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Contents

List of Illustrations vii

Acknowledgements viii

Notes on the Contributors ix

Conventions and Abbreviations xi

Introduction 1Fred Schurink

1 Multilingualism, Romance, and Language Pedagogy; or,Why Were So Many Sentimental Romances Printed asPolyglot Texts? 18Joyce Boro

2 Gathering Fruit: The ‘Profitable’ Translations of ThomasPaynell 39Helen Moore

3 How Gabriel Harvey Read Anthony Cope’s Livy:Translation, Humanism, and War in Tudor England 58Fred Schurink

4 Humanist Philology and Reformation Controversy: JohnChristopherson’s Latin Translations of Philo Judaeus andEusebius of Caesarea 79Andrew W. Taylor

5 Polybius Speaks British: A Case Study in Mid-TudorHumanism and Historiography 101Warren Boutcher

6 Tudor Englishwomen’s Translations of ContinentalProtestant Texts: The Interplay of Ideology and HistoricalContext 121Brenda M. Hosington

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vi Contents

7 Edmund Spenser’s Translations of Du Bellay in Jan van derNoot’s A Theatre for Voluptuous Worldlings 143Andrew Hadfield

8 Edward Fairfax and the Translation of Vernacular Epic 161Gordon Braden

9 Reading Du Bartas 175Robert Cummings

Bibliography 197

Index 218

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1Multilingualism, Romance, andLanguage Pedagogy; or, Why WereSo Many Sentimental RomancesPrinted as Polyglot Texts?Joyce Boro

In the sixteenth century, the Spanish sentimental romance conqueredthe European book market. As the romances were printed, translated,and adapted over and over again, their reading public stretched acrossthe Iberian Peninsula and into France, Italy, the Low Countries, Poland,Germany, and England. The three greatest bestsellers were Diego deSan Pedro’s Cárcel de amor (1492) and Arnalte y Lucenda (1491) andJuan de Flores’s Grisel y Mirabella (1495), with 72, 29, and 60 editionsrespectively.1 The popularity of these romances is not surprising: theynarrate compelling stories in an eloquent style and engage with timelyquestions such as the politics of counsel, gender relations, and the ten-sion between love and honour inherent in courtly love. What is lessexpected, however, is the physical format of many of these texts. A sig-nificant quantity are polyglot, parallel-text editions: 23 multilingualeditions of Grisel y Mirabella were issued, including 15 Italian–French, 4Spanish–French, and 4 Spanish–French–Italian–English (Figure 1); Cárcelde amor boasts 18 bilingual French–Spanish editions; and Arnalte yLucenda was printed in 5 French–Italian and 3 English–Italian texts.In his study of early sixteenth-century Latin–English parallel-text edi-tions, Daniel Wakelin observes that these bilingual volumes’ prefacesadvertise their ability to provide both linguistic and moral instructionand that ‘most of the works printed in parallel texts offer moral philos-ophy [. . .] or history [. . .], which might be read as exemplary’.2 A surveyof the paratextual material of vernacular polyglot works likewise revealsa preponderance of texts that encourage ethical reading practices along-side language acquisition; they are marketed as pedagogical, moral

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Joyce Boro 19

Figure 1 Four-language parallel-text edition of the sentimental romance Grisel yMirabella

works. Considering the sustained focus on didacticism in polyglot edi-tions alongside the wide-scale condemnation of the romance genre asfrivolous entertainment for the uneducated masses, why do we find somany romances printed in this format?3 By providing an exploration ofearly modern foreign-language instruction and of the paratextual andliterary features of the sentimental romances, this chapter demonstratesthat the romances were marketed and intended to be read as foreign-language manuals and that they participate in the twinned didactictraditions of linguistic and moral pedagogy. Like the language textbookson which they are modelled, these romances furnished their readerswith lessons in rhetoric, morality, and conduct as well as in a foreignlanguage.

The sixteenth century witnessed a veritable explosion in second-language learning. While French was the only vernacular habituallytaught in medieval England, the Renaissance landscape widened toembrace other vernaculars, such as Italian, Spanish, and Dutch. French

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20 Multilingualism, Romance, and Language Pedagogy

remained the most popular second language, but interest in Italianwas strong, and Spanish increasingly grew in importance as the cen-tury progressed.4 As modern languages were not part of the school oruniversity curricula, methods of language acquisition were less stan-dardized. Manuals, grammars, dictionaries, dialogue books, vulgaria,translations, and polyglot works proliferated. The manuals generallycontain wordlists, prayers, rules for grammar and pronunciation, andmodel dialogues on topics including familiar conversation, trade, andamorous affairs. The dialogues are presented in parallel-text format,displaying the known and target languages side by side. These manu-als were important pedagogical resources; as titles such as The FrencheSchoolemaister, The Italian Schoole-maister, and The Spanish Schoole-masterindicate, they were teachers in print.5

Language learning cut across social and gender lines. Not only wasthe mastery of a foreign language a mark of erudite refinement, butfor merchants, diplomats, scholars, and avid, curious readers, Italian,French, and Spanish were becoming ever more essential. The merchant’slivelihood depended upon accurate communication with foreigners.Diplomatic achievement was increasingly valorized, and its glorification‘spurred the employment of experts in foreign cultures, languages, andintelligence’.6 Linguistic knowledge opened doors for aspiring courtiersand enabled them to participate and advance in an international com-munity. As vernacular, polyglot humanism replaced the traditional,more exclusive study of Greek and Latin, continental literature was pro-gressively more appreciated in itself and as an important mediation ofclassical sources.7 Success in the realms of commerce, diplomacy, schol-arship, and politics all depended upon a mastery of modern languages:‘The vogue of language learning that swept Elizabethan England wasthe result of both a humanistic desire for culture and improvement anda utilitarian importance given to foreign languages by new aspects ofcommerce and politics.’8 Holinshed, for one, marvels at the linguis-tic aptitudes of English courtiers ‘of both sorts and sexes’, observing‘that there are very few of them, which have not the use of sundriespeeches’.9 Florio, however, notes the social range of foreign-languagelearners: ‘I see certaine Gentlemen rather [c]lownes, to tel the truth, thatbegyn to learne to spake Italian, French, and Spanish.’10 Textbooks, con-sequently, were marketed to children, gentlemen, women, merchants,and scholars. Children could have recourse to Pierre Du Ploiche’s A Trea-tise in Englishe and French (1551). Pierre Erondelle geared his manualspecifically to a female audience, and indeed two women, who identifythemselves as Mary Hodge and Dorcas Humfrey, each annotated the

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Joyce Boro 21

same copy of his The French Garden: for English Ladyes and Gentlewomento walke in (1621).11 Many language manuals, such as John Florio’s FlorioHis firste Fruites (1578), dedicated to Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester,and those by Giles Du Wés and John Wodroephe, were designed forthe upper classes, who often used such books to prepare themselves forintensive language immersion and instruction during their continen-tal travels.12 Even more were directed to merchants, as is attested bythe habitual inclusion of dialogues on the subject of buying, selling,and negotiating in the marketplace. Merchants are explicitly targeted inNoël de Berlemont’s hugely popular Colloques ou dialogues (1536) and inWilliam Stepney’s and John Minsheu’s textbooks.13

