependency and Development inLatin America by Brazilian sociologist Fernando H. Cardoso and Chileanhistorian Enzo Faletto first published in 1969. Building on the structural-ist perspective of ECLA on Latin America’s role in the global economyit added a strong historical dimension. They did not propose a theory ofdependent capitalism but, rather, sought to describe the various ‘situa-tions of dependency’ that had emerged in the post-colonial era. It is astructural-historical methodology focused on capitalist development inthe periphery and its interaction with social and political processes. Itsemphasis is on internal developments within Latin America and not theinternational context.

Cardoso and Faletto, and many others across disciplines and coun-tries in Latin America, did not conceive of dependency as somethingexternal at all. Indeed, they argued that ‘it is through socio-political struc-tures sustained and moved by social classes and groups with opposedinterests that capitalism . . . is realised in history’ (Cardoso and Faletto1979: xx). The focus is explicitly on the internal struggles within LatinAmerica and not on external dependency as the explanatory variable.Where this approach also departs from the common image of dependencywas in its total acceptance that ‘a real process of dependent develop-ment does exist in some Latin American countries’ (Cardoso and Faletto1979: xxiii). This development is of course uneven, both regionally andsocially, and it is accompanied by much exploitation and inequality, butit is undoubtedly real and it has changed the face of Latin America. Sim-plistic versions of the approach outside Latin America referred ratherto a catastrophic ‘development of underdevelopment’ as the only resultpossible.

Internationally, the dependency approach became associated with therather simplistic approach of André Gunder Frank who argued that ‘thedevelopment of under-development’ was the best that could be hoped for.In a series of popular books he became the conduit for ‘dependency the-ory’ into the North American and European academic milieu. It capturedthe radical mood of the 1970s and acted, rather, as the economic coun-terpart to Régis Debray’s Revolution in the Revolution (Debray 1967)

PROOF


Introduction 5

a text, which codified the politics of the Cuban Revolution and whichwas extremely influential. However, it was deeply flawed in its argu-ment that Latin America had always been capitalist, that dependencyalways led to stagnation and that socialist revolution was the only alter-native. As a serious perspective it died out in the 1980s as the rise ofthe East Asian NICs (newly industrialized countries) disproved in prac-tice its pessimistic stagnationist perspective. Politically, the glow of theCuban Revolution has long since faded as a beacon of hope for thoseseeking social and political transformation.

Today, 40 years on from the emergence of Latin America dependencytheory how can it aid our analysis? First of all as a methodology itretains considerable explanatory power. As Cardoso and Faletto put it‘we must analyse the diversity of classes, fractions of classes, groups,organisations, and political and ideological movements which form, ina lively and dynamic way, the history of capitalist expansion in LatinAmerica’ (Cardoso and Faletto 1979: xx). In second place, the depen-dency approach is arguably more relevant in the era of globalization thanit ever was. The internationalization of Latin America’s economies ismuch greater than it was in the 1970s and the imperatives to integratewith the global economy are inescapable. This ‘new dependency’ is cre-ating great dynamism in some sectors and countries while other are beingsidelined and locked into structural dependency. There has been someprogress in relation to combating poverty and even some reduction inincome inequalities but the overall picture is still one of highly unevendevelopment.

Brazil perhaps best exemplifies how Latin America can, and has,engaged with globalization in a way that has benefited national devel-opment. Economic development has oriented towards the global marketbut it has had a strong state-led internal effect as well. Politically, wecould characterize the regimes over the past 20 years as social demo-cratic. That is, they have had a strong redistributionist ethos that has gonesome way towards the mitigation of poverty and hunger. Civil society hasthrived as never before alongside the revival of party political life. Thelikes of the landless peasant movement and the various environmentalcampaigns are, if nothing else, testimony to a vibrant civil society. It isnot just Brazil with its continental dimensions that has achieved a socialdemocratic path within globalization, but also Chile for example.

We should, however, turn to Colombia (and increasingly Mexico) fora vision of a much more perverse engagement with the global systemvia the drugs trade. As Castells puts it, globalization and the criminaleconomy have led to a ‘perverse connection that redefines development

PROOF



and dependency in historically unforeseen ways’ (Castells 1998: 201).In Colombia, this new economy builds on a historic legacy of regionalrevolt, the so-called ‘independent republics’ of the 1950s. In Mexico, thecollapse of much of indigenous industry has left the drugs trade as onemajor lucrative export trade. Whatever beneficial development benefitsthat might accrue – for example, the regeneration of Bogotá – these areprobably nullified by the death and destruction they leave in their wake.Its impact on state capabilities and democratic politics generally is, ofcourse, totally detrimental.

The issue of drugs and crime in Latin America – as elsewhere – can-not however be dealt with in isolation. Too often it is sensationalized inmedia coverage, though this is not to deny that its effects are horrific.Nor should we minimize the impact of quite unprecedented levels ofviolence on people and communities. We do, however, need to look atthe structural roots of the drugs trade. Set in the context of the rise ofglobalization in the 1990s, it seems clear, as Manuel Castells puts it, that‘the flexible construction of these criminal activities in international net-works constitutes an essential feature of the new global economy, and ofthe social/political dynamics of the Information Age’ (1998: 167). It isthe nature of the internationalized economy and the rising demand fordrugs in the affluent North that has created the illegal drugs industry inLatin America today.

Among Latin American researchers an analytical perspective hasemerged in recent years as a counter to neo-liberalism. This newapproach brings up to date the structuralist approach of the 1960s’Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA) to advance a ‘neo-structuralism’ fit for the globalization era. It argues that the global systemand centre-periphery relations in particular are characterized by funda-mental asymmetries. While it accepts that liberalization of internationaltrade was inevitable, it cautions against further liberalization withoutadequate protective measures. It also reads very differently the success ofthe East Asian NICs seen by neo-liberalism as simple proof that liberal-ization is good for development. The main lesson that neo-structuraliststake from this experience ‘is the need to selectively integrate intothe world economy and create competitive advantages through well-designed and flexible industrial policies’ (Gwynne and Kay 2004: 263).In other words, the state should play a key role in development.

Where the Latin American approach to development differs fromestablished wisdom is precisely in its focus on the state and, indeed, civilsociety. In this sense, it may provide pointers in the current global con-versations to find a way out of the impasse created by the neo-liberal

PROOF


Introduction 7

unregulated market model which resulted in the 2008/09 recession. Cer-tainly no one now – and very few it must be said even in the 1960s –advocates delinking from the world economy. Foreign investment and themultinationals are not seen as contrary to the interests of development.It is just that the state needs to govern the market through strong regu-latory institutions if development (and not just private enrichment) is tooccur. Furthermore, against the dominant emphasis on unregulated mar-kets that undermine social cohesion, the Latin American school stressesthe need for development with equity. To deliver on the challenge ofpoverty and inequality, a development strategy needs to place at its corethe question of citizenship and the role of a vigorous and free civil societyin building it and sustaining it.

The new dependency created by globalization is not, of course, auniform condition. At one end stands Brazil – a global player devel-oping a powerful economic base, a strong internal market and enjoyingconsiderable geo-strategic power. At the other end of the spectrum liethe countries of Central America along with Paraguay and Uruguay forexample, with scant prospects for autonomous or even semi-autonomousgrowth paths. In between we can probably place some major countriessuch as Mexico and Colombia, which have achieved significant growthbut one based on clear dependency on the United States and a perverseintegration into the international market via the illegal drugs trade. Giventhis scenario it seems unlikely that Brazil might act as regional powerintegrating Latin (or even South) America as a coherent block. TheVenezuela of Chávez seeks to play that role but it is almost totally depen-dent on oil revenue and it has attracted only patchy and quite conditionalsupport across the region.

Politics of Transformation

The economic prospects of any region depend, of course, on politics.Has the predominance of left-of-centre governments over the past decademade a difference in terms of economic policies? For their detractors theleft-of-centre governments simply continued the neo-liberal policies oftheir predecessors. More careful analysis shows a significant reduction ofpoverty (if not inequality) in countries such as Brazil, Mexico, Venezuelaand Chile where different types of governments instituted pro-poor mea-sures. That goes to show that politics matter and that development is notdetermined by the structural position of a given region in the global econ-omy. Whatever our verdict on the impact of the new left governments

PROOF



in Latin America is, we can say that they have helped open up globaldebates on a post-neo-liberal development strategy.

As a world region Latin America has had more than its share ofdramatic political transformations. Indeed, the politics of transforma-tion could be said to be a defining characteristic of the region. Theindependence movements of the early nineteenth century were precur-sors of many others across the world. What was noticeable was thecontinental aspiration of some of its main leaders (San Martín, SimónBolivar, etc) and the decisiveness of the engagement with Spain asimperial power. After three full centuries of colonial rule, the localcriollo intellectuals and military leaders sought to invent the SouthAmerican republics in the contact of a broader American federation.It is this continental aspiration for social transformation that is beingrevived by today’s advocates of Boliviarianism as a twenty-first centurysocialism.

What is perhaps remarkable is how difficult Latin American national-ism has been to categorize from a Western analytical perspective. Mostof the Western theorists of nationalism have tended to ignore LatinAmerica as it did not fit in with their schemas. The formation of thenation-state was not closely linked to racial identification insofar as mes-tizaje (racial mixing) was the norm. While there have been authoritarianand conservative versions of nationalism, much more common from theMexican revolution of 1910 onwards has been the developmentalist, anti-imperialist version. The idea of nation as a political community doesnot even translate easily into Spanish or Portuguese: nación refers todifferent peoples, whereas patria signifies something more like today’snation-state. Nor is nationalism imbricated with secularization as inWestern Europe, rather the role of religion was crucial in shaping LatinAmerican individualism.

Karl Marx notoriously misunderstood Simón Bolivar completely andsaw in him just a pale reflection of Napoleon III (one of his pet hates) andcompletely failed to appreciate his dynamic role in Latin America’s colo-nial revolution. Then in the twentieth century both Marxist and liberalsmanaged to conflate the rise of Perón in Argentina in 1945 with Europeanfascism. An army colonel who forged an alliance with the labour unionsand created a strong popular nationalist movement, Perón was consis-tently categorized as a fascist because of certain Mussolini-like trappingsof his regime. That he was opposed to the remnants of British eco-nomic domination in Argentina seemed enough to put him in the Nazicamp. To this day Northern interpretations of Perón and Peronism(see Brennan 1998) are tainted by this bizarre and ahistorical failure

PROOF


Introduction 9

to engage with the reality and complexity of political transformation inLatin America.

Latin American nationalism has proven itself resistant to externalunderstanding but it has, nevertheless, generated key analytical conceptssuch as that of ‘populism’. After the Russian Populists of the early 1800sit is Latin American populisms that have generated most attention. Perónin Argentina and Vargas in Brazil in the 1950s are the archetypes, buttoday Chávez in Venezuela is seen as the main ‘populist’. What does thismean? Often it implies a charismatic leadership style and social redis-tribution in terms of economic policies. However, rather than use it inpejorative terms we would be better studying it as a complex form ofpolitical identification beyond social class or other traditional markers.Certainly populism in practice has served to mobilize ‘the people’ in pur-suit of social and political transformation in dynamic and understudiedprocesses.

Since the 1960s, Latin America has not ceased to provide the worldwith significant movements and discourses of transformation and libera-tion. The political trajectory of Ernesto ‘Ché’ Guevara, from Argentina,then a Cuban global figure, is still pored over and is the subject of variousreadings. Of course, myth and political reality have blurred boundaries insuch a situation but Cuba remains a contested terrain for political com-mentators and for big power politics as well. Guevara’s internationalistpolitics and voluntarist conception of the ‘New Man’ continues to attractattention and not only in Latin America. These phenomena have grippedthe political imagination of people over the years and across countries.They still matter for an understanding of the prospects and the obstaclesfor social transformation in the twenty-first century.

The Zapatistas in Mexico have been hailed as the first guerrillas ofthe information age and there is an image of Subcomandante Marcossending out Internet messages from the jungle in Lacandón. A vast lit-erature commenting on and generalizing this experience has developedsince their emergence in the mid 1990s. Whatever the quality or rele-vance of this output, it has certainly put Zapatismo on the global map ofsocial transformation theory and practice. An even broader impact hasbeen caused by the World Social Forum, an initiative that began in fromthe Brazilian left-led city of Porte Alegre. In the contestation of neo-liberal globalization no movement compares with the Forum in terms ofits scope, ambitions and achievements in terms of generating widespreadacceptance that ‘another world is possible’. More recently, the Chileanstudent revolt of 2010–11 has brought the youth to the fore again in amobilization with considerable resonance with the 1960s. While totally

PROOF



networked and contemporary in its mode of mobilization, this protesthas also produced a leader, Comandante Camila who is a member ofthe orthodox Communist Party and has a portrait of Karl Marx in heroffice. Generating a vision for social, political and cultural transforma-tion has been a distinct Latin American contribution to the global politicsof transformation.

It is certainly significant that it is under left-of-centre governmentsthat countries such as Argentina, Brazil and Chile, but also the openlyradicalized regime in Venezuela, have achieved some (though not major)reduction in poverty and inequality levels over the past decade. Thishas not been achieved through profligate populist measures as the crit-ics have alleged, but rather through concerted social policies runningalongside fairly mainstream pro-market growth strategies. The South-ern Cone countries have also made progress in terms of settling accountswith the military dictatorships of the 1980s with several recent landmarklegal cases. The challenge will be to continue along the path of sustainedeconomic growth in a way that will not reproduce dependency, but todeepen democracy so that dictatorship will never again become a formof political rule in Latin America.

Paths to Modernity

While modernization theory (Walt Rostow) offers a poor guide to thedevelopment of Latin America, this is indeed a region with a strong drivetowards modernity. García Canclini has somewhat obliquely summed upthe main Latin American contradiction as ‘we have an exuberant mod-ernism and a deficient modernization’ (García Canclini, 2002: 41). Col-onization occurred under the aegis of the Iberian Counter-Reformationand other anti-modern movements. Since independence there have beenwaves of modernization led first by a progressive oligarchy, then the ris-ing middles classes and immigrants, even by military dictatorships (oftenmodernizing in intent) and now by left wing governments who argue thatmodernity and democratization must go hand in hand.

There is a common view that the obstacles to modernization lie deepin the Latin American psyche. Thus, for example, Claudio Véliz drawsan interesting analogy between the hedgehog and fox as descriptors(shown in Table 1.1) of Latin American and North American identitycharacteristics (Véliz 1994).

The Spanish and Portuguese conquests are seen as bearers of thehedgehog characteristics along with the Spanish/Portuguese languages

PROOF


Introduction 11

Table 1.1 Hedgehog and fox descriptions

Hedgehog (Latin America) Fox (North America)

Resistance to change MobilitySymmetry AsymmetryUnit DiversityCentralism DecentralisationOrganic InorganicTradition Change

and Catholicism. Diversity and discontinuity were shunned with a fearof the unexpected militating against modernization. Thus, according toVéliz, there is a deep cultural resistance in Latin America towards all thecharacteristics that are necessary for development.

We could argue that this type of simple binary opposition between thehedgehog and fox type of culture is a form of essentialism in the sensethat a given group is seen to display certain innate characteristics thatrepresent their essential being. As an approach it does not really allowfor diversity and hybridity, it does not encompass contradictions and itis rather too symmetrical and neat. It is also somewhat uncritical of theUS English-speaking fox that Véliz sees as now finally overcoming thecultural deficit of Latin America through an influx of cheap and accessi-ble consumer goods: ‘the lofty dome of the Spanish cultural revolutionhas in the end proved defenceless against blue jeans, computer graphics,jogging shoes and electric toasters’ (Véliz 1994: 219). This approach,based on the power of consumer goods, misses out the complexity ofeconomic development and social change, social classes, political par-ties, governments and business interests that have all interacted withinLatin America to promote and drive change.