Whereas the manuals were geared to diverse audiences, dialoguesin parallel text play an important role in almost all of them. Thispractice of blending linguistic instruction and polyglot narrative hasits origins in medieval pedagogy, in the Latin colloquies, and in theFrench manières de langage and vocabularies.14 In Renaissance textbooks,the dialogues are usually placed at the end, representing the culmi-nation of the student’s efforts. Stressing the importance of process inlanguage instruction, Jason Lawrence observes that ‘as the dialoguesincrease in complexity in terms of both grammar and vocabulary, thestudent’s reading skills in Italian [or in whatever language is beingtaught] are expected to improve accordingly’.15 The dialogues’ bilin-gual mise-en-page and fictional components coupled with their steadilyaugmenting level of difficulty make them an excellent stepping-stonefrom the strict language lessons of the manuals to polyglot or foreign-language books. For instance, The French Garden terminates with 13dialogues and the poem ‘The Centurion’. Notes for pronunciation adornthe pages of the first 12 dialogues, but they are absent from ‘TheCenturion’ and final dialogue, since, as Erondell explains, by the timethey reach the end of the volume the pupils should have improvedto the point of finding such devices superfluous. The progression fromgrammar instruction to foreign-language books is especially marked asErondell’s dialogues are very fleshed out, reading as mini-dramas: char-acters are named, they reoccur in different scenes, and their speechescross-reference actions undertaken in other colloquies. The dialogues inHollyband’s and Florio’s popular Italian manuals likewise push againsttheir generic boundaries and merge with drama. Hollyband’s dialoguesare not proper scenes, but they are full of story, even including lists ofdramatis personae at the start of each dialogue.16 The dramatic and narra-tive components are further developed in Florio His firste Fruites, whichteaches Italian through proverbs, sententiae, moral philosophy, grammar

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and pronunciation rules, and dramatic dialogues. Even the grammarlessons and the ‘discourses’ and ‘reasonynges’ upon varied topics arestructured as conversations with one interlocutor persistently request-ing explanations or encouraging the wise speaker to continue.17 Theliterary bent of the dialogue form is especially visible in Minsheu’s Pleas-ant and Delightfull Dialogues in Spanish and English (1623). The dialoguesare formulaic, covering the standard topics such as rising in the morn-ing, mealtime, and marketplace transactions, but the liveliness of theprose and the character development make them truly ‘not unpleasantto any other Reader’, as the book’s title promises. Their affinities to closetdrama as well as their parallel-column format make them especiallyappropriate for an intermediate stage of language instruction – theycan help students advance from elementary grammar instruction tomonolingual texts.

The important link between language pedagogy and literature inher-ent in the dialogues carries over to other types of linguistic instructionalmaterial. For instance, Minsheu bases many of his grammar lessons onpopular Spanish works such as Diana, La Celestina, Guevara’s Menospreciode corte and Libro aureo de Marco Aurelio, Lazarillo de Tormes, and LaFloresta española as well as Spanish translations of Latin classics. TheSpanish excerpts are accompanied by English translations and expla-nations for Minsheu’s pupils to study. Interestingly, by fully citing hissources, ‘setting downe the line and the leafe where in the same bookesthey shall finde them’, he directs his readers towards many polyglottexts printed in Antwerp, suggesting that these multilingual editionscould form the next phase of the curriculum.18 The tendency to connectlanguage instruction to an appreciation of literature is equally visible inWilliam Thomas’s Principal Rules of the Italian Grammer, with a Dictionariefor the better understandyng of Boccace, Petrarcha, and Dante (1550), as thetitle suggests. Texts such as Minsheu’s and Thomas’s appealed to themany language learners who aimed to appreciate favoured works in theiroriginal forms. Hollyband’s The Italian Schoole-maister similarly facili-tates the movement from language to literature. Rather than includedialogues, Hollyband couples his language lessons with a parallel-textedition of the sentimental romance Arnalte y Lucenda. The format musthave appealed to readers, since his manual and romance translationwere paired in the three successive English editions of 1575, 1597, and1608. In fact, Lawrence posits that literature-based language instruc-tion is at the heart of early modern linguistic pedagogy. He arguesthat not only do literary examples and influences dominate languagemanuals, but there is also a concomitant development from language

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Joyce Boro 23

learning through literary translation (assisted by either parallel-text edi-tions and dialogues or by the comparison of different language editionsof the same work) to the independent composition of new works ofliterature.19

Students would thus progress from the language manuals – from thegrammars and dialogues – to more advanced texts, often in polyglot for-mat. These polyglot works seem to have functioned as an importantintermediary stage between the dialogues and monolingual foreign-language texts. The polyglot texts allowed their readers to continueto learn through translation and by reading across the columns. Theparallel texts are like bicycle stabilizers, supporting readers until theyhave the skill and confidence necessary to move through a foreign textunassisted. It is no accident that the concluding address to the read-ers in Guillaume de la Pichonnaye’s A Playne Treatise to Learne [. . .] theFrenche Tongue (1576) is in English–French parallel columns. This bilin-gual text exhorts students to practise their newly acquired languageskills with French books and dictionaries. The pedagogical advice isfacilitated – even performatively enacted – though the mise-en-page: byreading the parallel columns the students acquire the competency nec-essary to advance from bilingual textbook to monolingual French text.This progression is clearly exemplified in language primers mentionedabove, such as The Italian Schoole-maister, which includes the completeromance of Arnalte y Lucenda, and The French Garden, which incorporates‘The Centurion’.

The most persuasive evidence for the role of multilingual works inlanguage acquisition comes from the texts themselves. Many polygloteditions stress their usefulness for language learners. The title-pageof the bilingual Spanish–French edition of Grisel y Mirabella (1560)boasts that the romance is provided ‘en Español y Frances para losque quisieren deprender una lengua de otra’ (‘in Spanish and Frenchfor those who would wish to learn one language from the other’).Indeed, this claim is echoed in many other polyglot editions, such asthe Dutch–English edition of Whetstone’s The Honourable Reputation of aSouldier, Guevara’s Spanish–Italian–French–German Menosprecio de corte,and in the Latin–English editions of Cicero, Caesar, Boethius, Terence,and others.20 Such texts often emphasize the column-to-column andword-for-word parity of their translations: the more literal the transla-tion, the simpler linguistic comparison would be. Whetstone’s text, forexample, is introduced by several poems and dedications stressing theimportance of literal, accurate translation: ‘setting worde for worde’, thetext declares, is essential for ‘all ye that now doo meene, / To learne

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each others speache’.21 In his preface, Du Ploiche states that his book ‘isturned almoste woorde for woorde, and line for line, that it may be tohis yonge scholers more easie and light’.22

The language materials collected by Gabriel Harvey, now at theHuntington Library, are an important witness to the correlation betweenparallel texts and language instruction. Harvey owned several languagemanuals, five of which he sequentially numbered on their title-pagesand cross-referenced. Harvey’s numeration of these books reflects nei-ther the order of printing nor the order in which he acquired them, butperhaps his desired order for use.23 These volumes, in Harvey’s num-bered arrangement, are: John Eliot’s Ortho-epia Gallica: Eliots Fruits forthe French (1593; HEHL 60231); Pierre Du Ploiche’s A treatise in Englisheand Frenche (1578; HEHL 53922); The Images of the Old Testament (1549;HEHL 56974); John Thorius’s The Spanish Grammer (1590; HEHL 53880);and Richard Perceval’s Bibliotheca Hispanica (1591; HEHL 56972). Whilefour of these are recognizable language manuals, the third text, TheImages of the Old Testament, strikingly is not. It is, however, a bilingualtext. Each page boasts an image at its centre, flanked at the top andbottom by English and French passages describing the biblical eventvisually portrayed. In addition to the title-page numeration, the fivevolumes are further conjoined via Harvey’s annotations. Four of thembear his motto for linguistic education: ‘poco y bueno’. Other com-ments stress the complementary nature of the texts, such as: ‘This, withthe first, will serve for good part of the grammar pronunciation, & theverbe, perfectly lernid: little other Grammer needith. My homogeneal[homogeneous] Dictionary, with daily reading & speaking will soonesupply the rest’ (H3r). His ‘homogeneal Dictionary’ is again referred toon the title-page of his copy of Perceval’s dictionary; and the title-pagesof Thorius and Perceval refer to each other. Harvey’s numbering andannotations suggest that he viewed these five volumes as a unit of lin-guistic instruction and that he understood the importance of the moral,polyglot Images of the Old Testament in a language curriculum.