Another approach to modernity is to value positively what is particularto Latin America. One route is to (re)discover the continent’s indige-nous cultural roots, a form of indigenismo. In the 1990s, this approachwas promoted by many social and cultural movements. From this per-spective, the whole development effort has been misguided in the senseof introducing alien technologies. The early Andean communities couldthus serve as an inspiration for a new non-Western instrumental formof reason. This different type of rationality would, supposedly, inspire anew era of emancipation and break with dependency.

While no one can deny the political importance of today’s neo-indigenismo as a political factor, most noticeably in Bolivia and Ecuador,

PROOF



it is, in a sense, another form of essentialism, this time valuing posi-tively all that is not Western consumerism and competitive individualism.In reality, Latin America has always seen a mixture of cultural influ-ences, Western and non-Western. Against all forms of essentialism, weshould perhaps stress mixture and hybridity and even seek to understandhow Latin America can be understood as living in different temporali-ties. García Canclini has captured this complex reality well when he saysthat ‘we do not arrive at one modernity, but at several unequal and com-bined processes of modernization’ (1995: 103). There is no one path tomodernity – there are many and Latin America’s is very much its own –but, on the other hand, we cannot go back to a mythical pre-modern era.

This text will neither view Latin America in terms of what it lacksto attain modernity, as a case of exceptionalism, in regards to globaldevelopment models, nor as a mystery so obscure at to defy analysis.As a world region, Latin America is undoubtedly Western – in terms ofreligion, culture and political patterns – albeit perhaps the Far West asFrench political scientist Alain Rouquié (1998) once called it. It is alsoa post-colonial society and that makes it somewhat different from theregions of European settlement in North America and Australia. It hasa strong non-Western component in its indigenous populations and alsodescendants of African slaves. It was part of the New World that Europeexpanded into and it is now part of the rise of the non-Western eco-nomic resurgence led by China, India and Brazil. What follows is aLatin American perspective on a region characterized by contradictions,hybridity but, above all, a great dynamism.

In contemporary Latin America, many countries are now marking 200years of independence achieved across the region between 1810 and1825. The world after the global recession of 2008/09 is a very differentplace from what is was even a decade ago and we cannot predict what that200th anniversary will mean in terms of economic, political and culturalindependence. National economic independence in the traditional senseis no longer possible in a world with an integrated global market. On theother hand, the hegemony of the market has been severely shaken at leastsince 2008/09. Alternative models of development are now being activelyexplored and the one true path through free market policies no longerrules supreme. That many countries in Latin America – most notablyBrazil – recovered quite quickly from the 2008/09 recession indicatesthat there is at least some degree of independence emerging. Politically,not to mention culturally, there is something positive afoot.

PROOF

May 17, 2012 14:41 MAC/MUNCK Page-273 9780230354197_15_ind01

Index

Notes: bold = extended discussion or term highlighted in text; B = box, f = figure,m = map, n = note, t = table.

——————

accountability 79, 110, 151, 159Afghanistan 202b, 221Africa 1, 2, 3, 25–6, 32, 33t, 192, 219,

224, 229b, 230mAfrican Americans 149, 228bAfrican peoples (in LA) 89, 90–2, 129,

138, 148, 182, 191women 159

Afro-American faiths 186, 187Afro-Brazilians

culture 149social movements 91b

‘age of dislocation, age of experiment’(1914–45) 65

age of mass consumption (Rostow) 1, 3agrarian reform/modernization 70, 113agriculture 15, 19–20b, 22b, 25, 41, 46,

81b, 83, 84, 146, 212capitalist transformation (Brazil) 142structure of production (Latin America)

33, 34tsubsidies 210

agro-business 71, 146versus family-based farming 84

agro-export economy 17b, 42–4, 46–7,66, 67–8, 70, 166

Alaska 206, 208Alfonsín, R. 54Allende, I. 187Allende, S. 21b, 50, 52, 70, 108b, 109,

133, 201‘first Marxist president’ in LA 138

Almeida Medeiros, A. 208Almond, G. 156–7Alternative Community Trade Network

(COMAL) 81bAlvarez, S. 147, 181, 253Amazon/Amazonia 13, 14m, 19b, 22b,

145b, 151–2, 212, 213, 238‘lungs of Earth’ 17–20rainforest 30

American Federation of Labor-Congress ofIndustrial Organizations (AFL-CIO)206

‘American Way of Life’n 233Amerindians 13, 23, 90–1, 129, 250

religion 186anarchism 137, 138ANCAP (oil company) 116Andean countries/region 13, 14m, 15,

18–19b, 21–3, 36, 64b, 84, 129,145b, 152, 181

costa versus sierra 34democratic consolidation ‘threatened’

57–8democratic disenchantment 117gender relations 89–90income inequality 30, 31tindigenous social movements 149industrialization 47, 66party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158UNDP Electoral Democracy Index

107Andean Pact (1969–) 205Andean people/communities 11, 123b,

124Andermann, J. 253Anderson, P. 247Angell, A. 110Angola 23, 202banomie 96‘another world is possible’ (slogan) 9, 143Antarctic question 212–13anti-colonial revolution

versus ‘socialist revolution’ 2anti-imperialism 45b, 179

see also cultural imperialismanti-modernism 10, 244Antonin, A. 233Apartheid 209b, 200, 212Aprismo (Peru) 43Araucanians 244

273

PROOF


274 Index

Argentina xiii, 9, 10, 23, 36, 39, 41, 44,52, 64–5, 69, 78, 94, 100, 119, 127,136–8, 150, 180, 196, 203, 219, 221,237–8, 245b, 247, 250, 253

agriculture 33, 34tAndes versus Patagonia 19bbeneficiary of new world order

(1990–) 35border issues 211, 212carbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30caretaker governments (2002) 110cinema 193–4democratic consolidation 110–11,

112demonstration of 17 October (1945)

135bdictators 51beconomic crisis (2001–2) 57, 61, 70,

80, 99, 102, 110, 116, 123, 208,225, 226, 227, 234

election (2003) 110–11HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tIFI conditionality 214industrialization 46, 66, 134industry 33, 34tMERCOSUR membership 206–7military coup (1976) 49, 50, 51b, 70,

71, 77military intervention (1966) 49national control over key economic

sectors 42neo-liberal model 71new economic model: ‘catastrophic

collapse’ (2001–2) 70NGOs 173one of richest countries in world (1914)

20b, 63, 99party-system institutionalization index

158tpopulation distribution (1940, 1980)

95fpopulation increase (1950–2020) 26tpro-poor reformist government 100profile 20–1bprovinces 111public employment versus total

employment (1954–80) 167fpublic sector employment (1990–6)

168re-democratization (1983–) 54‘remnants of British economic

domination’ 8

resistance to Brazil 208revolt of middle classes 42rule of law 162–3‘semi-connected’ (internet usage) 32‘semi-industrialized’ (1950, late 1960s)

67, 83sovereign debt (largest-ever default)

76–7stop-start economic cycle 46‘truly immigrant country’ 25‘two nations’ (Sarmiento) 178bUS rapprochement (2011) 226women 90women (uneven representation)

159–60see also Peronism

‘Argentinian road to socialism’ 134Arias, E. D. 249, 252Aricó, J. 246–7Ariel (Rodo, 1900) 179Aristide, J-B. 112armed forces 23, 178–9arms-trafficking 214bart 253Asia 2, 22, 32, 33t, 219, 229b, 230mAsian crisis (1997–8) 207‘associated-dependent’ model 68association football 196atheism 49, 182Atkins, G. P. 219, 252Aunt Julia (Vargas Llosa) 190Australia 12, 32, 33tAustrian school 69authoritarianism 28, 49, 57, 71, 88b, 113,

134, 142, 157–8, 161–2, 166, 180,191, 238, 242, 252

autogolpe (Peru, 2002) 57–8Auyero, J. 93Ayacucho (Battle, 1824) 39bAylwin, P. 54, 109Aymará 120Aztecs 22–3, 37, 38, 244

Babilonia, A. (García Márquez, 1967)191

Bachelet Jeria, V. M. 108b, 109, 115,151

‘backward linkages’ (economic) 63Bahia 194bbairro (neighbourhood) 140banana plantation workers’ strike (1928)

190‘banana republics’ 155–6bananas 63, 66, 67, 144

PROOF


Index 275

Bandung Conference (1955) 2banks and banking 19b, 35, 40, 43, 72–3,

80, 164b, 173, 214Brazilian 208foreign 110large transnational 236

‘barbarism’ 40, 243barbaros 2Barton, J. 212–13, 250Bartra, R. 250‘base communities’ 183basic needs 131basismo (NGO grassroots orientation)

174Batista, F. 201Bay of Pigs 201Beagle Channel Islands 211, 212Bebbington, A. 171, 176, 252Beck, U. 225beef 40, 207Beijing Conference on Women (1995)

220‘Belindia’ (Belgium and India) 225Belize 17bBelo Horizonte 22b, 28, 94tBenoit, H. 164bBergquist, C. 250Bethel, L. 249BG Group Plc 122b‘blame the victim’ 157Blanco, H. 144Boal, A. 194bBogotá 6, 94t, 201Bogotá: pan-American conference (1948)

201bolero 193Bolivar, S. 8, 39b, 39, 118, 120–1b, 145b

indigenous viewpoint 145blegacy 39b‘Liberator’ 38, 39b‘misunderstood by Marx’ 8‘one-nation’ dream 38, 39bpolitical thought 39bworld-wide parliament proposal 121b

‘Bolivarian Revolution’ (Chávismo) 8,118, 120b, 210, 247

Bolivia 11, 15, 21, 23, 34t, 34n, 35, 41,67, 82, 107, 129, 136, 152, 191, 206,212, 216

attempted coups (2000, 2005) 112constitution 124democratic consolidation ‘threatened’

57democratic disenchantment 117

economic crisis (1980s) 18belections 120–1, 122bHDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2007)

31t‘illusory revolution’ (1952) 121industrialization ‘slower and

weaker’ 47infant mortality rates 28, 29tleft turn 118, 120–4life expectancy 28, 29tnarcotics 213nationalization (oil industry) 120,

122bparty-system institutionalization index

158t, 158population increase (1950–2020) 26tpresidential election (2005) 120–1profile 18bresistance to Brazil 208‘ungovernability’ 237Upper Peru renamed thus (1824) 39burban capitalist class 86

Bolivian Revolution (1952) 247Bolsa Família (Family Fund, Brazil) 113Bonaparte, N. 38

see also Napoleon IIIbonded labour 23boom and bust 218bBooth, J. A. 250, 252border issues 199, 211–12, 229b, 229Borges, J. L. 189b, 253bossa nova 194b‘bourgeois hegemony’ 196Brasilia 94tBrazil xiii, xiv, 4, 10, 12–13, 20, 24, 34t,

36, 64–5, 69, 78, 79, 90, 118, 122b,127, 129–30, 137–8, 155–6, 180, 199,204–5, 207–11, 215, 221, 227, 233

another military coup ‘seemsinconceivable’ 56

banks 208beneficiary of new world order (1990–)

35beyond dependency 223beyond oligarchy 42black social movement 149break with old trade unionism 141carbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30cinema 193–4‘consensual alliance-building’ 209bconstitution 142, 160bcountry profile 22b

PROOF


276 Index

Brazil – continued‘coup within coup’ (1968) 49democratic disenchantment 113–15,

117‘difference’ 207drug flows 232melection (1989) 159elections 113–15‘emerging economy’ status 32engagement with globalization 5environmental movement 152–3exports to Argentina 207fixed capital formation (government

participation) 68football 196foreign policy 209b‘global player’ 7, 207–8‘great leap forward’ (1956–60) 68HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tincome distribution ‘most unequal’

101–2income inequality 30, 31tindustrial sector 206industrial work force (1950–80) 83industrialization 46, 66inequality-reduction 100integration into world system 225‘key country’ 238–9labour movements 139–41land question (statement of Catholic

Church, 1980) 185blandless movement 143blife expectancy (regional

variations) 28literature 250, 252MERCOSUR membership 207military coup (1964) 46, 49, 70, 139,

141, 194b, 212, 217monarchy 39, 40NGOs 174–5north-east versus south-east 22b, 25,

28, 41, 160b, 179, 207, 225not ‘regional hegemon’ 208party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158Pentecostalism 186population distribution (1940, 1980)

95fpopulation increase (1950–2020) 26,

26t, 27presidential election (1990) 160bpresidential election (2002) 267

race 91b, 92recovery from global recession (2008–9)

207re-democratization (1985–) 55–6regional (supra-national) role 209bregional economic aspirations 226regional inequality 22brepublic (1889–) 40, 41rise as global economic player 61rural organization 142–3‘semi-connected’ (internet usage)

32‘semi-industrialized’ (late 1960s) 67slaves 23social differentiation 38social movements 183–4social record ‘disastrous’ 113–14standard of administration 166state reform (1990s) 169–70state role 44–5stock market ‘seventh largest in world’

207–8street children (unpunished killing)

163‘territorial fragility’ 238torture 164trade disputes with USA 203trading partner 20bwar in favelas 164bwelfare policy (state-driven) 105women 148see also BRIC

Brazil: Finance Ministry 113Brazilian Shield or Plateau 19bBrazilianization (Beck) 225, 233Brennan, J. 8Bresser-Pereira, C. L. 170, 175, 252BRIC 207, 221, 226Britain see United KingdomBrodeur, J-P. 161Brooksbank-Jones, A. 253Brunner, J. J. 3Buchi, H. 169Buena Vista Social Club 196Buendía family (García Márquez, 1967)

190–1Buenos Aires 20–1b, 25, 94t, 97, 99,

134, 189b, 220, 245–6poor people’s politics 93‘primate city’ 94São Paulo axis 19b

Buenos Aires: Plaza de Mayo 135b, 150Buenos Aires Consensus (1997) 78–9Buenos Aires Province 51b

PROOF


Index 277

Bulmer Thomas, V. 63, 68, 234,251, 252

Burdick, J. 251bureaucracy (and administration) 47,

155, 165–71, 176, 191‘bureaucratic-authoritarian’ (BA) model

52–3Burgess, S. 209nBurgess, J. W. 200Burns, B. 41, 42Bush, G. H. W. (1989–93) 203,

205Bush, G. W. (2001–9) 210, 220–1

cabecitas negras 134cabildos (local authorities) 38Cabocla Mariana (Umbanda spirit) 186Calderón, F. 112, 247Cali (Colombia) 94tCaliban 179Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Latin

America and Caribbean (Collieret al., 1992) 249

Cambridge History of Latin America(Bethel ed., 1984–96) 155, 249

Camila, Comandante 10, 133Canada 13, 139, 205, 237Candomblé 149, 182, 186–7Cantinflas 193Canudos 179capital 63, 68, 192

foreign 66, 67bcapital accumulation 33, 227capital cities 28, 94, 94t

see also citiescapital flight/capital outflows 72, 214capital flows 27, 72, 126capital markets 65, 71, 72capitalism 4, 5, 35, 61, 70, 84, 122b, 125,

142, 145b, 171, 184, 210, 244, 245bcapitalismo popular 73capitalist class 85, 86f, 86, 87, 97, 168bcapitalist revolution 52Caracas 39b, 94tcarbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30Cardenismo (Mexico) 43Cardoso, F. H. 4, 5, 42–4, 62, 64–5, 80,

114b, 115, 169, 217, 227president of Brazil (1994/5–2002) 55,

56b, 91b, 129, 142, 156, 165,168–71, 208–9, 209b, 226

foreign minister 208, 209b

Caribbean 13, 14, 24, 129, 202b, 219,221, 227–8, 255

Afro-American cults 186drug flows 232b, 232mslaves 23

Caribs 244CARICOM (Caribbean Community,

1973–) 205Carmen Feijoo, M. 151carnival 177, 195Carpentier, A. 191Carrión, J. 250cars/car industry 68, 99, 141

auto workers 139automobile parts 114bvehicles 20b, 22b

Carta ao pôvo brasiliero (Da Silva, 2002)114b

Casa Verde (Vargas Llosa, 1966) 190Castañeda, J. 111–12, 116, 119, 121–2,

241–2, 251Castells, M. 6, 32, 214b, 231Castro, F. 44, 45b, 48, 119, 124–5

‘declared for socialism’ (1961) 136nationalist leader ‘above all else’ 136

Castro, R. 124, 125Catholic Base Communities (1960s)

143bCatholic Church 141, 173, 182–5, 186,

187, 232bactivists 142Hispanic authoritarianism 156–7opposition to Pinochet dictatorship

183‘option for poor’ 182–3see also liberation theology

Catholicism 11, 24, 38, 52, 108b, 123b,182, 242–3

cattle 25, 63, 64caudillo (strongman) 49Cavallo, D. 169Centeno, M. A. 107, 125, 127, 250Central America xiv, 7, 13–15, 20, 35–7,

40, 48, 65, 130, 155–6, 171, 180–1,183, 203, 208, 219, 226–9, 229b, 231,238

communism 202bconflict resolution 211–12drug flows 232b, 232mfalling ‘dominoes’ (1980s) 201–2income inequality 30, 31tindigenous social movements 149industrialization 47, 66literacy 28, 29t

PROOF


278 Index

Central America – continuedliterature 250, 252, 255peasant revolts 43people’s economy 81b‘peripherality’ 237profile 17bre-democratization 57‘rudimentary administration’ (c. 1930)

166torture 164

Central American Common Market(1961–) 17b, 47, 205

central banks 63, 68central government spending (proportion

of GDP) 30Central Única dos Trabalhadores (CUT,

1983–) 114bcentralism versus federalism 40‘certification’ (‘notorious’ US policy)

203Chaco War 216Chalk, P. 232nChamorro, V. 159change 109, 115, 117, 129, 183

anthropocentric versus cosmocentricvisions 181

ideologies 177–82Chant, S. 252charismatic leadership 9, 69, 93Chávez Frias, H. R. 1, 7, 9, 39b, 82, 107,

118–21, 122b, 124, 203, 210, 226,238

address to UN (2005) 121bcoup attempt (1992) 134foreign policy 134literature 250president (1999–) 120bpresidentialism 156

Chávismo 118–19, 250Peronist model 134–5

chemicals 18b, 20b, 68Chestnut, R. A. 186Chevigny, P. 164Chiapas province (Mexico) 146, 228–9b,

238–9‘Chicago Boys’ 70, 167, 168bchildren 27, 89b, 90, 162, 163Chile 3, 4, 5, 7, 15, 25, 34t, 36–7, 39, 43,

56b, 64, 78, 82, 94, 97, 100, 107, 126,130, 137, 151, 156, 183, 234, 237–8,241

aspiration to join NAFTA 206,208–9

border disputes (resolution) 212

border skirmishes 211‘change within continuity’ 109democratic consolidation 108–10,

112democratic regimes (post-1990) 103economic strategies (Pinochet versus

post-Pinochet) 77–8first woman president in LA (Bachelet)

108bfree-trade agreement with USA (C21)

109gender relations (authoritarian view)

90‘growth with equity’ 54–5HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tindustrialization 46, 66, 67infant mortality rates 28, 29tlabour politics 138literature 250mass media 159MERCOSUR membership 209military coup (1973) 49, 50, 70, 77,

103, 108b, 109, 138, 167, 180, 226national control over key economic

sectors 42neo-liberal model 70–1NGOs 173party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158pension scheme (1980–) 103, 104bplebiscite (1988) 109political crisis (1970s) 110political stabilization 109population distribution (1940, 1980)

95fpopulation increase (1950–2020) 26tprofile 20b, 21bpublic employment versus total

employment (1954–80) 167fre-democratization (1990–) 54–5‘semi-connected’ (internet usage) 32semi-industrialized (1950) 83social spending 103student revolt (2010–11) 9–10torture 164welfare model 103–5

China xi, 20b, 141, 208, 209b, 221, 226,232b, 232m

Christian Democrats 109, 116Christianity

radical versions 182

PROOF


Index 279

Christopher Unborn (Fuentes, 1990) 98,189–90, 244

CIA 50, 201, 203CIA World Factbook 21bCien años de soledad (García Márquez,

1967) 190–1, 243científicos (Mexican ministers) 41cinema 193–4, 253cities xi, 21, 38, 41, 45b, 55, 62, 80, 85,

96, 145b, 146, 164b, 188, 190, 240‘centres of civilization’ (Sarmiento)

178bgood governance 99largest (2011) 94tliterature 253versus ‘more traditional hinterlands’

220population distribution (1940, 1980)

95fprimate 94second-largest 94see also labour movements

‘citizen revolution’ (Ecuador) 124citizens/citizenry xiii, 74b, 125, 170citizenship 7, 48, 109, 116, 127, 131,

147–8, 162, 165, 223, 239City Mayors’ Statistics 94nCiudad y los perros (Vargas Llosa, 1963)

190Civil Culture (Almond and Verba, 1963)

156–7civil democracy 163

versus political democracy 162civil rights 131, 161civil society xii–xiii, 5, 6, 7, 56b, 57, 67b,

74b, 80, 130, 150, 181, 241‘demobilized’ (by neo-liberalism) 237global 219–20see also NGOs

civil wars 18b, 41, 50, 211, 226Central America 57, 81bColombia 53, 213

civilization 179, 181, 196Iberian 177

Civilization or Barbarism? (Sarmiento,1845) 177, 178b, 243

clash of civilizations (Huntington)242–3

clientelism 174, 175, 176climate 15, 16, 19b, 218b, 253Clinton, W. J. 203, 206Co-Madres (El Salvador) 150Coalition for Change (Chile) 109

coastal areas (costa) 15, 21, 144versus interior highlands 34

Cobos, A. M. 251coca/cocaine 64b, 120–1, 123b, 214b,

229, 232b, 232mcocalero movement 120, 122–3bcoffee 18–19b, 22b, 46, 63–4, 207Cohen, M. 249Cold War 200–1, 202b, 217, 220College of Liberal Arts 185nCollier, S. 249Collor de Mello, F. 55, 127, 159, 160bColombia xiii, xiv, 7, 15, 23, 39b, 91, 94,

107, 126, 134, 136, 156, 182, 203–5,221, 229, 237, 241

beneficiary of new world order(1990–) 35

black community organizations236

black social movement 149civil war 53, 143–4, 226criminal financial networks 214bdemocratic consolidation

‘threatened’ 58democratic disenchantment 117drug flows 232bdrugs: economics and politics

214bglobalization (narcotics trade)

5–6HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution

(2009) 31t‘independent republics’ (1950s) 6industrialization 46, 66, 67industry 33, 34tlabour politics 138literature 250narcotics and civil war 213party-system institutionalization index

158tpolitical regime (elite pact) 53political stability 58population distribution (1940, 1980)

95fpopulation increase (1950–2020)

26t, 27profile 18bpublic employment versus total

employment (1954–80) 167frural movements 143–4standard of administration (c. 1930)

166colonial era 16b, 25, 37, 249

PROOF


280 Index

colonialism 62, 123b, 145b, 184b,199–204, 212, 216, 220, 231, 233,243, 245

Brazilian 208resistance 38

colonization 156colour-class system 90Columbus, C. 22, 24, 199, 244comal (cooking instrument) 81bComando Vermelho (Red Command)

164bcommand economy 166

‘central planning’ 48‘commodity lottery’ 63, 67

guano (rise and fall) 64bComunidades Eclesiais de Base (ECB)

183communism 49, 52, 116, 135b, 138, 139,

182, 196, 200–1, 241bCentral America 202bcollapse 35, 77, 92, 203, 247

Communist International 2Communist Party (Chile) 10, 50Communist Party (Colombia) 143‘communist subversion’ 49‘communist threat’ 201, 217community 84, 148compadrazgo 92company-nations 40comparative politics 251–2competition 74b, 78, 227

international 81b, 207, 238‘competitive state’ 236competitiveness 56b, 101, 225complexity xi, 3, 9, 11, 12, 23, 38, 90,

93, 94, 156, 186, 195, 223, 226–7,229b, 235, 253

compradres (ritual kin) 83, 92‘compromise state’ 46, 67b, 69Comte, A. 41

see also positivismconcertación policy 52Concertación political alliance (Chile)

108b, 109concientización 184bconditionality issue (IFIs) 214‘conditioning situation’ 62, 80Confederación de Trabajadores Mejicanos

140bConfederation of Indigenous Nationalities

of Ecuador 145bconquest 10, 20b, 23, 38, 149, 177, 181,

182, 246‘Conquest of Desert’ (Sarmiento) 177

Conquistadores 13, 24–5, 37–8consensus 109–10, 130–1, 237consumer price index 104bconsumer/consumption issues 11–12,

46–8, 67, 70, 74b, 84, 103, 168, 172,179, 243

CONTAG (Confederação dosTrabalhadores na Agricultura, Brazil)142

context 4, 32, 128, 129, 133, 138, 146,168, 184b

historical 58–9international 199–221see also global context

Contras (Nicaragua) 202b, 202, 203Conversación en catedral (Vargas Llosa,

1969) 190cooperation 74b, 185b, 247cooperatives 81b, 97Cordoba (Argentina) 50, 178bCordobazo (1969) 50core-periphery analysis 4, 6, 180, 191–2

see also dependency theorycorporatism 52, 139corporatist state 50, 140b, 141Correa, R. (Ecuador) 118, 124, 145bcorruption xiii, 28, 41, 47, 48, 54–5, 68,

93, 107, 108b, 110, 115, 120b, 140b,160b, 163, 164b, 167, 229

‘challenge’ to LA governments 126,127–8

‘evil of all evils’ (Fox) 111corruption trials 127Cortázar, J. 188

case-study 189bworks 189b

Costa Rica 17b, 21, 34t, 42, 136, 166,221, 237

carbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30exceptionalism 48HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tincome distribution 101infant mortality rates 28, 29tlife expectancy 28, 29tliteracy 28, 29t‘oldest polyarchy’ in LA 156party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158population increase (1950–2020) 26tpresidentialism 156public employment versus total

employment (1954–80) 167f

PROOF


Index 281

‘truly immigrant country’ 25welfare model (social-democratic)

104–5women (uneven representation)

159–60‘Country or Death’ (Cuban slogan) 136Craske, N. 252Craven, D. 253crear espacio 81bcrime/criminals 22b, 79, 161–2, 163–4,

164b, 229b, 231see also organized crime

crimes against humanity 151criollos 8, 24–5, 38, 40, 192Cruz, C. 196Cuba 24, 44, 67, 94, 116, 134, 202b, 216,

219, 240b, 250‘capitalist work methods’ 48collective leadership 124‘contested terrain’ 9economic and political phases (1959–)

124–5European migrants (C20) 25exiles 125foreign affairs 125HDI (2010) 29tinfant mortality rates 28, 29tlife expectancy 28, 29t‘longest-lasting left-wing government’

124–5‘model for breaking with dependency’

180national income lost (1990s) 125nationalism 124, 135–6national-statist development 48‘no longer total exception’ 125Papal visit (1998) 184population increase (1950–2020) 26t‘post-Fidel’ era 124–5race relations 92‘religious question’ 184–5return to LA fold 125revolutionary nationalism 135–6sizeable black minority 92‘surrogate forces’ (for USSR) 202bUS embargo (1962–) 201, 217, 226

Cuban Communist Party 136Cuban rebellion (1895) 45bCuban Revolution (1959) 2, 5, 141, 142,

180, 188, 191, 247cultural politics 193institutionalization 48main slogan 136social achievements 48

Cubitt, T. 92, 250, 252cultural confidence 231‘cultural dependency’ 179–80cultural differentiation 193cultural imperialism 186, 194–5

see also imperialismcultural sociology 250Culturas Híbridas (García Canclini, 2002)

245bculture xiii, 44, 177–97, 216,

243–4‘civilization’ versus barbarism’

178bdefinition 177global 195, 196Gramscian sense 192hybridity 196–7, 245b, 253ideologies of change 177–82indigenous 148, 152, 196literary boom 177, 187–92literature 250, 252, 253, 255other references xi, 11, 12, 23, 24,

40, 67b, 74b, 81b, 87, 88b, 124,126, 129, 144, 164b, 207, 219,224, 229b, 235, 239, 241, 245b,246

religion and society 177,182–7

sources 255see also popular culture

‘culture of poverty’ theory 96currency devaluation 214current affairs 254

da Cunha, E. 178–9Da Silva, B. 159Da Silva, L. I. (’Lula’) 55, 79,

91b, 113–15, 121b, 140–2, 194,204

first worker president 114bDeath of Artemio Cruz (Fuentes, 1962)

188–9Debray, R. 2, 4–5debt 65, 199, 245b

see also foreign debtdebt crisis (1980s) 33, 71–2, 77, 97, 100,

103‘debt-for-nature swaps’ 21decentralization 103, 116, 170decision-making 167, 168b, 169,

241bdeconstruction 189default 19b, 113deforestation 17–18

PROOF


282 Index

demagoguery 120–1bdemocracy xiii, 6, 56b, 120–1b, 142,

155, 171, 180, 203, 207, 218b, 241b,241–2

ability to ‘deliver’ (scepticism) 176definitions 57enrichment by social movements 153impediments to full implementation

176literature 249, 251–2nature 157–61opponents 51b, 52‘process rather than event’ 238Przeworski’s definition 57quality 92–3, 102, 129, 130quality ‘still a problem’ 59relationship with development 100US model 239women’s activism 90see also post-democracy

democratic consolidation (1990s–) xii,130, 156–7, 223

conducive to peace 212democratic deficit 131, 171democratic development 83, 221, 227,

231democratic disenchantment 107, 112–18,

126, 161, 182, 237–8‘democratic middle class’ theory 49democratic socialism (Chile) 138democratic transition 162democratization (1980s–) xii, 10, 62,

100, 126, 141, 151, 157, 159, 168b,224, 252

corruption ‘an obstacle’ 127course ‘will not necessarily run

smoothly’ 113feminism 147inchoate party system ‘detrimental’

158literature 251–2participation of women 129see also re-democratization

democrats 56bdemography see populationdemonstrations 80, 135b, 140, 147

see also protestdependency xiv, 10, 11, 42, 171, 229

‘conditioning situation’ 62and development, ‘not

incompatible’ 62financial 214overcoming 82see also post-dependency

Dependency and Development in LatinAmerica (Cardoso and Faletto, 1969)4, 56b, 217

‘dependency ratio’ 27dependency theory 56b, 62–3, 77, 133,

170, 179, 207–8, 231, 233‘best thought of as a methodology’ 62and beyond 1, 4–7failure 180–1liberation theology 184–5b‘rendered more complex’ (by

globalization) 226–7‘strong’ version (demise) 180see also liberation theology

‘dependent development’ xii, 34, 46, 48,52–3, 58, 61–6, 80, 221

‘external’ versus ‘internal’ causes62

globalization era 85desarollismo (developmentalism) 47desarollista state 66, 67, 68, 70, 79descamisadas 88bdesencanto (disenchantment) 113desertification 152desgaste (wear and tear) 238developed countries 27, 30

‘advanced industrial societies’32, 61

‘industrialized countries’ 227‘North’ 84, 199see also OECD

developing countries 3, 46, 62, 72‘South’ 171ways to participate in globalization

77–8development xi–xii, xiv, 43, 99, 148,

181, 211, 213, 242, 246‘alternative model’ 152‘associated-dependent’ model 68‘global’ versus ‘national’ 235‘key determinant’ of success 68LA agenda 218bliterature 33market-based strategies 176meaning in era of globalization 236people-centred 236post-neo-liberal strategy 8relationship with democracy 100single path for all versus

structural-historical approach2, 4

social and economic strategy 217uneven 225, 228, 233, 244see also economic development