Harvey’s marginalia also connect language learning to literature byproviding examples from, and alluding to, literary works. His copyof Grantham’s Italian textbook contains references to Terence (L2v),Castiglione (C6v), and to ‘No finer, or pithier Examples, then in theExcellent Comedies, and Tragedies following: full of sweet, and wiseDiscourse’.24 He inscribes the final page of The Spanish Grammer withreferences to texts such as ‘Lazarillo de Tormas [. . .] The brave IndianHistories, of Hernando Cortese [. . .] Diana of Monte Maggior: Boscan:Garcilace: & such other Legends of Chivalry, & Errant Knights’ (S4v).

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Joyce Boro 25

And on the leaves of Ortho-epia Gallica he names ‘brave Homer’ (G1r),‘brave Virgil’ (G3r), ‘Ariosto, & Tasso, two heroicall, & divine Wittes:most brave, & soverain Poets next Homer, & Virgil’ (G3v), and ‘Bartasalso an inspired & divine spirit [. . .] for the majesty of his heavenlymatter, & divine forme, a most-excellent, and singular Poet: the onlyChristian Homer to this day’ (G3v, H1r).

While literature played a central role in language instruction, thestudy of foreign languages was also inextricably linked to moralimprovement. This incorporation of morality into pedagogy is demon-strated by Harvey’s inclusion of Images of the Old Testament in hiseducational programme. Francesco Guicciardini’s Loci duo is printed inFrench, English, Latin, and Italian in parallel columns ‘for the wor-thinesse of the matter they containe’.25 In the paratextual material toMenosprecio de corte, Jean de Tournes objects to the current practiceof presenting frivolous, amorous texts to readers for language instruc-tion; instead, he offers Guevara’s work, which encourages virtuousbehaviour.26 Moral instruction is likewise emphasized in Whetstone’sThe Honourable Reputation of a Souldier, Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier,John Wodroephe’s French–English manual, and many others.27

Tournes attempts to separate literature from language instruction andmorality, but Harvey’s embracing of the two more accurately reflectscontemporaneous linguistic methodology. Ethics and literature do notrepresent two distinct strains in language programmes, but, rather, theyare firmly interwoven. In fact, language learning in tandem with thestudy of literature and moral philosophy is at the very core of the studiahumanitatis.28 Quintilian posited that an orator must be a master ofrhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy, and ‘It was essentiallythis Roman vision of the studia humanitatis that the English educa-tional theorists of the Renaissance sought to revive.’29 School lessonsimpressed themselves on young minds, forming generations of readersattuned to the connections between literature, morality, and rhetoric.As Jeff Dolven argues, schoolroom lessons are at the root of an insid-ious poetics of pedagogy that informs the writing of authors such asLyly, Sidney, Spenser, and Milton.30 Renaissance literature had a distinctethical dimension, which may be ascribed to its close relationship torhetoric. Poets, of course, were understood to be skilled orators whodepended upon rhetorical techniques to induce their audiences to fol-low a specific, desired course of action.31 As a result of their sharedgoals, manuals of poetics and rhetoric tend to cover the same material:figures and tropes, in addition to the deliberative, judicial, and demon-strative modes of composition.32 These ideas were not mere theoretical

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abstractions; students were taught to read and write according to thisethical and rhetorical dimension. Literary analysis accompanied theearliest grammar-school lessons as texts were dissected to reveal theirgrammatical, rhetorical, and ethical strengths. Students learned the artsof analysis, epitome, and disputation so that they could break downtexts into their component parts, extract the moral lesson, and replicatethe argument’s construction. In reading history, politics, philosophy,and literature, the dominant drive was the harvesting of raw materi-als out of which a probable case could be made. Texts were approached‘as containers of fragments that could be possessed by memorizationand transcription in a notebook’.33 Interest lay not only in the texts’linguistic, rhetorical, and moral building blocks, but also in the argu-mentative and moral cement that held them together. These textualpieces would then be reused, forming the fabric of the oration and thedeclamation, exercises at the pinnacle of humanist education. Whenintroducing a new work, teachers would summarize the argument ofthe text, indicate exemplary rhetoric and style, and then, as Erasmusexplains, they would ‘bring out the moral implication of the poets’ sto-ries, or employ them as patterns’.34 John Brinsley instructs that oncethe grammar lessons have been understood, ‘let them not continue inlearning of their rules ordrely all as they lie in their Syntax, but ratherlearne some prety boke, wherin is conteined not only th’eloquence ofthe tongue, but also a good plaine lesson of honesty and godlines, (Opietas literata!)’.35

So, if the dominant educational programme and reading methodol-ogy both emphasize moral instruction through linguistic and literarystudies, what does this reveal about the dominance of the sentimen-tal romance within vernacular-language pedagogy? Were these polyglottales of failed love storehouses of exemplary rhetoric and morality?In tackling this question, two important points must be explored. First,while the humanist curriculum had a definite moral slant, seductionand love were not absent from the schoolroom; amatory texts wereanalysed and emulated in Latin classes. Second, despite their frequentcondemnation and their indisputable entertainment value, romancesare educational, providing their readers with lessons in both rhetoricand virtuous behaviour.

Humanist pedagogues tried to avoid works that could morally cor-rupt their pupils, no matter how exemplary their style and grammar. Forquestionable works, Erasmus suggests that the instructor ‘should prepareor rather protect the minds of his audience with a suitable preface’.36 Awarning may have accompanied Ovid’s Heroides, for example, which,

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Joyce Boro 27

despite its subject matter, formed an integral part of the humanistcurriculum from the 1520s through to the seventeenth century. TheHeroides’s eloquent style, emotional intensity, and moral exempla madethem ideally suited for classroom use. ‘By the 1590s’, however, ‘Ovid hadbecome for many writers, readers, and playgoers a source of poetic andeven licentious delight rather than moral edification.’37 Writing in 1633,the moralizer William Prynne singles out the Heroides for specific con-demnation. He enumerates multiple earlier authorities who ‘expreslycondemned and prohibited Christians to pen, to print, to sell, to read, orSchoole-masters and others to teach any amorous wanton Play-bookes,Histories, or Heathen Authors, especially Ovids wanton Epistles andBookes of love’.38 Despite Prynne’s and his predecessors’ sentiment, gen-erations of boys would study the Heroides’s amatory letters of seduction,rejection, and betrayal, and then take on the voices of the lovesick orforsaken classical characters, imagining themselves in their situations,and writing fictional epistolary compositions of their own devising.Through this exercise of imitatio, students could learn techniques of sex-ual seduction alongside language skills. This power of the Heroides wasmost famously recognized by Lucentio in Shakespeare’s The Taming ofthe Shrew, when he woos Bianca by construing Ovid’s Latin in the firstscene of Act 3.

Ovid was not unique in this respect; in addition to the Heroides, manytexts simultaneously taught boys and young men the arts of love andthe liberal arts of grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic. For instance, in theschool lessons offered in his De conscribendis epistolis, Erasmus suggeststhat the boys write as ‘a suitor seeking a girl in marriage with cajol-ing letters’; as Helen, discouraging Paris in his pursuit of her; or, asNestor, encouraging Achilles to return to Briseis.39 Plays by Terence,while thought to be dangerous by many critics, formed part of thestandard curriculum.40 Students would meticulously study and emulateTerence’s style despite the fact that the plays depicted romantic talesof love and trickery wherein youth deceive their elders, seduce youngmaidens, and follow the call of beauty.41

The overlap between the instruction of language and seductionextends beyond the classroom to language-learning manuals. As men-tioned previously, many textbooks contain model dialogues on thefiner points of courtship. They instruct students in correct behaviourand speech, suggesting that while learning the language, pupils werealso expected to acquire the cultural competence necessary to woo alady. In Florio His firste Fruites, the lengthy section on ‘amorous talke’describes courtship strategies and recalls scenes from romances in which

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a lover asks his friend for advice. The final and longest dialogue inFlorios Second Frutes ‘is a kind of compendium of arguments on love andwomen, both for and against’ replete with ‘classical and mythologicalallusions, similes, metaphors, proverbs’, and rhetorical tropes, allow-ing the chapter to function as a ‘thesaurus for love poets’ and lovers.42