PROOF


Index 283

‘development gap’ 32development models 12, 67b, 74bdevelopment paths 246development theory 1, 2, 3‘development of under-development’ 4,

41, 62developmental state 6, 35, 36, 166developmentalism 8, 66Di Tella 25dictablanda (soft dictatorship) 53Dieguez, M. 217‘difference’ 129, 181digital divide 235Diretas Já campaign (1984) 114bdirigisme 166‘disappeared’ (missing persons) 50, 51b,

90, 150, 162divide-and-rule tactics 37–8, 210division of labour 23

gendered 84international 46, 71, 93social 46

dockers/docks 40, 137Dominican Republic 24, 26t, 27, 29t,

31t, 34t, 156, 221, 232bDominquez, F. 251Dore, E. 252Dos Santos, M. 247Dos Santos, T. 91b‘drive to maturity’ (Rostow) 1drought 19b, 152drug flows 232b, 232mdrug-trafficking 203, 229b, 229drugs (narcotics) xiv, 5–6, 7, 17b, 53, 58,

87, 112, 117, 121, 144, 162, 199, 213,228, 233, 252

cocaine 18beconomics and politics 214b‘structural roots’ of trade 6, 231

drugs war 122–3b, 203–4, 211dualisms 235Ducatenzeiler, G. 251due process of law 161, 163Duhalde, E. A. 80Dunkerley, J. 250, 252Dylan, R. A. Z. 194b

E prohibido prohibir (slogan) 194bearthquakes 15, 174bEast Asia 5, 6, 180Eastern Europe 33t, 72–3, 166‘Eastern’ world

inclusion of LA (by CommunistInternational) 2

Eckstein, S. E. 175b, 253ecologism 152ecology 149, 181Economic Commission for LA and

Caribbean (ECLAC) 31n, 101n,218n

data source 255‘ECLA’ (1947/8–) 4, 6, 69, 72, 78–9,

205, 210–11, 217economic crises xiii, 87, 234economic development 11, 32, 52, 216,

233age and gender profiles 27determinants of success or failure 63‘does not benefit all sections of

population equally’ 35–6models 251nationally-oriented 206‘not solely at level of market

forces’ 35regional (supra-national) 216–17see also dependency

economic diversification 45–6, 47, 65,152, 180

economic forecasting 36economic growth xiv, 7, 25, 41, 47,

62–3, 73–5, 99, 102, 166, 172, 176,234, 236

debate (inward versus outwardorientation) 68

endogenous (inward-looking) 79export-led 63, 64, 65harmonization with social equity 79high road versus low road 77–8inward-oriented 66–7, 69obstacles 77‘outstanding’ (LA 1945–73) 66outward-oriented 69pro-market strategies 10

economic history 63, 251economic integration 52economic internationalization 52, 237

‘core of globalization process’ 224economic management

global rules 236economic nationalism 44, 82

see also ideologyeconomic policy 40, 64, 74

bad versus good 63benefit of hindsight 68

economic rationality 167, 168economic recession (post-World War I)

43see also global recession (2008–9)

PROOF


284 Index

economic restructuring 253economic setting 13, 32–6economic stability/instability 76, 82economic structures 26

entrenchment 64see also political economy

economic systems (internationalintegration) 77

economic take-off 32, 33teconomics/economic theory 237

narcotics 214beconomy/economic issues 24, 109, 220,

223, 254see also ‘power (economic)’

Ecuador 11, 15, 16, 23, 33, 37, 39, 118,124, 205, 226, 250

border skirmishes 211constitution 145bcosta versus sierra 34economic crisis (1999–2000) 18–19bHDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tindigenous movement 144, 145bindustrialization ‘slower and weaker’

47industry 34t, 34‘new’ indigenous movement 149party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158population increase (1950–2020) 26tprofile 18–19bresistance to Brazil 208rural movements 144, 145b‘ungovernability’ 237urban capitalist class 86

education 28, 56b, 63, 70, 79, 81b, 100,109, 122b, 131, 168, 177, 178b, 225,234

bilingual 149literature 253, 255privatization 239–40

educational attainment 43, 96, 125see also literacy

efficiency xiii, 102, 167–8, 170, 235Egypt 219Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional

(EZLN) 146, 240bEl Niño 16El Salvador 17b, 26t, 27, 29t, 31t, 34t,

57, 150, 185, 202b, 202, 204, 211,221, 228b, 228

elderly people 27, 101see also pensions

elected officials 127–8elections 49, 52–3, 55, 58, 68, 107,

117–18, 122b, 156, 159, 162, 170Argentina (2003) 110–11Chile 109Nicaragua 137

Electoral Democracy Index (UNDP)107

electoral fraud 118electoral systems 155–61, 176

‘fundamental flaw’ 156electricity 96, 97, 138, 140belectronic ‘connectivity’ 30–1Eleventh of September (2001) 58, 214,

220, 221, 226elites 21b, 39, 41, 52, 53, 64,

67–9, 93, 109, 118, 135b, 156, 167,213, 233

commercial and industrial 46criollo (local-born) 40global 127international capitalist 70international financial 71ruling 43

elitism 179, 194bemployers 73, 103, 104b, 140bemployment 17b, 22b, 27, 56b, 68, 70,

76, 80, 97, 102, 127, 131, 139, 166,214b, 239

‘advanced’ versus ‘primitive’ 87agricultural 83, 84formal versus informal sector 84, 85,

86f, 87industrial 67, 83literature 253public sector 140b, 167fwhite-collar 28, 67women 85

empowerment 48, 120b, 139, 148, 165,171, 176

‘enclave’ economy 40, 42, 43, 47,65, 66

End of History (Fukuyama, 1992) 224,247

‘end of innocence’ 191Enlightenment 40, 243–4entrepreneurs/entrepreneurship 22b, 61environment 5, 98–9, 102, 146,

199, 206–7, 212, 218b, 219–20new social movements 133, 146, 149,

151–3environmental degradation 17–21,

145bequality 129, 145b, 218b

PROOF


Index 285

Escobar, A. 253essentialism 11–12, 243estado de derecho see rule of lawethics 54, 55, 150, 170ethnic groups 89, 195ethnicity 22, 40, 87, 90–2, 93, 101, 129,

144–6, 181, 196new social movements 133, 146–7,

148–9‘ethnic-racial’ divisions 83ethnocentricity 127, 157Euro crisis (current) 226Eurocentricity 179, 188Europe xi, 4, 38, 80, 138, 160b, 171,

182, 203, 219–21, 225, 229b, 230m,232b, 240b, 244, 247, 252

European civilization 40–1European Union 13, 18b, 20bEuropeans (in LA) 90‘EVOlution’ (Bolivia) 124executive branch 128, 156, 161exile 50, 52, 125, 135b, 217exploitation 4, 63, 78, 127, 145b, 184bexport commodities 64, 82export-led growth 63, 64, 65exports 6, 18b, 20b, 35, 46, 64b, 71, 72,

76, 84, 204, 214bagrarian-based (1930s ‘golden era’)

133agricultural (Central America) 47illegal 229see also imports

extermination 23, 177see also killings

extreme poverty 99, 101f, 126‘absolute poverty’ 18b

Exxon Mobil Corporation 122bEZLN (Ejército Zapatista de Liberación

Nacional) 146, 240b

factories 66, 87, 89b, 96, 114b,139–41

Facundo (Sarmiento, 1845) 177,178b

fairness 81b‘equity’ 7, 55, 78, 231, 234–6,

242‘justice’ 129, 145b, 241bsee also social justice

Faletto, E. 4, 5, 42–4, 56b, 62, 64–5Falkland Islands/Malvinas 50, 54, 104b,

211false consciousness 191

family/families 83, 84, 113rural 185bsacrifice of women 89btraditional model 88see also households

‘Far West’ 12FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of

Colombia) 138, 143–4, 214b, 255see also Sendero Luminoso

fascism 8, 50, 134favelas (shanty-towns) 164b, 194bfear 162, 165, 168Félix, M. 193feminism 88–9b, 90, 147–8, 152Fernández-Jilberto, F. 251Ferrer, H. 192–3Fifth Republic Movement (Venezuela)

120bfilm see cinemafinance (internationalization) 35financial flows 74bfinancial innovation 218bfinancial institutions 21bfinancial intermediation 71financial liberalization 73financial markets 65, 73financial reform 72, 73, 76financial sector 113Fine, B. 172First Command of Capital (PCC) 164bFirst Republic of Cartagena (1811) 39bfiscal crises 103fiscal policy 109Fisher, J. 24FMLN (Farabundo Martí Front for

National Liberation) 57, 202folklore 40, 194b, 196folletín (magazine serial) 195food 70, 81b, 138, 148, 152, 255Forbidden to forbid (slogan) 194bforced sterilization 147Ford Foundation 80foreign debt 78, 80, 113, 211, 213–14,

226, 238‘largest-ever default’ (Argentina) 76–7see also debt

foreign direct investment (FDI) 63‘direct foreign investment’ 68‘foreign investment’ 7, 40, 44, 65, 72,

116, 170Fortaleza 94t‘forward linkages’ (economic) 63Foweraker, J. 253Fox, V. 53, 58, 111–12, 113

PROOF


286 Index

France 122b, 199Franco, F. 50, 52, 113Franco, I. 55Franco, J. 190Frank, A. G. 4, 62free trade 20b, 205–6, 208, 209b, 221,

253free-market mechanisms xii, xiv, 70, 86,

99, 103, 207, 210, 224failings (social and institutional) 78‘proven catastrophic social impact’ 82see also neo-liberalism

free-riding 127free-trade agreements 121Free-Trade Area of Americas (FTAA)

206, 209b, 226failure 210

freedompolitical versus economic 44

freedom of expression and association156

freedom of press 53, 107freedom of religion 123bFrei, E. Jr. 54, 109Freire, P. 143b, 253Freitlowitz, M. 51bFrente Amplio coalition 116Freyre, G. 90, 92‘Friends of Fox’ 112Fuentes, C. 98n, 98, 99, 188–90, 244Fujimori, A. K. 57–8, 97, 156, 169, 238,

250Fukuyama, F. 224, 247futures xiii–xiv, 223–47

after democracy 223, 236–42after dependency 223, 227–32after modernity 223, 242–6after neo-liberalism 223, 233–6conclusion 246–7drug flows 232b, 232mglobal setting 223, 224–7migration flows 228–9b, 230mopen-ended vision 223to be Latin American 245bZapatistas 240–1b

García Canclini, N. 10, 12, 239, 245b,246, 253

García Márquez, G. 3, 177, 179, 188,189b, 190–1, 243

Garretón, M. A. 67n, 74n, 250, 252gauchos 177, 178b, 179, 192, 196

GDP 30, 33, 34t, 66, 214bAndean countries 19bArgentina 20bBrazil 22bChile 21bLatin America 32Mexico 16bUruguay 21bsee also income per capita

gender 27, 83–4, 87–90, 93, 101, 129,146–7, 147–8, 149, 159, 181, 236

cultural construction 108bliterature 252migration pattern 96public versus private arenas 88quota laws 160

generations 87, 101, 218bgeo-strategy 226geographical factors 19bgeology 19bgeopolitics 212–13, 220Gil, G. 194bGilbert, A. 96, 97, 98, 253Gilly, A. 246, 250Girl from Ipanema (Jobim, 1964) 194bglobal context xi, xii, xiii–xiv, 42–3

see also international contextglobal governance 237global recession (2008–9) xi, xiv, 7, 12,

36, 61, 82, 112, 131, 207, 218b,223–5, 234, 249

see also world economyglobal setting 223, 224–7globalization xiii, 6, 9, 30, 34, 38, 54,

56b, 58, 71–3, 85, 90, 93, 97, 99–100,125, 128, 130, 153, 155, 168, 170,176, 191, 196–7, 199, 204, 210–11,214, 214b, 218b, 219, 228, 231,236–7, 242, 247

Brazilian engagement 5‘creates new dualism’ 234–5‘creative response’ required 245bdefinition 35economic differentiation of LA 233foreign takeover of key industries 76‘from below’ 171‘internationalization of finance and

production’ 35literature 251, 253‘most virulent phase’ 81bneo-liberal (challenged) 79–80popular culture 193–4, 195resistance/opposition 146, 220, 239

PROOF


Index 287

ways to participate (developingeconomies) 77–8

see also global settingGlobo (media conglomerate) 195‘glocal’ concept 197Gogna, M. 151Goldman Sachs 207Goldstein, D. 249good governance 102, 176, 214, 237Gott, R. 118, 125, 250Goulart, J. 49governance xiii, 57, 130, 155–76,

235bureaucracy and administration 155,

165–71economic technocrats 168belectoral and party systems

155–61media and politics 160bNGOs (filling the gap) 155,

171–6NGOs and politics 174brule of law 155, 161–5war in favelas 164b

‘governing the market’ (Wade) 35governments 35, 36, 45, 80, 82,

104b, 117, 131, 165, 170–1, 174–5b,216, 219, 225, 227, 233–4, 237,247

deficit reduction 69literature 249, 254wariness of globalization 231

grain/s 20b, 40, 64, 81bGran Colombia 39bGreat Depression (1930s) 43, 44, 64–5,

84, 110, 166‘great leap forward’ (Brazil) 68Green House (Vargas Llosa, 1966) 190Green Party (Brazil) 152Grugel, J. 208Guadalajara 28guano 63, 64bGuardian 255Guatemala 15, 17b, 23, 202

agriculture 33, 34tCIA-backed military coup (1954) 200,

201‘company-nation’ 40counter-revolution (1954) 47–8drug flows 232mHDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2006)

31tindustrial work force (1950–80) 83

industry 34t, 34infant mortality rates 28, 29tlife expectancy 28, 29tmigration flows 228bpan-Mayan movement (1980s–) 149population density 26t, 27population increase (1950–2020) 26tre-democratization 57street children (unpunished killing)

163Guayaquil (Ecuador) 94tguerrilla movements xiii, 17–18b, 48,

51b, 115–17, 134, 136–7, 143–4, 146,179–80, 182, 213

see also insurgencyGuevara, E. 1, 9, 119, 133, 191Guevarism 136, 180Guiana Highlands 19bGutiérrez de Piñeres, S. A. 214bGuzzetti, Rear-Admiral C. A. 51bGwynne, R. 250

habeas corpus 163Habel, J. 250Haggard, S. 251Haiti 112, 156, 203, 232b, 233Hall, S. 192Halperín Donghi, T. 249Harvey, N. 250Havana/La Habana 94t, 188health 56b, 70, 79, 109, 122–3b, 140–1

ill-health/disease 23, 162illness 17b, 103plagues 38private insurance 103

health services 168, 225, 240healthcare 103, 105, 141heavy industry 44, 67, 140b

see also industryhedgehog and fox descriptions 10, 11tHedges, J. 250hegemony 63, 64, 71, 216, 224, 226, 247

versus counter-hegemony 220–1Hellinger, D. 249hemispheric security 201, 214, 217

definition 215–16Hernandez, J. 179hierarchy 200, 242Higgott, R. 78highlands 15, 34, 144‘hire and fire’ 73

PROOF


288 Index

history xii, 37–59, 180, 186, 193, 194Bolívar 39bCardoso 56bdemocrats 56bliterature 249–50, 252Martí 45bmilitary dictators (Argentina) 51bother references 8–9, 64, 133,

146, 158, 184b, 189–92, 245b,247

see also structural-historical perspectivehistory-as-progress 66HIV-AIDS 229Hochschild family (Bolivia) 25Holden, R. 202nHollander, N. C. 89nHolmes, J. 214homelessness 163Honduras 17b, 34t, 67, 81b, 137, 211,

221drug flows 232mHDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2007)

31tinfant mortality rates 28, 29tpopulation density 26t, 27population increase (1950–2020) 26tUNDP Electoral Democracy Index

107Hopscotch (Cortázar, 1963) 188,

189bHouse of Deputies (Argentina) 88bhouseholds 85, 102, 253

income distribution 30, 31tsee also family

housing/accommodation 21–2b, 70,96–7, 113, 140–1, 162

Huber, E. 102, 104n, 104–5human capacities 218bHuman Development Index 29t, 30Human Development Report (UNDP)

(1997) 211(2006) 29n

human resources 99human rights 54, 117, 122b, 148, 159,

163, 181, 219internationalization 165‘Latin American’ versus ‘Western’

150‘new social movements’ 133, 146–7,

149–51‘not negotiable’ 165women’s role 90

human rights movements 146–7

human security 211human settlement patterns 15human-trafficking 214bhunger 5, 41Huntington, S. 242hybridity 11, 12, 182, 196–7, 244–6,

253hyperinflation 74, 77, 82, 168, 225

Iberian conquest 23, 177Iberian-Catholic heritage 242, 243iconography of power 253ideas 130, 247identity 177, 188, 191, 231, 237, 241,

243–4, 246criollo 24–5‘crucial issue’ 242cultural 195, 243‘essentialist’ notion 243Meso-American 181pre-Conquest 181‘regional’ (MERCOSUR) 207see also national identity

identity politics 93, 144–53, 181ideologies of change 177–82ideology 5, 54, 66, 67b, 69, 71, 73, 74b,

88–90, 102, 133, 136–8, 143b, 150,167, 173, 180, 191, 196, 219, 220,225

see also nationalismilliteracy 177, 193IMF xiii, 37, 77, 114b, 168, 173, 214, 236

stabilization programmes 76see also structural adjustment

impeachment 55, 160bimperialism 46, 80, 120, 122b, 133, 136,

147, 184b, 214b, 241divide-and-rule policies 210‘real enemy’ 173UK versus US types 65–6see also neo-imperialism

import-substitution industrialization 36,52, 65, 67b, 69, 71, 83, 94, 166, 205

see also industrializationimports 18b, 20b, 65, 70, 72

see also tradeIncas 22–3, 37–8, 45b, 244inclusivity

‘challenge’ to LA governments 126,129

income per capita 62, 100income distribution 75, 99, 101

PROOF


Index 289

income inequality 5, 21b, 36, 76f, 107,114b, 126, 214b, 234

‘decade of progress’ (C21) 99–100income redistribution 67independence 12, 139, 223independence movements 8, 38–9,

39b, 40indigenismo 11indigenous cosmovisions 187indigenous cultures 148, 152, 196indigenous knowledge 243indigenous movements 149

‘cultural process’ xiiiindigenous peoples 12, 17b, 25,

40–1, 45b, 89, 90–1, 120, 124,129, 146, 148, 152, 177, 182, 191,192, 212

‘first president’ (Morales) 122–3bnumber at time of Iberian conquest 23

indigenous politics 18–19bindigenous social movements 253indigenous traditions 243–4indigenous world 182, 246individualism 8, 12, 74b, 93, 104b, 194,

237, 243individuals 83, 96, 157, 177industrial democracy 138industrial development 72industrial planning

regional (supra-national) 205Industrial Revolution 40, 137, 141industrial sector 16b, 18b, 22b, 71, 83, 102industrialists 35, 46–8, 66, 68–9, 166industrialization 16b, 20b, 25, 30, 32, 41,

43–4, 46–7, 48, 64–5, 83, 94, 124,134, 137, 141, 180, 239

‘labour-saving bias’ 28shift in nature of migration

84see also semi-industrialization

industry 42, 67, 240definition 34nstructure of production (Latin America)

33, 34tsee also light industry

inefficiency 48, 55, 99, 167inequality xi, xiii, 4, 7, 10, 35–6, 59, 102,

120b, 122, 126, 131, 176, 235, 237,253

‘bad for development’ 36‘challenge’ to LA governments

126–7‘least in LA’ (Uruguay) 116regional (Brazil) 22b

infant industries 166infant mortality rates 28, 29tinflation 68, 69, 103, 122‘informal’ political relationships 83informal sector 102, 103, 125, 253informalization (of workforce) 85‘Information Age’ (Castells) 6, 9,

231information economy 28, 30information revolution 224, 239infrastructure 41, 63, 68, 109

economic and social 68institution-building 81binstitutional agenda 78institutional arrangements

(entrenchment) 64institutionalization 157–8, 158t,

172institutions 19b, 79, 63insurgency 57, 58, 121, 138, 180

‘armed struggle’ 136see also guerrilla movements

intellectuals 50, 171intendentes (local governors) 38Inter-American Court of Human Rights

163Inter-American Development Bank

(IDB) 19b, 27, 30, 72–3, 79, 99,102, 177

data source 255Inter-American Dialogue 221inter-American system 201, 217inter-disciplinary approach 250, 252inter-war era 216‘internal’ conditions of dependency

46international capitalism 70, 210international context xiii, 55,

199–221Brazil 207–11Central America and communism

202bcolonialism to globalism 199–204‘conditioning situation for internal

developments’ 199drugs: economics and politics 214bLA agenda 218bLA in world today 199,

216–21regional integration [supra-national]

199, 204–11security issues 199, 211–16see also context

international development 171, 173

PROOF


290 Index

international economic order 82, 219international financial institutions 174binternational law 121binternational relations 219international system 257internet 9, 137, 220, 244, 254–5internet usage 30–2investment 44, 46–7, 65, 103

national versus foreign capital(synergies) 227

see also FDIinvestors 168, 236

inward-oriented development (ECLAmodel) 78

Iraq 213, 221, 247Islam 242Italy 25, 137

Jackson, J. 253Jaggi, M. 194nJalisco NGO experience (1990s) 174–5b‘Jamaica Letter’ (Bolívar) 39bJapan 33t, 204, 220jazz 189bJeria Gómez, Á. 108bJesuit order 38Jesus Christ 186Jews 24Johnson, L. B. 204journalists 163journals 254Joyce, J. 188judges/judiciary 156, 163Julião, F. 142‘just society’ and ‘new man’ 183

Kampuchea 202bKane, L. 253Kaufman, R. 251Kay, C. 146, 250Keynesian policies 66killings/murder 23, 163, 164b, 165,

185b, 214b, 229see also state terror

Kinder, Küche, Kirche ideology 90King, D. 121King, J. 253kinship 84, 92Kirchner, C. F. de 111, 159Kirchner, N. 111Kissinger, H. A. 201, 202bKlak, T. 227Kline, H. 251Knight, A. 250

Knippers Black, J. 249Korzeniewicz, R. 77, 234, 253Kubitschek period (Brazil, 1956–60) 68

La Convención area (Peru) 144‘La Violencia’ era (Colombia, 1948–58)

143–4Laberinto de soledad/Labyrinth of

Solitude (Paz, 1967) 191–2labour 56b, 63, 206, 229blabour costs 69, 72labour force

entrants 104b, 234gender composition 83–4women’s participation (Argentina) 88b

labour law 127labour markets 218b

deregulation 71‘rigidities’ 73

labour movements 133, 137–41nationalist orientation 137–8see also ‘migration/rural-urban’

labour reform 72, 73, 76, 103Lacandón region (Mexico) 9, 137Lagos, R. 108b, 109

visit to Argentina (2000) 209–10laissez-faire 66Laite, J. 96land xii, 23, 41, 46, 66, 84, 96, 123b,

141–4, 146, 148–9, 239statement of Catholic Church (Brazil,

1980) 185bsteeply-sloping 20

land ‘invasions’ 97, 143b, 143land ownership 37, 214bland reform 70, 113, 142, 143b, 239land use

traditional systems 20–1Landim, L. 172Landless Peasants’ Movement (MST,

Brazil) 5, 113, 142–3, 143b, 183–4landless workers’ movement (Brazil)

143b, 183–4landlessness 28, 47, 113, 142, 143b, 143,

165landlocked countries 64blandowners 24, 35, 65, 69, 113, 124, 142,

144, 185barmed bands 165

language 10, 189, 249, 250Larrain, J. 243, 250, 253

PROOF


Index 291

Latin America (LA)‘ambiguity, fluidity, uncertainty’ 246‘beyond oligarchy’ 37–43‘bloodiest regime ever’ (Argentina,

1976–83) 50challenges xivchallenges (LA politics) 107, 126–9classification difficulties 2–3conceptual issues xi, 1–12, 196, 216‘contested terrain’ xicontinental aspirations 8countries and capitals xviii‘crisis of governability’ 237cultural significance 216‘culture is political, politics are cultural’

177debt crisis (1982) 71–2‘democratic normalization’ 107dependency and beyond 1, 4–7, 223‘developing region’ status 32development prospects 19b‘difference’ 242, 243–4‘difference’ (under-development) 179‘diminishing inter-state tensions’

211–12diversity 13, 63drug flows 232b, 232m‘dual crisis’ 130economic development (world region in

comparative context) 32economic history 63economic internationalization 5economic prospects 233, 236economic restructuring (‘severe impact’,

1980s) 100–1economic setting 13, 32–6exceptionalism xii, 12exposure to global capitalism ‘caused

considerable differentiation’(1990–) 35

external dimension 252fiscal crisis (alleviated by privatization)

73GDP per capita (growth 1820–1997)

32–3, 33tglobal setting 223, 224–7HDI (2010) 29t, 30‘hedgehog’ descriptions 10, 11thistory 37–59household income distribution (latest

data) 30, 31thybridity 3, 216identity 245b‘in-between-ness’ 3

income inequality 101–2integration 121binter-state system 212literature 249–72‘location’ (economic, developmental,

political) 1–3‘main political challenges’ 237migration flows 228, 228–9b, 230mmilitary authoritarianism 37, 49–54mobilization of oppressed minorities

129‘modernity’ 246‘most unequal region in world’ 36,

126national-statism 37, 43–9‘new’ dependency (post-war era) 65–6‘one-nation’ dream 38, 39bparty-system institutionalization index

158tpath to modernity 1, 3, 10–12paths to economic development

(prospects) 36‘peripheral’ importance 216, 221physical setting 13–22political impact of economic crises,

1980s (Remmer) 58political transition (current) 239politics of transformation 1, 7–10poor households (1980–2000) 101f,

101‘post-utopian’ era 125power asymmetry (versus USA)

203–4‘process rather than place’ 246–7prospects for democracy 58–9re-democratization 37, 54–9‘region of contradictions’ xirelations with Europe and Japan 203–4relations with USA 203–4, 216–21,

252revolutionary history 247search for identity (Schelling) 182settings xi–xii, 13–36, 155, 233‘simplistic notions of external

domination’ 221social setting 13, 27–32, 33‘still essentially pre-modern’ 242–3,

244structural reforms 75structure of production 33, 34t‘test bed’/‘laboratory’ xi, 3turn to left (1990s) 82

PROOF


292 Index

Latin America (LA) – continued‘un-decidability’ 246undergraduate bibliography 251UNDP Electoral Democracy Index

107unemployment and poverty (1980–90)

75f, 75–6US versus UK investment

46Western analytical perspective

(shortcomings) 8–9in world today 199, 216–21‘zone of peace’ 212

Latin America: recommended reading249–55

contemporary 249, 254economic 249, 251general 249–51internet 249, 254–5political 249, 251–2social 249, 252–3

Latin American Centre for DevelopmentAdministration (CLAD) 235

Latin American Council for SocialSciences 255

Latin American Free Trade Association(LAFTA, 1961–) 205

‘Latin American project’ 210Latin American Studies Association

(US-based) 255Latin American Weekly Report

254law 57, 63, 103, 152, 156,

252appearance versus reality 164‘justice’ 161

Law of Convertibility (Argentina,1991) 76

League of Nations 216, 217Lebanon 213left turn 58, 82, 107, 118–25

Bolivia 118, 120–4Chávez profile 120–1bMorales profile (first indigenous

president in LA) 122–3bVenezuela 118–19, 120–1b

legislative branch 128, 156, 161legislative politics 252legitimacy 71, 74b, 121b, 136, 138, 170,

175, 180, 231, 235legitimation 38, 42Lehman, D. 171, 176, 183, 253Leo XIII 143bLevine, D. 250

liberal democracy 61, 157liberalism (C19) 41liberals 8‘liberation’ versus ‘dependency’

180–1liberation theology/Theology of Liberation

150, 177, 183–5, 253case-study 184–5b

‘Liberator’ 38, 39bLievesley, G. 148, 159, 250, 252life chances 93life expectancy 28, 29t, 30, 103light industry 67

see also manufacturingLima 94, 94t, 98, 190Linz, J. 252literacy 28–30literary boom 3, 177, 179, 187–92, 243,

253see also Latin America: recommended

readingliterary studies 250living standards 173

rural-urban gap 96local government 116, 174London 135b, 254López, A. 195López Obrador, A. M. 112, 118López-Calva, L. 99–100‘lost decade’ (1980s) 30, 33, 105Lustig, N. 99–100

machinery 20b, 22b, 63, 68machismo 24, 87–8, 89, 148machismo-marianismo model

limitations 90macondismo 3, 179, 243, 244Macondo (mythical land/village) 190–1,

243macroeconomic issues 56b, 74b, 74–5,

126, 173macumba 149Madrid 24, 38Madrid, R. 250‘magic of market’ 74, 77‘magical realism’ 3, 179, 191–2, 243Mainwaring, S. 158n, 158, 252Malamud, C. 208, 210‘managerial public administration’ concept

170Manjívar Larín, R. 253Mann, T. C. 204manufacturing 18b, 34n, 46, 66, 76f

see also industry

PROOF


Index 293

Maoism/Maoists 57, 138, 144, 240bmaquilladora sector 140bMar del Plata: Summit of Americas (2005)

210Marcos, Sub-Comandante 9, 240–1b‘marginality’ thesis 96–7marianismo 88, 90market forces 35, 71, 74b, 84, 104b, 225,

237, 238, 247‘cannot achieve many things’ 170‘imperfect’ 72‘main driver of societies’ 128structural failures 69–70

market fundamentalism 82alternatives (viable) 105

market mechanisms 78, 167–8, 234market regulation 79, 234market-orientation

foreign versus internal 86market-oriented economy 21b, 227marketing 41, 81bmarkets

domestic 44, 47, 67internal 43, 46, 48, 72, 78, 166local 80national 63transnational 128

Marshall, T. H. 127Martí, J. 44, 45bMartin Fierro (Hernandez, 1872) 179Martin, D. 186, 253Martin, G. 188, 191, 253Martin, J. de 38–9Martín-Barbero, J. 193Marx, K. H. 8, 10, 140, 196

on religion 187, 196Marxism 136, 183, 184, 246Marxists 8, 135b, 142, 146, 185bMatarazzo 25materialism 49, 171, 179Mayans 23, 37, 146, 149McCann Sánchez, M. 81nmeat 20b, 41Medellín 94tMedellín: Conference of Bishops (1968)

183, 184bmedia/mass media 6, 118, 119, 157, 159,

192, 195, 213, 214b 231and communication 255and politics 160b

‘media massage’ 160bmegalomania 180–1Mendes, C. 165Mendez, J. 161, 252

Menem, C. 110–11, 127, 169, 238‘neo-liberal regime’ 206

mensalão 115MERCOSUR (Common Market of South,

1991–) 36, 55, 116, 199, 204–5,206–7, 208, 209b, 221, 226

Brazilian leadership 210common external tariff (1995–) 206,

207‘implicit challenge to NAFTA’ 208‘old regionalism’ 211‘regional balance of force’ 208

mestizaje (racial mixing) 8mestizos 23, 91b, 179, 182, 190metal workers 139, 140–1metropolises 94t, 95f, 95–6Mexican Revolution (1910) 8, 42, 137,