Berlemont’s colloquies teach their readers how to seduce a hostess atan inn in the different countries that they may visit. Berlemont altersthe terms of seduction in each language, thereby instructing his readersin culturally specific behaviour as well as in language. Even Erasmus’sColloquia includes dialogues between a lover and a maiden and a youngman and a harlot in addition to dialogues in which a gentleman per-suades an aspiring nun to marry and in which correct marital behaviouris discussed.43

Romances participate in this tradition of amorous instruction, butthey teach more than love lessons. Romances of all types focus on youngmen engaged in processes of maturation. Through the successful com-pletion of their quests the heroes become productive, valued membersof their society with families and secure lands. Building on the forma-tive work of Louis Wright, who posited romances as conduct books forambitious young men, Goran Stanivukovic argues that ‘romances [. . .]imagine young men’s lives as a series of cultural and personal rites ofpassage’.44 They ‘construct narratives both of the formation of youngmen’s lives maturing to husbands and masters of the household, andrecommended models for the rhetorical strategies and actions that leadto the formation of patriarchy’.45 According to scholars such as RichardHelgerson and Kenneth Charlton, romances provided young men withsuccessful, masculine life strategies.46 Helen Cooper identifies one of themost common topoi of the romance as the young man leaving his homeor community to achieve a personal quest. This structure has importantsocial, political, and instructive dimensions: through their adventures,romance heroes learn to rule themselves; they therefore prove them-selves worthy of returning to positions of leadership and power withintheir communities.47 Moreover, ‘Despite the uniqueness of the herowithin each romance, the kind of learning process that [they] undergois designed to be exemplary so far as the reader is concerned, to offera model of how to act and how not to act.’48 By providing readerswith positive models of masculinity, the romances assist male youth intheir development.49 As Dolven posits, ‘they are narratives of educationin a polemically extracurricular sense of the word [. . . In] an age thatdefended poetry for its instructive power [, romances . . .] were obligedto teach’.50 Further, attacks on romances take issue precisely with their

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imitative quality, thereby simultaneously recognizing and condemningthe pedagogical capabilities of romance.51

Lorna Hutson demonstrates that romances served as exemplary mod-els and manuals of rhetorical probability for their male readers.52 Herwork differentiates between chivalric and humanist romances, the for-mer typified by medieval compositions such as Morte Darthur or Guyof Warwick and the latter by the sentimental romances and other newworks by authors such as Lyly, Greene, and Sidney. In contradistinctionto chivalric romances, the humanist romances ascribe value to qualitiesof mental readiness rather than knightly prowess. In these romances,physical strength reflects the heroes’ strength of mind. It indicates theheroes’ ability to read situations for instances of dialectical probabil-ity and then to transform such examples into persuasive arguments andpractical achievements. As the markers of success moved from battlefieldto text, authors and their heroes are valued for the ‘virtuoso deploy-ments of their skill in probable argument’, as they rhetorically win overunwilling ladies and other resistant forces.53 Skill in courtship is indica-tive of the heroes’ learning, intelligence, and value to the common weal,since their ability to persuade a woman is evidence of their capability offinding probability in any situation and of convincing anyone to followtheir desired course of action: ‘Heroic masculinity, in these narratives,finds its image in the extent to which all contingency, all circumstance,has its own potential as an emotionally persuasive agent for or againsta particular case.’54 In these humanist romances, the errant knight isreplaced by the prudent captain as the model of heroism that is pre-sented to the reader for emulation. Within this framework, romancesare valued for their exemplary depictions of heroic behaviour and forthe rhetorical displays that they offered to their readers. Of particularusefulness were texts that allotted significant discursive space to persua-sion of all kinds – to debates, epistles, and pleading harangues – thatis, in texts that sought to persuade and that demonstrated how proba-bility could be found and success attained in even the most seeminglydesperate situations.

These particular emphases explain the popularity of the sentimen-tal romances Grisel y Mirabella, Cárcel de Amor, and Arnalte y Lucendathroughout early modern Europe. As the remainder of this chapter willdemonstrate, the vogue of the sentimental romance and their widelyrecognized rhetorical value made them appropriate for language instruc-tion and can help explain why they appeared in so many polygloteditions. The sentimental romance is a sub-genre of the medievalSpanish romance, generally distinguished by its focus on emotion,

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rather than action, and its interest in rhetoric, epistolarity, and debate.These romances are structured according to discrete discursive units alluttered in the first person. Diverse modes of rhetorical expression, suchas monologues, letters, laments, challenges, and replies, are combined asthe characters debate issues and attempt to persuade each other to adoptspecific actions or sentiments. Combat is rare, and when it does occur,it is dealt with summarily. The heroes face a different type of challengeto the knights of the chivalric romance. While they are all trying to winthe love of their ladies, in the sentimental romance the amorous con-quest is rhetorical in nature, and its success or failure is dependent onthe heroes’ verbal dexterity. The errant knight becomes a talking knight,prefiguring the Renaissance humanists and courtiers who would avidlyread these texts, label their rhetorical devices in the margins, underlinewitty sentences and eloquent tropes, and borrow extended passages.

Readers are geared towards an appreciation of the formal rhetoricalqualities of Lord Berners’s English translation of Cárcel de Amor (Castellof Love), for instance, through printed marginalia that focus on theletters. The printed glosses in its second and third editions (1552?, c.1555) indicate the parts of the epistolary orations in the same man-ner adopted in instructional treatises, such as Erasmus’s De conscribendisepistolis (1521). The attention to the rhetorical features of the lettershighlights their adherence to the structural rules of the epistolary art.The printed marginal note, ‘Note the wrytyng of leters,’ draws read-ers’ attention to the letter exchange, thus further highlighting the text’sepistolary preoccupation.55 Moreover, a salutation is affixed to the startof the Prologue, thereby enabling it to function as another model epis-tle.56 These formal features are reinforced by an added poem, whichcontrasts and compares epistolary composition with the joys and painsof love. By marking such instances of exemplary rhetoric, the pedagog-ical value of Castell of Love (Cárcel de amor) is highlighted. Moreover,the letters’ sophisticated style renders them suitable for appropriationby later writers. In his mid-sixteenth-century Floresta española, Melchorde Santa Cruz describes how in an historically documented courtship,a letter from Cárcel de amor was copied and sent by an early sixteenth-century Spanish lover to his lady. The beloved recognized the letter’ssource and refused to accept it, stating ‘Esta carta no viene a mi, sinoa Laureola’ (‘This letter is not addressed to me, but to Laureola’).57

While the lover met with as little success as his ghostwriter, the inci-dent demonstrates the value ascribed to the rhetorical creations andthe tendency of readers to recognize and extract instances of stylisticexemplarity.

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Joyce Boro 31

Similarly, as a testament to their quality, the great humanist Guevaraborrows some of the letters from Arnalte y Lucenda for four of MarcusAurelius’s letters in Libro aureo de Marco Aurelio.58 Not only did Guevaradeem the letters to be worthy of his own prose style, but also he val-ued them sufficiently to attribute them to the excellent ‘emperor andeloquent orator’.59 Furthermore, the letters appear in the second sectionof his work, which furnishes the reader with model letters – letters thatreaders would, in turn, emulate. Arnalte y Lucenda’s eloquent style alsoappealed to John Clerk, its first English translator, who urges readersto ‘regard and consider the witty devise of the thing, the manner ofthe locutions, the wise sentences, and the subtle and discrete answersmade on both parties’. These are, in his ‘poor opinion[,] worthy tobe noted’.60 Attuned to the romance’s stylistic sensibilities, Clerk usesthe forum of the prefatory material to advocate a typically humanistreading methodology in which readers are encouraged to partition thetext, extracting and appropriating useful elements in order to gain mas-tery over their reading material, increased eloquence, and magnifiedrhetorical prowess.

Readers of all languages appreciated the sentimental romances’ for-mal features and their ability to impart kernels of wisdom, as is attestedby the tendency to mark aphorisms and proverbial, witty, or eloquentphrases. Marginalia reveal their interests in specific topics. For instance,a reader of the 1560 French–English Grisel identifies pithy statementsabout virtue (E3r, E4r), women (A2r, A3r, B4r), and patience (E3r, F6r).61

In a 1543 copy of the Italian Grisel, a reader has marked salient passages(A6r, B2r), annotated the text with his own sententiae (A8v, B1r), anddivided orations according to the thematic progression of the argument(A4v–A7v).62

In addition to their rhetorical exemplarity, the sentimentalromances – Grisel, Arnalte, and Cárcel – were well suited to languagepedagogy due to their thematic and ideological contents. As previouslymentioned, language instruction was equally concerned with the sub-ject matter of the texts and students were trained to extract lessonsfrom their exemplars. Grisel acknowledges as it subverts this practiceof epitome, rendering impossible the extraction of a clear moral. Theromance is formally rooted in the schoolroom, which is not surprisingconsidering that its author, Juan de Flores, was the Rector of the Uni-versity of Salamanca.63 In addition to its rhetorical value and copioussententiae, Grisel’s structure, paratextual arrangement, and interpretativeframework are heavily influenced by the academic debate. The romanceis structured as a sequence of disputations that encourage its readers to

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rethink preconceived notions about love, gender, and good governance,and to view conflicting ideas from multiple perspectives simultaneously.Grisel and his rival debate who loves Mirabella more; the eponymouslovers debate who loves whom more; Torellas and Bracayda debate theworth of women, the value of mercy and forgiveness, and the respon-sibility of men and women in love affairs; the king and queen debatethe justness of Mirabella’s sentence; and the text as a whole is a debateover which sex is most to blame in amorous enterprises. Grisel repre-sents an important intervention into the Spanish formal controversyabout women, but, intriguingly, it can be situated on either side of thedebate.64 It ridicules the anti-feminist position and attacks the notorioushistorical misogynist Pere Torrellas (fl. 1438–76); however, paratextualand textual markers present women as vicious and potentially sanctionmisogyny. None of the debates is resolved, nor are they resolvable: thetext is a sophisticated embodiment of the practice of argumentation inutramque partem.

In addition to being a repository of exemplary rhetoric, Cárcel de amoris also a treatise on the politics of counsel and good kingship. Theconsequences of accepting bad counsel are explored in the romance asLaureola is unjustly imprisoned because her father, the king, heeds theunsound advice of malicious advisers. His subjects must devise a wayto inform their tyrannical ruler that he is behaving unjustly and steerhim back to virtue. Cárcel de amor engages with issues of political leader-ship: how to give and recognize good counsel, what is tyranny, and howleaders can take responsibility for errors in judgement and still preservetheir honour. In this text, ideas of good leadership are advanced: coun-sel is advocated; tyranny is condemned; rulers are encouraged to placethe benefit of the common weal above their own personal interest; andadvisers who speak fearlessly and temperately in the face of tyranny arevalorized. As such, Cárcel de amor functions as a speculum principis and,like other texts of this advisory genre, as a behavioural manual moregenerally. Monarchs and their subjects are taught the values of justice,mercy, honesty, and discernment, while they learn the rhetorical meansnecessary to persuade others to embrace those virtues.

The careful handling of the political and rhetorical subject matterin Cárcel de amor emphasizes the author’s mastery of the complexi-ties of these twinned arts, thereby alerting prospective patrons to hissuitability for political advancement and providing his readers withan important skill worthy of emulation. As various characters try toreform the king, the importance of counsel and range of benefits to begained through counsel are highlighted. From the queen’s heartbreaking

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Joyce Boro 33

planctus through the heroine’s reasoned persuasions to the cardinal’slengthy oration, counsel is urged over and again.65 The king’s even-tual adoption of wise counsel, which enables his final recuperation,highlights the effectiveness of their discourse and hence the author’sadvisory capabilities. Moreover, the skill with which San Pedro uncon-ditionally reintegrates the king as the rightful leader of a just societyfurther demonstrates his nuanced understanding of the politics ofcounsel and kingship and his worthiness of courtly advancement.

While Grisel y Mirabella’s concerns are predominantly social and Cárcelde amor’s are largely political, Arnalte y Lucenda focuses on the personal.The romance is a negative exemplum for lovers, teaching readers whatnot to do. Arnalte is a parody of a courtly lover: he compromises hislady’s honour repeatedly, accosts her in church, disguises himself as awoman to intrude upon her privacy, neglects to respect her feelings,confesses his love to others, and finally kills her husband in a judi-cial duel. Through his continued disdain for Lucenda’s feelings and herhonour, Arnalte sets himself up for tragedy. His sad end is precipitatedby the revelation of his love to his false friend, who betrays Arnalte bywooing and marrying Lucenda. Refusing to accept his loss, Arnalte con-tinues to behave dishonourably and disrespectfully, legally accusing hisfriend of duplicity and publicly expounding his love for Lucenda. Ratherthan remedy the situation, Arnalte succeeds in killing his friend andincurring the wrath of the deceased’s family; securing his own banish-ment; leaving his sister alone and unprotected; and thoroughly shamingLucenda so that her only option is to forsake society altogether and entera convent. Through Arnalte’s and his false friend’s reprehensible com-portment, the romance supplies powerful lessons in amorous behaviour,friendship, loyalty, and honour. Accordingly, Arnalte y Lucenda can func-tion didactically as a rhetorical and a behavioural manual; it is a useful,instructional text for readers who want to improve their linguistic,argumentative, social, and interpersonal skills.

Far from vain trifles and mere sources of pleasure, then, the senti-mental romances are also important depositories of rhetorical and moralexemplarity. In addition to narrating captivating stories, they are fountsof copious sententiae, aphorisms, witty sayings, deliberative and per-suasive structures, and instances of stylistic prowess that readers couldnote in the margins, study, transcribe into their commonplace books,or integrate into their own compositions and speech. They offer lessonsin maturation, love, friendship, honour, politics, and virtue. In short,because they couple didacticism and entertainment they can help fash-ion eloquent, noble, and moral individuals. This combination of fiction,

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rhetoric, and morality makes the romances especially appropriate forlinguistic instruction and explains why they played such a significantrole in vernacular pedagogy. Latin instruction merged lessons in styleand content, and the modern language curriculum followed suit. More-over, both Latin and vernacular pedagogy exhibit a tendency to embracethe literary in their educational programmes. From the study of dia-logues and fictional exemplars to more advanced exercises in translatioand inventio, literature held a prominent place in the classroom. Whenit came to studying vernacular languages, the formalized educationalinstitution was replaced by a more idiosyncratic textual forum, butthe literary impetus remained alongside the dual focus of rhetoric andmorality. Language manuals replaced teachers, vernacular dialoguesreplaced the Latin colloquies, and morally and rhetorically instructivepolyglot literature replaced the classical exemplars. So, to answer thetitular question, there are so many sentimental romances in polyglotformat because they satisfy an important pedagogical need. They incor-porate moral and rhetorical didacticism into a fully developed literarysetting; this is how vernacular-language students previously trained inthe humanist grammar schools would have expected to receive theireducation. Readers turned to polyglot romances to satisfy professional,personal, and intellectual needs. They sought eloquence, rhetoricalskills, a mastery of dialectical probability, models of professional andamorous success, and of course, multilingualism. The polyglot romancesfulfilled all these pedagogical functions. In the mould of humanist Latinpedagogy, they furnished readers with models of exemplary languageand virtuous comportment that could be adapted to their own lives andtexts. They provided their audiences with the range of linguistic, cul-tural, social, and intellectual qualities and competencies necessary tosucceed in both the private and the public spheres. Of course, manyother texts in many other genres could have served the same func-tion; the sentimental romances were obviously not the only works incirculation that could boast stylistic and moral exemplarity. But in aprofit-driven market, the wide-scale, established European popularity ofthe sentimental romances would have made their repeated publicationappear to be a sound economic venture. Reading publics from variousnations already existed for these works and the more languages includedin each edition, the more readers could be targeted. Their short lengthwas likely also a factor – a sentimental romance printed in four lan-guages would still result in an affordable, relatively compact quarto.In addition to these larger cultural and economic factors, the publica-tion of each one of these 49 polyglot editions and the purchase of each

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Joyce Boro 35

of the thousands of copies is situated at the nexus of a series of highlyindividualized decisions and circumstances specific to each individualreader that would be fascinating to discover.