139, 140b, 141, 142, 188–9, 247, 250‘modernist’ 239

Mexico xiii, xiv, 7, 9, 14–15, 22–3, 36–7,41, 43, 65, 78, 113, 118, 126, 129,136, 138, 156, 180–1, 195, 203, 208,215, 217, 226, 228–9b, 229, 237, 241,245b

authoritarian political regime 53beneficiary of new world order (1990–)

35carbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30cinema 193–4criminal financial networks 214bdemocratic consolidation 111–12drug flows 232b, 232mearthquake (1985) 174belections 111–12financial crisis (1982) 71financial crisis (1994) 58, 61, 234GDP 16bglobalization (narcotics trade) 5–6HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2008)

31tidentity 188–90industrialization 46, 66industry 33, 34tinequality reduction 100‘key country’ 238–9killing of political opponents 163labour movements 139, 140bliterature 250loss of territory to USA 200, 204massacre of students (1968) 53NAFTA 205–6

PROOF


294 Index

Mexico – continuedNAFTA (prospects for economic

regeneration) 205, 206NGOs 174–5b, 175–6northern border 140bone-party rule (1930–2000) 111party-system institutionalization index

158tPentecostalism 186population density 26t, 27population increase (1950–2020) 26,

26t, 27profile 16–17bprospects for democracy 58public employment versus total

employment (1954–80) 167frelations with USA 200, 203, 204‘revolution in revolution’ 239rural movements 144–6‘semi-connected’ (internet usage) 32‘semi-industrialized’ (late 1960s) 67standard of administration 166‘territorial fragility’ 238torture 163–4UNDP Electoral Democracy Index

107unions 133, 140bUS economic orbit 205‘war on drugs’ 213

Mexico City 16b, 24, 94t, 97, 220pollution 98b, 98–9

Miami 125, 203Miami Summit of Americas (1994) 209bmicro-enterprise sector 87‘Middle America’ 14–15middle class 41–3, 46–7, 49, 54, 58, 80,

85, 86f, 87, 89, 103, 134, 142political participation 65

‘middle class countries’ 42‘middle class military coup’ 49Mierelles, F. 164bmigrants xi, 3, 12, 16b, 36, 63, 137, 245b

European (to Argentina, C19) 32European (to LA) 25, 40–1German 25Hispanic 192Italian 25Japanese 25settlers 13society of origin (stage of development)

1–2Spanish 25

migration 17b, 19–20b, 84, 112causes 96cessation of return from Latin America

to Iberia upon retirement(C19) 24

Europe to Americas (1850–1930) 25Iberia to America (C16) 24rural-urban 16b, 84–5, 94, 95–6, 134,

239, 253; see also urban areasshift in nature 84urban-urban 96

migration flows 228–9b, 230millegal 228literature 228boptions 228–9b

militarism 24, 212military authoritarianism 37, 49–54military coups 21b, 49, 134, 138, 221

threat now ‘remote’ 107military dictatorships xi, xii, 10, 20b,

22b, 46, 56–8, 69, 77, 90, 111, 114b,115, 130, 133, 147–8, 153, 155, 157,159, 161–2, 164b, 164–5, 168, 170–1,176, 180–2, 194b, 209b, 219, 225,237–8, 242

Argentina 51bhuman rights movements 149–51mobilization of football 196‘new’ (1960s, 1970s) 49–50

military police 163, 165minerals 15, 18b, 22b, 40, 63–4mines/mining 23, 24, 34n, 42, 96,

137modernity 67b, 74b, 195, 223, 239,

245–6‘Anglo-Saxon’ 186paths xi, 1, 3, 10–12see also post-modernity

modernization 1–2, 10, 32–3, 41–2, 64,73, 176, 192, 239, 242

agricultural 47, 84, 142, 146globalization era 72‘made in USA’ 225peripheral 243social 224‘uneven’ 34

modernization theory (US paradigm) 49,61–2, 87, 99, 157, 170, 179, 181, 183,227, 246

re-invention (1990s) 224see also W. Rostow

Molyneux, M. 252Mommen, A. 251monarchy 38–40

PROOF


Index 295

monetarism 52, 69, 70, 71monetary policy 218bmonetary stability 79money supply 69money-laundering 18b, 21b, 58, 162,

214bMonroe Doctrine (1823) 200, 203Montecinos, V. 167Montevideo 116Moore, B. 142moral incentives (Cuba) 125Morales Ayma, J. E. (b 1959) 1, 82, 107,

120–4‘first indigenous president’ 122–3b

Morales, M. 251Moreno-Bird, J. C. 126Morgenstern, S. 252Mothers of Plaza de Mayo (Argentina)

90, 150, 159Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem

Terra (MST, Brazil) 113, 143b, 143‘firmly transnational in approach’

143bMovimiento al Socialismo (MAS, Bolivia)

122bMuerte de Artemio Cruz (Fuentes, 1962)

188–9mujeres populares (working-class women)

147–8Mujica, J. 21b, 116mulattos 24, 91bmulticulturalism 148, 246multilateralism 203multinational corporations 7, 184b

‘transnational corporations’ 179multipolarity 220, 226Munck, G. 100, 127–8Munck, R. ii, iii, 135b, 141, 253‘municipal socialism’ 79music 149, 192–3, 196, 244music and politics (case study) 194bMussolini, B. 8, 134

Nacif, B. 252nación 8NAFTA 16b, 58, 98, 139, 146, 199, 204,

205–6, 209b, 211, 213, 239Chilean aspiration to join 206, 208–9combined GDP 205effective from 1 January 1995 206‘neo-liberal high tide’ 206‘side agreements’ 206

Napoleon III (France) 8

narcotráfico 214bsee also drugs

Nasser, G. A. 219‘nation’ (concept) 91nation-building 68, 181nation-state 8, 35, 40, 41, 93, 123b, 130,

146–7, 211, 225, 231, 233‘main motor of development’ (post-war

period) 44National Affirmative Action Programme

(Brazil, 2002–) 129national development 82, 236, 245bNational Guard (Nicaragua) 137national identity xi, 147, 193, 196, 239national income distribution 135bnational interest 35, 215national mythology 40National Plan for Agrarian Reform

(ANRA, Brazil) 113national security 49, 211national sovereignty 151, 204, 239national-liberation movements 136national-statist model xii, 37, 43–9, 54,

67b, 82, 122b, 167, 193collapse 48perceived failure 77

nationalism 8, 9, 43–8, 49, 61, 66, 67b,114b, 122b, 124, 131, 134, 146, 166,189–90, 193, 201, 206, 226, 227, 231,233, 247

labour movements 137–9‘radical edge’ 133revolutionary form (Cuba) 135–6see also populist nationalism

nationalist development strategies 193nationalist movements 133–7nationalist-populist model 73, 119, 130,

139, 193nationalization

oil industry (Bolivia) 120, 122b‘nativism’ 179NATO 212natural disasters 15, 96, 190natural resources 99, 121, 212, 218b

‘fragile base for development’ 63, 64bNehru, J. 219neighbourhood 140, 196neo-colonialism 40, 46, 62, 226neo-imperialism 209b, 247

see also new imperialismneo-indigenismo 11–12, 181–2neo-liberal model 61, 70–6, 104–5

paradox 74

PROOF


296 Index

neo-liberalism xi, xii, 6–7, 9, 35–7, 48,54–7, 66, 93, 99, 100–1, 102, 104b,114b, 116, 117, 123, 125, 131, 140b,146, 155, 168–70, 173–6, 182, 187,190–1, 194, 206, 210, 213, 219,235–6, 241

‘all pain, no gain’ (WB) 75collapse (Argentina) 76–7‘corroding societies’ 245bdemocratic disenchantment 237–8left ‘unable to articulate viable

alternative’ 130literature 251market matrix 74bopposition 120, 122bpractical alternatives 79resistance 241b, 247search for sustainable alternative

153social impact 74–5‘with human face’ 78, 109, 130,

172Zapatista challenge 239, 241bsee also new economic model

neo-Pentecostalism 186–7neo-structuralism 78networks 6, 10, 81b, 84, 139, 227, 231,

241bcommercial and financial 86political 93see also internet usage

Neves, T. 55‘new agenda’ 252‘new’ cinema (1960s) 193‘new democracies’ 219‘new dependency’ (globalization era)

5, 7new economic model (NEM) 73,

77, 78, 80, 97, 102–3, 104b, 135,153, 168, 168b, 170, 186, 234,235

winners and losers 100–1see also post-neoliberalism

new imperialism 226, 245see also sub-imperialism

new international economic order(Chávez) 121b

‘New Man’ 9, 188‘New Novel’ 187‘new poor’ (Argentina) 80‘new regionalism’ 210–11new social movements 146–53

environmental 133, 146, 149,151–3

‘ethnic’ 133, 146–7, 148–9human rights 133, 146–7, 149–51labour 149women 133, 146–7, 147–8, 149

new world order 76, 214Newman, E. 250, 252news and analysis 254newspapers and magazines 255Nicaragua 17b, 47, 57, 118, 148, 201–2,

202b, 219, 221agriculture 33, 34tcarbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30civil war 137elections (1990) 159HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2005)

31toligarchy 42population increase (1950–2020)

26t‘religious question’ 184–5US occupation (1927–32) 136

Nicaraguan Revolution (1979) 136–7,247

NICs (newly-industrialized countries) 5,6, 35, 224

nineteenth century 21–2b, 23, 24–5, 32,38–41, 44, 49, 62–4, 64b, 94–5, 143,200, 204, 231, 242–3

nitrates 43, 65Non-Aligned Movement 20b, 219Non-Communist Manifesto (Rostow

sub-title) 4non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

211, 252co-option danger 172–4, 175bdemocratic deficit critique 171‘filling the gap’ 155, 171–6funding 171, 173, 174–5b‘ideological smokescreen’ 173and politics 174–5btypes 173see also civil society

Noriega, M. 203North Africa 84North America 1, 4, 6, 11t, 12, 24, 25,

160b, 179economic zone 36extermination of indigenous peoples

23‘fox’ descriptions 10, 11tinternet usage 31–2see also NAFTA

novo sindicalismo 140–1

PROOF


Index 297

nuclear technology 119, 221Nuestra América (Martí, 1891)

45bNun, J. 49

O’Brien, P. 168bO’Donnell, G. 52, 102, 161, 165, 236–7,

253Obama, B. 204, 226‘occupy, resist and produce’ (land reform

slogan) 142OECD 16b, 28, 58oil 7, 25, 36, 45–6, 82, 116, 119, 120b,

124, 137, 140b, 152, 202b, 207, 226‘natural gas’ 18b, 82, 207‘petroleum’ 18b, 21, 34n, 66, 68, 221‘petrochemicals’ 22b

‘oligarchic state’ (pre-1930) 64, 166oligarchy 17b, 46, 49, 66, 71, 93, 135b

agrarian 42and beyond 37–43Central America 47decline 43Guatemala 47–8progressive 10

Oliveira, O. D. 85, 95nollas populares (communal pots) 148Olympic Games (Mexico, 1968) 53, 188One Hundred Years of Solitude (García

Márquez, 1967) 3, 190–1Onganía, J. C. 49–50OPEC 134‘open’ regionalism 205, 210–11opera houses 20–1bOperation Just Cause (1989) 203‘opiate of masses’ (Marx) 187, 196opinion polls 160b, 161Oppenheim, L. 250oppression 148, 182, 187

see also repressionoptimism 27, 41, 62, 99–100, 119, 191,

196‘option for poor’ (Catholicism) 182–3Ordem e Progresso (motto) 41, 179Organizacôes Globo 160bOrganization of American States

(OAS/OEA, 1948/1951–) 199, 217,219

‘served as US colonial department’201

organized crime 58, 164b, 214bsee also transnational crime

Orinoco river system 13Ortega, D. 118, 159

Ortega brothers (Nicaragua) 136Os Sertôes (da Cunha, 1902) 178–9‘otherness’ 179, 181, 242‘our struggle is bigger than a house’

(slogan) 97outward orientation 78, 137overcrowding 98b, 98, 240Oxhorn, P. 251

Pachamama 145bPacific Ocean 16‘pact of domination’ 46–7Pakistan 213Palacios, M. 250pampas 19b, 177, 179Panama 15, 17b, 24, 26t, 29t, 31t, 33t,

34t, 136, 221US military intervention (1989) 203,

211Panama Canal 40, 202b, 203Panizza, F. 249Paraguay 7, 19b, 23, 36, 206, 216, 219,

250agriculture 33, 34tattempted coup (2000) 112carbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tindustrialization ‘slower and

weaker’ 47oligarchy 42party-system institutionalization index

158tpopulation increase (1950–2020) 26trecognition of Taiwan 208resistance to Brazil 208stagnation 47torture 164

Paraná Plateau 19bParis 20b, 135b, 188, 189bParker, C. 195–6parliamentary democracy 156Parodi, D. de 88–9bparos cívicos (civilian stoppages) 138‘participative budget’ (Pôrto Alegre)

79, 82Partido Acción Nacional (PAN, Mexico)

112Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT) (Workers’

Party, Brazil) 55, 79, 113–15, 116,139, 148–9, 159, 183–4, 194b

PROOF


298 Index

Partido Revolucionario Institutional (PRI,Mexico) 53, 58, 111

electoral defeat (1999) 238partidocracia 53, 120bparty competition 157, 158party politics 5, 21b, 52, 110, 117, 126,

171transformation by women 159–61see also political parties

party systems 53, 111, 155–61partyocracy 158Pasos perdidos/Lost Steps (Carpentier)

191Pastoral Land Commission (Brazil)

165Patagonia/Patagonians 19b, 111, 244paternalism 245–6path to modernity 1, 3, 10–12path-dependence 63–4Patiño family 41patria 8Patria o Muerte (Cuban slogan) 136patriarchy 89, 147, 150–1, 159patrimonialism xiii, 166patron-client relations 92–3patronage 53, 68, 83, 166, 174, 175b,

176Paunovic, J. 126Payne, A. 206Paz, O. 191–2‘Peace, Justice and Liberty’ (motto)

164bPeasant Leagues (Brazil) 142peasant republics (Colombia) 143–4peasant revolts 43, 65, 141–2, 179peasants/campesinos 25, 45b, 47,

49, 84, 96, 113, 122–3b, 136–44, 146,184b

pedagogy 143bPeeler, J. 53, 240, 252Pellicer, O. 215PEMEX oil refinery 99pension funds 77, 104bpensions (Chilean model, 1980–) 103,

104bPentecostalism 182, 186, 187, 253Penyak, L. 253people’s economy 80, 81bPérez, C. A. 118, 120b‘peripheral modernity’ (Sarlo) 245–6Perón, E. 1, 195

feminism 89blegacy 257

‘product of her era and social situation’89b

‘Si Evita viviera’ 88–9bPerón, E. Martínez de 50Perón, J. D. 8–9, 44, 69, 71, 80, 88–9b,

119, 134, 189b, 219overthrown by military coup (1955) 49return from exile (1973) 50role model for Chávez 119

Peronism 8–9, 49, 50, 133, 134, 135b,139

case-study 135bchanging status of women (‘revolution

in revolution’) 88b‘enigma’ 134exact nature 134non-alignment 219updated social democratic version

(Kirchnerism) 111welfare state (LA-style) 103

Peronist Party 110–11Volveremos slogan 54

Perot, R. 206personalism 57, 92, 100, 119, 134, 158‘personalist state’ 48‘personalized political mediation’

(Auyero) 93Peru 15, 16, 23, 25, 33, 34t, 34n, 35, 39,

43, 64b, 94, 97, 100, 156, 163, 203,205, 212, 238, 250

border skirmishes 211costa versus sierra 34democratic consolidation ‘threatened’

57–8HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tindustrialization 47, 66labour politics 138–9migration (rural-urban) 96military coup (1968) 138narcotics 213party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158population distribution (1940, 1980)

95fpopulation increase (1950–2020) 26tpublic employment versus total

employment (1954–80) 167frural movements 144torture 164‘ungovernability’ 237

peso (Argentina) 76, 80, 214Petras, J. 86n, 114b, 173

PROOF


Index 299

Petrobras 122bPetry, W. 253Philip, G. 249physical setting 13–22Pinheiro, D. 163Pinochet dictatorship 21b, 201

Catholic Church ‘most solid opponent’183

‘Declaration of Principles’ (1974) 52Pinochet, General 36, 49, 50, 54–5, 70,

103, 104b, 138, 167, 181arrest in London (1998) 151, 165cession of power (1989) 108–9death (2006) 108bgender relations (authoritarian view)

90neo-liberal model 70–1presidentialism 156stripped of immunity (2000) 151

‘Pinochetismo without Pinochet’ 52piqueteros 111plata o plomo 229pluralism 111, 180poblaciones (shanty-towns) 138pobladores 97Poe, E. A. 189bpolicing 162–3, 164

economic 235, 236‘more sophisticated’ 233–4

policy-makingeconomic 74rational 166

poliséria (pollution/misery) 152political attitudes

macro-level versus micro-level 157political citizenship 108political class 48political clientelism 92–3political culture 156–7political data 255political economy xi, xii, 52, 54,

61–82, 94, 130, 133, 155, 166, 205,214

dependent development 61–6guano (rise and fall) 64bliterature 251national-statist matrix 67bneo-liberal model 61, 70–6other references xiii, 35–6, 43, 226,

236people’s economy 80, 81bpost-Washington Consensus 61,

76–82state-led industrialization 61, 66–70

political geography 212, 250political immunity (ex-presidents) 151political institutionalization 66

‘challenge’ to LA governments 126,128–9

political instability 16b, 46, 67b, 123,155, 172

political institutions 112, 117political parties 49, 51b, 100, 107, 113,

117, 122b, 130, 147–8, 150, 152,157–8, 173–4, 176

illegal funding 112membership 159socialist, nationalist 224‘tend to lack representativity’ 128see also party politics

political prisoners 51bpolitical process 52, 107, 110, 180

active players 47participation of pobladores 97

political science 250political spectrum

left xiv, 7–10, 37, 50, 52, 58, 78, 82,107, 110–11, 113–15, 117, 122b,122, 130, 118–25, 122b, 122, 130,134, 135b, 152, 175, 180–1, 190,194b, 239, 240–1b, 249, 251

left-of-centre xii, 124–5, 126, 131,241–2

centre-left 56b, 109centre 52, 126, 241bcentre-right xivmoderate right 109new right 251right xiv, 70, 97, 109–10, 126, 134,

138, 152, 159, 241bpolitical stability 17b, 21b, 27, 41–2, 46,

78, 115, 126, 166, 170, 237political transformations xii, 8–9, 18b,

126political will 54, 100, 205politicians 128, 150, 168b, 190

¡Que se vayan todos! (Argentina) 110politics xii, 57, 58, 79, 107–31, 153,

159challenges 107, 126–9conclusion 129–31‘devalued’ (by neo-liberalism) 237disenchantment 107, 112–18, 238‘from above’ versus ‘from below’

130global 241bleft turn 107, 118–25

PROOF


300 Index

politics – continuedliterature 249, 250, 251–2, 253media and 160bmusic and 194bnarcotics 214bNGOs and 174–5bopposed per se by Pinochet 167other references 12, 43, 67b, 74b, 152,

239, 240bpopular involvement (new era) 238‘post-utopian, post-millenarian era’

125privatization effects 86–7‘with long-term vision’ 218b

politics: consolidation of democracy107–12

Argentina 110–11Chile 108b, 108–10first woman president (Bachelet) 108bMexico 111–12summary 112

politics: democratic disenchantment 107,112–18

Brazil 113–15‘first worker president’ 114bgeneral 117–18Uruguay 116

politics of fear 118politics ‘beyond oligarchy’ 42politics of transformation 1, 7–10pollution 22b, 98b, 98, 152, 240polyarchy 156poor people’s politics (Buenos Aires)

93‘popular Christianity’ (Parker) 195–6popular culture 135b, 177, 186, 192–7,

244‘capitalist commodity’ 192commercialization 193–4contested notion 192local-global construction 195, 197

Popular Front (Chile) 43popular religiosity 195–6Popular Unity coalition (Chile) 21b, 50Populorum Progressio 184bpopulation/demography xii, 3, 13, 16b,

19–21b, 22–7, 102Andean countries 19baverage age (2000–20) 27Brazil 22b‘window of demographic opportunity’

27population density 26t, 27population distribution (1940, 1980) 95f

population growth (1930–2000) 25–6population increase (1950–2020) 26t‘populism’ 9, 10, 44, 47–8, 52, 61, 66,

67b, 82, 93, 97, 122, 128, 133–4, 158,160b, 168, 193, 231, 242

versus ‘socialism’ 118, 119populist nationalism 206

see also post-nationalismpopulist political cycle 49populist state 69, 70

see also desarollista stateporteño inhabitants 134Portes, A. 85Pôrto Alegre 9, 79, 82, 220Portugal 10, 24, 38, 136, 199, 242Portuguese America 38positivism (Comte) 41, 43–4, 178–9,

246post-Cold War era 35, 47, 57, 81b, 199,

205, 211–12, 217, 242post-colonialism/post-independence xii,

2, 4, 10, 12, 37, 191, 231, 245post-communism 72–3, 130post-democracy 223, 236–42post-dependency 223, 227–32post-modernism 191, 192, 223, 239,

244–5Fuentes 189–90‘particular version of modernity’ 244Vargas Llosa 190

post-modernity 223, 242–6post-nationalism 250

see also economic nationalismpost-neo-liberalism 36, 130–1, 223,

233–6see also neo-liberalism

post-war era (1945–) xii, 18b, 20b, 25,43, 44, 46, 54, 65–8, 71, 83, 85, 94,103, 133, 137, 146, 166, 167f, 177,179, 191, 221, 233, 236

immigration 84LA economic performance

‘outstanding’ 66LA economic weight ‘steadily declined’

216post-Washington Consensus 61, 70,

76–82people’s economy 80, 81b

poverty xii, xiii, 5, 7, 18–20b, 41, 75,75f, 80, 87, 89, 102, 103, 120b, 122,126, 131, 139, 148, 153, 160b, 162–3,

PROOF


Index 301

165, 174b, 176, 178b, 183, 186–7,234, 240b

‘lowest rates in LA’ (Uruguay) 116‘rarely pushes people off the land’ 96urban 96‘worst in LA’ (Bolivia) 121see also rural poverty

poverty-alleviation 102–3, 173, 175–6poverty-reduction 7, 10, 82, 113poverty and welfare 83, 99–105

pensions (Chilean model) 104bpower (economic) 38, 44, 48, 67–8, 115,

124foreign actors 75–6international 77see also oligarchy

power (political) 35, 40, 42, 44, 48,53, 67–8, 75–6, 92, 123b, 124, 151,152, 156, 180, 192, 240–1b, 242,247

flouting of law 161, 162power (social) 161power asymmetry (USA v Latin America)

203–4power relations 165, 170pragmatism 82, 115, 234‘presidentialism’ 156‘preventive war’ doctrine 121bprices 69, 71, 81b, 82, 104b, 152priests 182, 185bprimary commodities 40, 233‘priority of social’ (slogan, Brazil) 113prisoners 163–4private sector 46, 72, 119, 168privatization 72–3, 76, 80, 86,

97, 100, 103, 116, 128, 140b,167–8

consequences (short-term) 73popular culture 194

production 27, 65, 67for internal market 103internationalization 35market imperatives 21restructuring 102transnational industrial 46

professionals 42, 50, 85, 86f, 138–9,166, 184b

profitability 27, 236‘progress’ 177, 178b, 179, 196proletariat (Marx’s sense) 140PRONASOL (National Solidarity

Programme, Mexico) 174–5bproportional representation (PR) 110protectionism 35, 43, 103, 166, 210, 236

protest 84, 109see also demonstrations

Protestant ethic (Weber) 187Protestantism 186Przeworski, A. 57psyche (LA) 10public administration 214public goods 99, 218bpublic opinion 152, 176, 247public policy 218b

‘more pro-poor’ (C21) 100public sector/state sector 46, 102,

126public utilities 40, 46public-private partnerships 103Puebla commitments (1979) 185bPuerto Rico 232b, 233, 239, 241Puertoricanization 233

quality of life 28, 30quasi-colonial economy 64bquasi-governmental organizations 174b¡Que se vayan todos! (Argentinian slogan)

110Quechua/Quechua people 90, 144Quijote 244Quiroga, J. F. 120

race 8, 90–2, 101Brazil 91b, 92new social movements 133, 146–7,

148–9racial democracy (Brazilian myth)

91b, 92racism 90–2, 148, 200, 242, 243Radcliffe, S. 89radical democracy xi, 241Radical Party 42, 54radio 31, 160b, 193, 196radioteatro 195railways 40, 41, 137, 140brainforest 22b, 152, 212RAMAS (Mutual Support Network for

Social Action, 1992–) 174–5bRamos, J. A. 135branchera 193rational-formal man (Western notion)

243rationalism 41, 74b, 195rationality 179, 191Rayuela (Cortázar, 1963) 188, 189bre-democratization 17b, 20–1b, 37, 53,

54–9, 77–8, 117, 173, 175, 235see also democratization

PROOF


302 Index

‘re-emerging markets’ 168Reagan, R. W. 36, 71, 137, 202realism 195reality 9, 12, 40–1, 51b, 61, 77, 85, 90,

93, 96, 122b, 134, 156, 161–2, 171,176, 180–1, 191, 225

Reconquista 24Rede Glóbo (television company) 159redistribution 5, 9, 36, 69, 115, 166regional development (sub-national) 34,

235regional integration (supra-national) 199,

216, 233, 204–11, 246failure: internal (rather than external)

causes 210‘hemispheric integration’ 234literature 251role of Brazil 207–11

regional variation 84, 157regionalization

versus ‘regionalism’ 210–11Reig, C. 110religion 8, 12, 23, 242

literature 253and society 177, 182–7

religion (types)cosmopolitan 187hybrid 149popular 195–6traditional 123b

Remmer, K. 58repression 17b, 43, 49–52, 57–8, 62, 65,

71, 111, 148, 181, 194bsee also oppression

Repsol 122bRerum Novarum (Leo XIII) 143bres publica (public body) 166resistance 148, 168b, 192retirement 24, 104bRevolt in Backlands (da Cunha, 1902)

178–9revolution xi, 57, 96Revolution in Revolution (Debray, 1967)

4–5Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia

(FARC) 138, 143–4, 214b, 255right to life 150, 163‘rights revolution’ (Chile) 110Rio Conference (1992) 152, 220Rio de Janeiro 22b, 24, 94t, 97, 159,

194bhomicide investigations 163rural-urban migration (1950–70) 95

Rio Group (1986–) 203

‘rising tide raises all ships’ 36, 99risk 15, 67b, 74b, 231, 233risk-index studies 236River Plate 13, 14m, 19bRivera, D. 193roads 23, 41, 68, 97Roberts, B. 85, 95nRoberts, B. R. 253Rock, D. 250Rodo, J. 179Roett, R. 250Romero, Archbishop O. 150, 185,

204rondas campesinas (peasant circles)

144Rostow, W. 1, 4, 10rouba mas faz (they steal but they do

things) 115Rouquié, A. 12Rousseff, D. 115, 156, 159, 204Rowe, W. 253Rúa, F. de la 77‘rule by obeying’ 241brule of law 128, 130, 155, 161–5

structural features 163, 165rules of game 35, 115, 220rural areas 34, 62, 81b, 113, 159, 143b,

178b, 185bpopulation 15, 26, 95fsocial class 86f

rural movements 133, 141–6rural poverty 84, 101f, 101, 142, 143b,

165see also extreme poverty

Sader, E. 113–14Sage, C. 213Saint Jean, I. 51bSáinz, P. 75Salman, T. 117salsa 196Salvador (Brazil) 94tsamba 194b, 195, 196San Martín, J. de 8San Salvador 202bSandinistas 57, 118, 133, 136, 148, 201

liberation theology ideas 184–5Sandino, A. C. 136Santa Cruz (Bolivia)/provincial revolution

124Santi, M. 145bSantiago Commitment to Democracy

(1991) 217Santiago Consensus (1998) 78

PROOF


Index 303

Santiago de Chile 94t, 217São Paulo 19b, 22b, 94t, 97, 99, 114b,

115, 139–41, 220massacre of house of detention inmates

(1992) 163metal-workers 139, 140–1war in favelas 164b

São Paulo state 42Sarlo, B. 21b, 245, 253Sarmiento, D. F. 135b, 177, 178b, 179,

182, 243Sarney, J. 55Sater, A. L. 251savings 27, 96Schelling, V. 182, 246, 253Schneider, R. 249‘scientific fabrications’ 123bScully, T. 158n, 158‘second liberation’ 136Second Vatican Council 182–3,

184bsecondary cities 28secularization 8, 187, 195–6security issues 199, 211–16

prospects 214–16SEDESOL (Secretaría de Desarrollo)

175b‘seizing the state’ 146, 153Seligson, M. 252Selverston, M. 144, 149semi-democratic republics 42semi-industrialization 28, 67, 68, 83

see also social transformationSendero Luminoso 57, 138, 144

see also Zapatistasseparation of powers 156service sector 35, 84, 96, 97

structure of production (Latin America)33, 34t

seventeenth century 24, 38, 199sexual politics 181Shakespeare, W. 179shanty-towns 138, 159, 164b, 173, 186,

194bsharecroppers 141, 142Shefner, J. 174–5bShifter, M. 118–19sicarios (killers) 214bsierra (highlands) 33Sierra Leone 23Sierra Madre range (Mexico) 13,

14m, 15simplistic approaches 4, 32, 36, 130,

195, 221

sindicatos charros 140bSingle Convention on Narcotic Drugs

(1961) 123bSioux 244‘situations of dependency’ 4sixteenth century 24, 243Skidmore, T. 249, 250slavery 23–4, 25, 39b, 40, 44, 90–2, 162‘slavery of sugar’ (Cuba) 48slaves 3, 13, 17b, 145b

manumission 24slums xi, 21b, 119‘small is beautiful’ 152small business sector 72, 85, 86fsmall farmers 85, 86fsmallholders 81b, 114b, 141–2Smith, C. 15Smith, P. H. 176, 200, 201, 204, 220,

249, 252Smith, W. 77, 233–4, 253Smith, W. C. 251‘soccer war’ (1969) 211social capital 172social change 11, 253social citizenship 127, 130social class 4, 5, 9, 11, 23, 35, 49, 62,

67b, 69, 83, 85, 89–91, 135b, 139,144, 147, 149, 152, 161, 185b, 196

social democracy 5, 50, 100, 114b, 115,118, 223

social development 66, 68, 78indicators 28–30issues 235‘precondition’ 30

social exclusion 32, 48, 81b, 93, 135,148–9, 163

social expenditure/social spending 75,100, 103

social inclusion xiv, 145bsocial inequality 13, 18b, 58, 59, 156,

161, 165, 183, 235social integration 43, 170social justice 78–9, 179, 183, 206, 236

see also fairnesssocial mobility 56b, 93social movements xii–xiii, 87, 133–53,

159Brazilian landless movement 143bEcuador’s indigenous movement 145benrichment of democracy 153labour 133, 137–41, 146

PROOF


304 Index

social movements – continuedliterature 253Mexican unions 133, 140bnationalist 133–7, 146other references 128–9, 165, 172, 183,

199, 220, 241Peronism 133, 135brural 133, 141–6urban 138–9see also new social movements

social policy 10, 82, 102, 109social problems 172, 174‘social production companies’ 119social protest (rural) 84social rebellions versus global forces