Notes

1. While the Spanish titles of the romances are used throughout this chapter,the discussion encompasses the various translations and adaptations of theromances. For details of these editions see Diego de San Pedro’s ‘Cárcel de amor’:A Critical Edition, ed. I. Corfis (London, 1987), 16–47; D. de San Pedro, Petittraité de Arnalte et Lucenda (1546), ed. V. Duché-Gavet (Paris, 2004), xxxiii–xl;J. Boro, ‘A Source and Date for the Fragment of Grisel y Mirabella Found inthe Binding of Emmanuel College 338.5.43’, Transactions of the CambridgeBibliographical Society, 12 (2003), 422–36.

2. D. Wakelin, ‘Possibilities for Reading: Classical Translations in Parallel Textsca. 1520–1558’, Studies in Philology, 105 (2008), 463–86 (479).

3. On the condemnation of romance, see J. Boro, ‘All for Love: Lord Berners andthe Enduring, Evolving Romance’, The Oxford Handbook to Tudor Literature,1485–1603, ed. M. Pincombe and C. Shrank (Oxford, 2009), 87–102.

4. K. Charlton, Education in Renaissance England (London, 1965), ch. 8;R. Simonini, Italian Scholarship in Renaissance England (Chapel Hill, 1952),12; J. Lawrence, ‘Who the Devil Taught Thee So Much Italian?’: Italian LanguageLearning and Literary Imitation in Early Modern England (Manchester, 2005),1–61.

5. C. Hollyband, The Frenche Schoolemaister (London, 1573); id., The ItalianSchoole-maister (London, 1597); W. Stepney, The Spanish Schoole-master(London, 1591).

6. W. Boutcher, ‘ “Who taught thee Rhetoricke to deceive a maid?”: ChristopherMarlowe’s Hero and Leander, Juan Boscán’s Leandro, and Renaissance Vernac-ular Humanism’, Comparative Literature, 52 (2000), 11–52 (15).

7. On vernacular humanism, see Boutcher, ‘ “Who taught thee Rhetoricke?” ’;id., ‘Vernacular Humanism in the Sixteenth Century’, The Cambridge Com-panion to Renaissance Humanism, ed. J. Kraye (Cambridge, 1996), 189–202.

8. Simonini, 12.9. R. Holinshed, Chronicles (London, 1587), 196, cols 1–2.

10. J. Florio, Florio His firste Fruites (London, 1578), 51r−v. He then continues tolament their poor command of the languages in question.

11. HEHL, 51724.12. Lawrence, 10–19.13. There are many language manuals, often in seven or eight languages,

based on Berlemont’s Flemish–French colloquies and dictionary. See,for instance, Colloquia et dictionariolum septem linguarum, Belgigicae [sic],Anglicae, Teutonicae; Latinae, Italicae, Hispanicae, Gallicae (Liège, 1589); N. deBerlemont, Colloques ou dialogues avec un dictionaire en six langues: Flamen,Anglois, Alleman, François, Espaignol, & Italien (Antwerp, 1576); G. Du Wés,An introductorie for to lerne to rede, to pronounce, and to speake Frenche (London,[1533?]); J. Wodroephe, The spared houres of a souldier in his travels (Dordrecht,1623).

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14. Simonini, 81; Liber Donati: A Fifteenth-Century Manual of French, ed.B. Merrilees and B. Sitarz-Fitzpatrick (London, 1993), 3; The Vulgaria of JohnStanbridge and the Vulgaria of Robert Whittinton, ed. B. White (London, 1932),xviii.

15. Lawrence, 126.16. See C. Hollyband, Campo di fior (London, 1583).17. Florio, F2v, F3r, Q1v.18. A Spanish grammar, first collected and published by Richard Perciuale Gent.

(London, 1599), title-page.19. Lawrence, 21–54.20. G. Whetstone, The Honourable Reputation of a Souldier (Leiden, 1586);

A. Guevara, Menosprecio de corte (Geneva, 1605); Marcus Tullius Ciceroes threebookes of duties to Marcus his sonne, tr. N. Grimald (London, 1596); JuliusCesars commentaryes (London, 1530); Boethius, De consolatione philosophiae,tr. G. Colvile (London, 1556); The first comedy of Pub. Terentius, called Andria,tr. J. Webbe (London, 1629).

21. Whetstone, B1r; see also A4r.22. P. Du Ploiche, A Treatise in Englishe and Frenche (London, 1578), A2r.23. C. B. Bourland, ‘Gabriel Harvey and the Modern Languages’, Huntington

Library Quarterly, 4 (1940), 85–106 (85).24. H. Grantham, La grammatica di M. Scipio Lentulo (London, 1587), HEHL

62184, L2v.25. F. Guicciardini, Loci duo (London, 1595), title-page.26. Guevara, 2v, 3r.27. See, for example, Whetstone, A4r; B. Castiglione, Book of the Courtier, tr.

T. Hoby (London, 1588), 2r–3v; Wodroephe, 2D5r.28. H. H. Gray, ‘Renaissance Humanism: The Pursuit of Eloquence’, Journal of

the History of Ideas, 24 (1963), 497–514; Q. Skinner, Reason and Rhetoric in thePhilosophy of Hobbes (Cambridge, 1996), 1–26, esp. 21–3.

29. Skinner, 22. On the moral aspect of medieval Latin education see P. Gehl,‘Preachers, Teachers, and Translators: The Social Meaning of Language Studyin Trecento Tuscany’, Viator, 25 (1994), 289–324 (289); R. Copeland, Rhetoric,Hermeneutics and Translation in the Middle Ages: Academic Traditions andVernacular Texts (Cambridge, 1991).

30. J. Dolven, Scenes of Instruction in Renaissance Romance (Chicago, 2007).31. Sidney’s influential Apology for Poetry (1595), for example, argues that

poetry’s virtue is its ability to move readers to action.32. See B. Vickers, ‘Introduction’, English Renaissance Literary Criticism, ed.

Vickers (Oxford, 1999), 1–55.33. M. Crane, Framing Authority: Sayings, Self, and Society in Sixteenth-Century

England (Princeton, 1993), 86; cf. A. Grafton and L. Jardine, From Humanismto the Humanities: Education and the Liberal Arts in Fifteenth- and Sixteenth-Century Europe (London, 1986).

34. D. Erasmus, De ratione studii, tr. B. McGregor, Collected Works of Erasmus,24 (Toronto, 1978), 683.

35. Stanbridge and Whittinton, xl.36. Erasmus, De ratione studii, 683.37. J. Bate, Shakespeare and Ovid (Oxford, 1993), 32.38. W. Prynne, Histrio-Mastix (London, 1633), 916.

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Joyce Boro 37

39. D. Erasmus, De conscribendis epistolis, tr. J. Sowards, Collected Works ofErasmus, 25 (Toronto, 1985), 24.

40. See, for example, R. Ascham, The Scholemaster (London, 1570), R2v–S2v;Prynne, 916; J. Stockwood, A Sermon Preached at Paules Crosse on BarthelmewDay, Being the 24 of August 1578 (London, 1578), I8r.

41. Boutcher, ‘ “Who taught thee Rhetoricke?” ’, exploring the link betweenthe instruction of rhetoric and the practice of seduction, situates works byChristopher Marlowe, Juan Boscán, Ovid, Musaeus, and Abraham Fraunce atthis pedagogical/amatory nexus.