250social reform 82, 118social regulation 30, 225–6social relations 83, 87–93

‘Si Evita viviera’ 88–9bsocial rights 117

‘deeply divisive’ issue 131social science research 255social setting 13, 27–32, 33social structure 38, 52, 83–7, 184b,

253social transformation 26, 47, 52, 83–7,

144, 153, 246theory and practice 9see also state-led industrialization

socialism 8, 44, 50, 88b, 119, 120b, 125,130, 133–4, 138, 141, 145b, 149, 171,196, 247

Nicaragua 136–7socialist democracy 70Socialist Party (Chile) 108b, 109socialist revolution 5

versus ‘anti-colonial revolution’2

society xii, 26, 74, 83–105, 146, 156,165, 170, 182, 189, 238

‘Si Evita viviera’ 88–9bliterature 252–3, 255religion and 177, 182–7‘structural heterogeneity’ 34

socio-economic development 46, 96, 251socio-economic matters xiii, 15, 126,

183, 246socio-economic structure 54, 65

neo-liberal transformation 73–4sociology 41, 127, 250

literature 252–3‘soft power’ 208

Solidaridad (poverty-alleviationprogramme, mid-1990s) 175–6

Somoza Debayle, A. 47, 136,201

Sondereguer, M. 150sound money 69South Africa 141, 200, 209b, 212South America xiv, 7, 8South Atlantic Treaty Organization

(SATO) 212South Yemen 202bSoutheast Asia 224Southern Cone 10, 20–1b, 107, 118,

136–7, 147, 171, 192, 206, 209industrialization 66literacy 28, 29t‘modern’ form of state (c.1930)

165NGOs 174re-democratization 56–7trade liberalization 72urban capitalist class 86

Spain 8, 17b, 24–5, 50, 122b, 124,136–7, 151, 199, 212, 242

decline 38, 40democratic disenchantment

(post-Franco) 113Spanish conquest/colonization 10, 20b,

38, 149‘Special Period in Peacetime’ (Cuba)

125stages of economic growth (Rostow)

1–2, 4stagnation 5, 62, 76, 81b, 191Stallings, B. 168Starn, O. 250state xi, 6, 35, 61, 128, 129, 140b, 141,

144, 145b, 148, 164b, 166, 183, 195,218b

‘dismantling’ versus ‘reconstructing’168–9

‘early and sustained consolidation’166

hollowing-out 155, 170, 176, 172,175b

literature 252regulatory capacity 168b, 235twenty-first century 170–1weakness 213withdrawal from regulatory functions

71state absolutism 24state expansion 166, 167fstate intervention 43–8, 79

PROOF


Index 305

state power 143–4state reform xiii, 176, 252

Brazil 169–70, 175‘crucial political issue’ (1990s–) 170‘first generation’ 168second-generation 168–71

state repression 137, 139state role 6–7, 56b, 67b, 74b, 82, 102,

104b, 234–6state terror/violence 50, 51b, 162, 163

see also violencestate-led industrialization xii, 61, 66–70,

80, 103, 133, 155, 166–8national-statist matrix 67bretrospective critique 68see also import-substitution

industrializationstate-owned sector 140b, 221steel 18b, 22b, 68Steel Workers’ Union (São Bernardo do

Campo) 114bstreet children (Brazil) 163strikes 22b, 114b, 139–41, 190Stroessner, A. 47structural adjustment 85, 100, 214, 253

new poverty 93structural dependence 5, 40, 171structural-historical perspective 2, 4structuralism 6, 63, 69, 70, 71,

157‘struggle for development’ 32students 50, 53, 109, 188sub-imperialism 208, 209b, 212

see also anti-imperialismsubsistence 96, 165, 241bsubversion 51b, 202bsugar 41, 63, 64b, 67, 124–5, 142,

207sugar-cane 22b, 144Sunkel, O. 55sustainable development xiii, 10, 16b,

41, 55–6, 80, 99, 102, 131, 149, 211,231, 236, 255

Swanson, P. 250Sweden 204Switzerland 21b‘Switzerland of LA’ (Uruguay) 116syncretism 182, 244synthetic products 63, 64b

Taiwan 70, 208take-off stage (Rostow) 1Taliban 114btango 192–3, 196

Tapachula 229bTardanico, R. 253tax evasion 162taxation 17b, 38, 100, 127, 161, 170, 204technocrats 74b, 125, 161, 167–8, 168b,

170, 172, 175–6technology 37, 61Tedesco, L. 176telenovela (soap opera) 177, 195Televisa (media conglomerate) 195television 31, 159, 160b, 193, 196television evangelism 186, 187Tempest (Shakespeare) 179tenant-farmers 141, 142terrorism 137, 145b, 162Texas 200, 202bThatcher, M. H. 36, 70, 71, 73, 103,

160b, 174btheatre of oppressed 194bTheology of Liberation see liberation

theologyThiele, G. 252‘third way’ 171Third World xi, 1, 2, 152, 166, 216, 219,

251terminology problems 2

third-way politics (Cardoso) 56bThomas, J. J. 253Thorp, R. 63, 66, 73, 75–6n, 233, 251Tía Julia (Vargas Llosa) 190Tierra del Fuego 13, 206, 208time 28, 110, 159, 243, 244

‘constantly shifting’ 190linear notion rejected 181

tin 41, 47, 64b, 67, 152Tlatelolco massacre (1968) 188Tlazoltéol (Aztec goddess) 98b‘Todos somos Americanos’ (Obama, 2011)

204Tokman, V. 253Torres, C. 182Torres-Rivas, E. 162torture 108b, 150, 163–4Total [oil corporation] 122btowns 95f, 95trade 18b, 21–2b, 40, 43, 65, 68, 71–2,

74b, 202b, 204, 221, 227bilateral agreements 205domestic 43Mexico-USA 16bsee also exports

trade liberalization 6, 71, 72, 126

PROOF


306 Index

trade unions 8, 45, 49, 53, 63, 80, 103,114b, 120–1, 134, 135b, 137–41,185b, 206–7

density 140bMexico 140b

tradition 192, 196traditional society (Rostow) 1–2Trafalgar (1805) 38training 81b, 96Transamazonian Highway 17transformation (politics) 1, 7–10Transitions from Authoritarian Rule

(O’Donnell et al., 1986) 252transnational crime 5–6, 203, 228–9,

231, 232b, 232msee also crime

transparency 79, 110, 111, 156transport 17b, 19b, 22b, 79, 97, 98, 141,

224Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) 38Tri-continental liberation movement 2trickle-down theory 61Tropicália movement 194bTrotskyists 144, 240bTruman Doctrine 201‘trusteeship’ 200Tupac Amarú II 38Tupamaros (1970s) 21b, 116twentieth century 8, 15, 20b,

25–6, 28, 36, 42, 49, 62, 65, 123b,147, 166, 179, 185–6, 224, 228, 233,236, 251

revolutionary upsurges (1970s, 1980s)48

twenty-first century 8, 9, 20b, 36, 99,101, 196, 224–5, 238, 249–50

left turn 118state reform 170–1

Twenty-Sixth of July Movement (Cuba)136

Umbanda (Brazil) 182, 186, 187Un gobierno honrado, un país de primera

(slogan, Uruguay) 116(Un)Rule of Law (Mendez et al., 1999)

161uncertainty 57, 193, 218b, 223–4, 246under-development 32, 41, 44, 61–2,

123, 179, 196, 236unemployment 73, 75f, 102, 104b, 111,

116, 143b, 214ungovernability 237unipolarity 220

see also hegemony

United Fruit Company 40, 156, 200United Kingdom (1707–) 36, 64b, 71,

73, 122b, 141, 159, 160b, 174b‘Britain’ (1600s) 199economic hegemony (C19) 40displaced by USA as world power 43,

44, 46, 65imperialism 210industrial revolution 2investment in Latin America 46law lords (Pinochet arrest) 151urbanization (C19) 95welfare state 103

United Nations (1945–) 4, 123b, 199,203, 216–17, 219, 229

address by Chávez (2005) 121bUN Charter 216UN Economic and Social Council 217UN Security Council 216, 221UNDP 129–30, 211

democratic disenchantment in LA117–18

disillusionment with democracy inLA 113

UNESCO 92, 189bsee also ECLA

United States xi, xiv, xviii(m), 7, 13, 17b,36, 45b, 47, 53, 58, 71, 74b, 80, 81b,109, 112, 116, 120, 124, 139, 155,159, 168, 168b, 171, 179, 183, 194,225, 237, 240b, 242

agricultural subsidies 210aspirations to regional hegemony

199–204attempted coup in Venezuela (2002)

118blockade of Cuba 136consumer society image xiiicriminal economy 213and Cuba 48days as global superpower numbered

224displacement of UK as world power

43, 44, 46, 65drug flows 232b, 232mdrugs crime 214bdrugs question (‘most salient security

issue in LA’) 213drugs war 229economic competition 204–5economic take-off 32, 33tforeign policy 213, 217, 221hegemony 216, 231hegemony (challenged in LA) 209b

PROOF


Index 307

‘imperial expansion’ (re Mexico) 200imperialism 120–1b, 210Mexican migrants 205migration flows 228–9b, 230m‘most important trading partner’ of

Brazil 207narcotics policy 203‘never the aggressor’ (Reagan) 202b‘new agenda’ (re Latin America) 204plans for free-trade zone of Americas

(contested) 122b, 122race relations 91b, 92‘racist hierarchy’ 200relations with LA 216–21route to modernity 2security issues 214strategy towards LA 226telenovelas exported from Brazil

195trading partner 16b, 18b, 20bUS Congress 209US dollar 65, 76, 214US Drugs Enforcement Agency (DEA)

229US model 247US norm (assumed superiority) 157US State Department 203US State Department Notes 255

United States: National BipartisanCommission on Central America202b

Universal Church of Kingdom of God186, 187

universities 100, 171University of Texas: LANIC page 254,

255urban areas 28, 34, 46–8, 63, 81b, 97,

119, 140b, 143b, 152, 157, 193informal employment 75, 75fpollution 21population distribution (1940, 1980)

95fpoverty 101f, 101, 187social class 85, 86fsee also capital cities

urban-rural differences 84urbanization xii, 16b, 22b, 26, 30, 43, 48,

83–5, 94–9city life 96–7, 97b

Uribe, Á. 117URNG (Guatemala National

Revolutionary Union) 57

Uruguay 7, 19b, 34t, 36, 42, 82, 156,179, 196, 206–7, 237–8

carbon dioxide emissions 29t, 30democratic disenchantment 116, 117effects of Argentinian economic crisis

(2001–2) 116HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2009)

31tincome distribution 101industrialization 66inequality reduction (1980s) 105military coup (1973) 52party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158population increase (1950–2020) 26t,

27profile 20b, 21bpublic employment versus total

employment (1954–80) 167fresistance to Brazil 208torture 164‘truly immigrant country’ 25welfare model 105

Uruguay River 116USSR/Soviet Union 33t, 124, 200–1,

202b, 219collapse 35, 77, 92and Cuba 48‘Russian Revolution’ 141

utilities 72

Valença, M. M. 160bValenzuela, A. 252values 61, 62, 150, 243Van Cott, D. L. 129Varas, A. 212, 215–16Vargas, G. D. 9, 44, 49, 69

‘pai dos pobres’ 69Vargas Llosa, M. 187, 188, 189b,

190Velasco, S. A. 230nVéliz, C. 10, 11tVellinga, M. 252Veltmeyer, H. 86n, 114b, 173, 251Venezuela 7, 9, 10, 15, 21, 25, 34n, 36,

39b, 68, 82, 94, 107, 136–7, 156, 203,205, 226, 237

agriculture 33, 34t‘anti-globalization country’ 100attempted coup (2002) 112, 118, 221,

238Chávez profile 120–1b

PROOF


308 Index

Venezuela – continuedcollapse of party system (1990s) 111drug flows 232menvironmental movement 152HDI (2010) 29thousehold income distribution (2008)

31tleft turn 118–19, 120–1bliterature 250national industry (state-creation) 45–6party-system institutionalization index

158t, 158political regime (elite pact) 53population increase (1950–2020) 26tprofile 18brule of law 163torture 164

Verba, S. 156–7Verner, D. 253Vía Campesina 143Videla, J. R. 51b, 181Villa Grimaldi (torture centre) 108bviolence xiii, 6, 17b, 54, 96, 98, 140b,

143–4, 147, 185b, 195, 214b, 231,246

literature 249–50paramilitary 214bstructural 162see also extermination

Virgin Mary 88virreinatos (viceroys) 38Von Bulow, M. 253Vota Mujer (Chilean slogan) 108bvoters 107, 127–8

Wade, P. 91, 149Wade, R. 35wages 69, 70, 75–6, 76f, 138, 214

‘low-income groups’ 85‘low-wage areas’ 226‘low-wage niche’ 234‘minimum wage’ 76f, 100

War of Pacific (Chile v Bolivia) 64bwar on terror 226Warren, K. 253Washington Consensus xi, 35, 71, 72,

109, 118, 125, 130–1, 176, 217,224–5, 234

downsides 110‘not monolithic and consensual’

78see also neo-liberalism

Washington DC 202bWashington Post 255

water 80, 96, 97, 138, 160bwealth 24, 86wealth distribution xi, 17b, 78wealth inequality 36, 41, 84, 100wealth tax 100Weaver, F. 251Weber, M. 187welfare xii, 21b, 79, 80

see also poverty and welfarewelfare state 103, 127, 135bWest Africa 23–4, 232bWest Indies 24Western Europe 8, 32, 33t, 205Western world 1, 2, 12, 19b, 171, 243,

246Whitehead, L. 167n, 252Whitten, D. 250Whitten, N. 250Wiarda, K. 251Wickham-Crowley, T. P. 253Wolfensohn, J. 78women 81b, 140b, 150–1, 173, 220,

235defence of human rights and democracy

90employment 102household heads 85labour force participation 83–4, 88bmarianismo 88migration pattern 96paid and unpaid activities 84participation in political process 129rural-urban migration (gender

selectivity) 84–5transformation of party politics

159–61views of Eva Perón 88–9bworking class 147–8see also gender

women presidents 108b, 148women’s movements 133, 146, 147–8,

207women’s suffrage 147workers 50, 74b, 81b, 135b, 139, 142,

184–5bbargaining power 137farm/rural 81b, 143bhigh-skilled versus low-skilled 100

workers’ co-operatives 119Workers’ Day (1 May) 2006 122bWorkers’ Party see Partido dos

Trabalhadores

PROOF


Index 309

working class/urban masses 22b, 42, 45,47, 48, 68, 71, 85, 86f, 87, 103, 139,140b, 193

massacres 43women 147–8

working population 46, 63, 84incorporation into political system 133

working-age population 27, 102World Bank xiii, 34n, 75, 78, 84, 102,

130, 168, 171–3, 214data source 255

World Cup 1982 (association football)196

world economy/global economy 42–3,52, 68, 74b, 94, 102, 170, 251

integration into 61–6, 67b, 71, 82, 97,126, 133, 179–80, 211, 234, 235,236

‘long disruption’ (1914–45) 43–4world market/global market 12, 49

vagaries 40, 41, 86–7World Social Forum 9, 220

world system 77, 80world trade 19bWorld War I 42–3, 65World War II 43, 65, 134WTO 16b, 214www Virtual Library for LA Studies

254–5

Yashar, D. 253youth/young people 9–10, 27, 96, 101,

111, 234

Zapata, E. 133, 137Zapatista politics 241bZapatista revolt (1994–) 239, 240–1bZapatistas xiii, 9, 112, 133, 137, 144–6,

244, 246, 250, 255see also FARC

Zero Hunger initiative 113Zolov, E. 202n‘zone of peace’ 212

PROOF

c:itoolswmskcg-macmilan 7860workingfolder9780230354197 … · 2012. 5. 17. · 4 political economy...

Documents