42. Simonini, 95.43. The Colloquies of Erasmus, tr. C. Thompson (Chicago, 1965), 244–55, 368–80,

277–301, 302–5.44. G. Stanivukovic, ‘English Renaissance Romances as Conduct Books for Young

Men’, Early Modern Prose Fiction: The Cultural Politics of Reading, ed. N. C.Liebler (London, 2007), 60–78 (67). See also L. B. Wright, ‘Translations forthe Elizabethan Middle Class’, The Library, 13 (1933), 312–26.

45. Stanivukovic, 63.46. R. Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood: The Elizabethan Writing of England

(Chicago, 1992); K. Charlton, ‘ “False Fonde Bookes, Ballades and Rimes”:An Aspect of Informal Education in Early Modern England’, History ofEducation Quarterly, 27 (1987), 449–71 (449).

47. H. Cooper, The English Romance in Time: Transforming Motifs from Geoffrey ofMonmouth to the Death of Shakespeare (Oxford, 2004), 55–7.

48. Ibid., 52.49. L. Hutson, The Usurer’s Daughter: Male Friendship and Fictions of Women in

Sixteenth-Century England (London, 1994), 88.50. Dolven, 9.51. See Boro, ‘All for Love’, 87–102.52. See Hutson, Usurer’s Daughter, 91–114; id., ‘Fortunate Travelers: Reading for

the Plot in Sixteenth Century England’, Representations, 41 (1993), 83–103.53. Hutson, Usurer’s Daughter, 99.54. Ibid.55. D. de San Pedro, The Castell of Love: A Critical Edition of Lord Berners’s Romance,

tr. J. Bourchier, Lord Berners, ed. J. Boro (Tempe, 2007), 108.56. Ibid., 91.57. B. Weissberger, ‘Resisting Readers and Writers in the Sentimental Romances

and the Problem of Female Literacy’, Studies on the Spanish SentimentalRomance 1440–1550, ed. J. Gwara and E. Gerli (London, 1997), 173–90(176–7).

58. A. Redondo, ‘Antonio de Guevara y Diego de San Pedro: Las cartas de amoresdel Marco Aurelio’, Bulletin hispanique, 78 (1976), 226–39.

59. A. Guevara, The golden boke of Marcus Aurelius Emperour and eloquent oratour,tr. J. Bourchier, Lord Berners (London, 1535), title-page.

60. D. de San Pedro, A certayn treatye moste wyttely deuysed orygynally wrytten in thespaynysshe, lately traducted in to frenche entytled, Lamant mal traicte de samye,tr. J. Clerk (London, [1543?]), A1r.

61. BL, 1459.a.55.62. Milan, Biblioteca Trivulziana, Triv. M. 1293. Other prominent, although

far from the only, examples of such reading practices are visible in the

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1552 French–Spanish Cárcel de amor at the University of Toronto (ThomasFisher Rare Books, smb); the quadrilingual Grisel y Mirabella from 1556 atthe Newberry Library, Chicago (Case Y 1565.F642); the Folger ShakespeareLibrary, Washington, DC copies of the 1521 and 1525 Italian Cárcel de amor(PQ6390F67 1521 Cage and PQ6431S4C3I8 1525 Cage), their Italian–Frenchcopy of Grisel y Mirabella from 1574 (PQ6390F67 1574 Cage), their 1555French–Italian Arnalte y Lucenda (160–504q), and their Italian–English copiesof Arnalte y Lucenda from 1597 and 1608 (STC 6759 Copy 1, STC 6759 Copy3, STC 6760).

63. Cf. P. Cátedra, Amor y pedagogía en la edad media (Salamanca, 1989), 157–9.64. While Barbara Matulka began the trend of labelling Grisel as feminist,

more recent scholars such as Marina Brownlee and Lillian von der WaldeMoheno have attended to the ambiguous nuances of the romance, observingthat it simultaneously advances opposing positions regarding women. SeeB. Matulka, The Novels of Juan de Flores and their European Diffusion (New York,1931), 3–45, 88–159; M. Brownlee, ‘Language and Incest in Grisel y Mirabella’,Romanic Review, 79 (1988), 107–28; L. von der Walde Moheno, ‘El episodiofinal de Grisel y Mirabella’, La Corónica, 20 (1991–92), 18–31.

65. J. Bourchier, Lord Berners, tr., Castell of Love, 125, 149, 141, 134–6.

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Index

Adams, Robert 44–5Adams, Thomas 182Addison, Joseph 192Aeschines 110Aeschylus 82Agapetos, The preceptes teachyng a

prynce (Paynell’s translation) 46Aggas, Edward 133, 135Aldine press 84, 108Allott, Robert, Englands Parnassus 14,

176, 182, 190–1Amadis de Gaule, importance for

humanist instruction 44–5, 50see also Thresor des douze livres

d’Amadis de GauleAmbrose, St 40Amyot, Jacques 83–4annotation see marginalia,

manuscript; marginalia, printedantiquity

and context of Watson’s Polybius102–3, 115–16

in Du Bartas’s Les Semaines 180see also classical translations; Greek

sources; Latin; Latin sourcesAntwerp 22, 86, 89, 147–8aphorisms, in sentimental romances

31, 33Argentine, Richard, translations of

Ochino’s sermons 124, 125, 126Ariosto, Lodovico 143, 168

Orlando furioso 185, 189Harington’s translation of Orlando

furioso 162, 162–3, 191Aristotle 49, 60–1, 67, 104, 106Ascham, Roger, The Scholemaster 4–5,

108Ashton, Harry 183astronomy texts, Latin translations

from Greek 80Asulanus, Franciscus 108

Athanasius of Alexandria, St, Latinversion by Nannius 86–7, 88, 94

Augustine, St 40, 84–5, 114, 153

Bacon, Sir Anthony 177, 181Bacon, Francis, The Advancement of

Learning 50Bacon, Nicholas 111, 126Badius Ascensius, Jodocus (Josse Bade)

61–2Bagnaia, Joannes Marius 89Baldwin, William 124, 125Bale, John 42, 61, 110, 115, 154

Scriptorum illustrium maiorisbrytanniae catalogus 87–8, 89,95

Barret, Robert, translation of LesSemaines 176–7, 177

Bartas, Guillaume de Salluste Du seeDu Bartas, Guillaume de Salluste

Basle 85–6, 127Baxter, Richard 182behavioural manuals see moral

instructionBell, Charles G. 164, 165Bellay, Joachim du see Du Bellay,

JoachimBelmaine, Jean 131Benese, Richard 42Benhaïm, Véronique 45Berlemont, Nöel de, Colloques ou

dialogues 21, 28Bern 90Bernard of Clairvaux, St 40, 51Berners, John Bourchier, 2nd Baron,

Castell of Love (translation of SanPedro’s Cárcel de Amor) 30

Berthelet, Thomas 50–1, 54, 68, 70Bertie, Katherine, Duchess of Suffolk

128Berwick 111Bessarion, Cardinal John 82

218

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Index 219

Bible 6Cope’s commentaries 62–3Coverdale’s translation 145Geneva 130importance of Scripture to

Protestant theology 127–8,131

meanings of ‘profitable’ 53Paynell’s scriptural translations and

compendia 40, 46–7, 52–3Tyndale’s New Testament 2see also Psalms

bilingual editionslanguage textbooks 21, 23, 45sentimental romances 18

Binns, J. W. 79Birckmann press 89, 89–90Boethius 23Boiardo, Matteo Maria, Orlando

innamorato (Tofte’s translation)162

Boro, Joyce 6, 9Bourchier, John see Berners, John

Bourchier, 2nd BaronBoutcher, Warren 5, 6, 7, 7–8, 11–12,

72Braden, Gordon 5, 13–14Brinsley, John 26Browne, Edward, Sacred Poems 181Browne, William, Britannias Pastorals

184Bruce, Donald 145Bucer, Martin 89, 137Buchanan, George 146Burghley, Baron see Cecil, WilliamBurnett, Archie 190Bynneman, Henry (printer and

bookseller) 148

Caesar, Julius 23Caius, John 87Calvin, Jean 7, 149

Elizabeth’s translations of Institutes12, 122, 123, 127, 128, 131–3

Locke’s translation of sermons onHezekiah 12, 122, 128–31

other translations of 130edition of sermons dedicated to

Elizabeth 129–30

Institutes banned under Henry VIII126, 131

Calvinism 125, 126, 147Cambridge, University of

St John’s College 104, 106, 113,115, 116

Trinity College 80, 81, 88, 95Spenser and Harvey 144, 146

Cambridge Companion to EnglishLiterature, 1500–1600 (2000) 2–3

Camden, William 145Camerarius, Joachim 90Camões, Luís de 162, 189Car, Roger (printer) 125Carew, Richard 163Carr, Nicholas 85, 89Castiglione, Baldesar 24

Book of the Courtier 2, 10, 25Catholic writers

Christopherson and reception of histranslations 80, 95

translated by women 122Catholicism

controversial works written on theContinent 6–7

Cope’s Livy and Henry VIII’sstruggle against 71–2, 73

English exiles in Low Countries 81Caxton, William 2, 161Cecil, William, 1st Baron Burghley

111, 112, 126Cervini, Cardinal 84Chaloner, Thomas 87Chapman, George, translations of

Homer 161–2, 167Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor 69,

71–2, 73, 86–7Charlton, Kenneth 28Cheke, Sir John 89, 91, 113, 123, 131

translation of St John Chrysostom 80Latin translations 81praised in Humphrey’s Interpretatio

linguarum 86Chichele, Henry 105, 106, 110, 116Chichester 88, 89chivalric romances

and humanist romances 9, 29–30,44–5

see also Amadis de Gaule

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220 Index

Christopherson, JohnLatin translation of Eusebius

10–11, 80, 83, 85, 88–95Latin translation of Plutarch 84Latin translations of Philo Judaeus

10–11, 11, 80, 81–5, 86, 88, 90,95

death and posthumous publicationof works 88–95

on duty of the translator 83and Laurence Humphrey 85, 86,

87mixed reception of his work 80,

85, 87–8, 89, 92–3, 95Chrysostom, John, St 80, 81Cicero, Marcus Tullius 5, 23, 110classical translations

impact of first printed editions 79,82, 94–5

Latin translations from Greek 5, 6,10–11

relation with humanism 6, 60–1,72–3, 101

in Tudor culture 8, 62, 102, 111see also Greek sources; Latin

Clement, John 81Clerk, John 31Clinton, Elizabeth Fiennes de,

Countess of Lincoln 92Collinson, Patrick 126, 133–4Cologne 89, 90conduct see moral instructionContarini, Pietro 84continental Europe

Cope’s travels 61–2cultural exchanges with 11, 15, 72,

80, 143–4editions of classics 101, 102Protestant texts translated by

women 12, 122, 136reading public of Spanish

sentimental romances 18religious writers in exile 6–7, 11,

12, 81, 130Cooke, Anne

translations of Ochino’s sermons12, 122, 123–7

Protestant ideology 139Cooke, Sir Anthony 136

Cooke, Elizabeth see Russell, ElizabethCooper, Helen 28Cope, Sir Anthony

The historie of Anniball and Scipio(translation of Livy) 10,58–60, 62, 63, 63–4, 64–73

biographical events and royalpatronage 61–3

humanist credentials and‘pragmatic’ humanism 61, 62,73

translation of Livy and Harvey’sannotations 10, 58–60, 59, 63,64–9, 72–3

Cotier, Gabriel 45Cotton, Robert 116Cottonian Manuscripts 113, 113–14Coverdale, Miles 125, 145Cranmer, Thomas, Archbishop of

Canterbury 123, 128, 132Homilies 126–7

Crashaw, Richard 162Cromwell, Thomas 62cultural exchange

influence of London’s polyglotculture on Spenser 13, 143,144–6, 155

and learning on the Continent 11,72–3, 80, 143–4

role of translations 7–8, 11, 15cultural nationalism 102

Watson 116Cummings, Brian 40, 41, 47Cummings, Robert 5, 13, 14, 162Cyril of Alexandria, St, Humphrey’s

Latin translation 85

Damman, Sir Hadrian, translation ofDu Bartas 177

Dante Alighieri 167–8Dares Phrygius 40Davies, John (of Hereford) 191Day, John (publisher) 124, 125–6,

129, 149De Mornay, Philippe see Mornay,

Philippe dededications

accompanying Elizabeth’stranslation of Ochino 128

PROOF


Index 221

accompanying texts ofhumanist translation 41,43, 45–6, 49

Christopherson’s political strategies81–3, 95

Cope’s letter to Henry VIII inThe historie of Anniball and Scipio68–72

dedicatory address to Cope byBadius 61–2

in Anne Locke’s works 125, 126,128–9, 134

Nannius’s letter in translation ofAthanasius 86–7

to royal patrons 63, 68, 72Watson’s address in his Polybius

114see also prefaces/proems

Demosthenes 50, 110Devereux, Robert, 2nd Earl of Essex

181dialogues

in Renaissance language textbooks21–2

in study of vernacular languages34

Dickinson, Emily 184–5didacticism see moral instruction;

moral philosophydiplomacy, learning of modern

languages 20discourses see treatisesdisputation 26

in structure of Grisel y Mirabella31–2

Doelman, James 181Dolven, Jeff 25, 28Domenichi, Ludovico 102Donne, John 183–4, 188Dorat, Jean 82Dousa, Janus (Johan van der Does)

145Doyle, A. I. 114Drant, Thomas 145Drayton, Michael 182Drummond of Hawthornden, William

176, 178, 182Dryden, John 163, 166, 175

Du Bartas, Guillaume de Sallustetranslation of La Judit by Hudson

177, 178, 191translation of Les Semaines by Barret

176–7, 177translation of Les Semaines by James

VI 176, 177translation of Les Semaines by Lisle

176–7, 177, 177–8, 180, 183,187–8, 191

translation of Les Semaines by Lodge181

translation of Les Semaines by Scott177

translation of Les Semaines bySylvester 14, 175–90, 191,192

translation of Les Semaines byWinter 177

Latin translation of Les Semaines byDamman 177

in Allott’s Englands Parnassus190–1

composition and publication of LesSemaines 176

‘detachable beauties’ of LesSemaines 175, 176, 180,182, 185

reception in France and England175, 176

story and style of Les Semaines178–89

Du Bellay, JoachimSpenser’s translations from

13, 143, 144, 146,150–4, 155

influence on Mulcaster’s Elementarie146

Du Mans, Jacques Pelletier 187Du Perron, Cardinal 175, 180, 186Du Ploiche, Pierre, A Treatise in

Englishe and Frenche 20, 24Du Wés, Giles 21Dudley, Ambrose see Warwick, Earl ofDudley, Anne see Warwick,

Countess ofDudley, Robert see Leicester, Earl ofDunster, Charles 183

PROOF


222 Index

DurhamNeville estates 109Watson’s early life 113Watson’s researches for ecclesiastical

history 12, 110, 113–15, 116Durkan, John 83, 84Dury, Sir Dru 113Dutch language

new teaching of vernacular 19in polyglot editions 23–4Spenser’s knowledge of 143version of Van der Noot’s A Theatre

148–9Dutch literature

importance of Van der Noot 146–7Spenser’s knowledge of 145

Eatough, Geoffrey 42education

amatory texts studied in Latinclasses 26–8

and demand for printed texts 103ethical dimension 25–6humanist curriculum 6moral role of sentimental romances

31–4relevance of Watson’s Polybius to

history of 101–2and Whitchurch’s epistle on

Cooke’s translations 124–5see also language learning

Edward VI, of Englandand Ochino’s works 123, 127, 128Protestant texts printed during reign

of 126Reformed Church during reign of

130, 134translations dedicated to 62–3, 72,

81, 90Eliot, John, Ortho-Epia Gallica 24,

182, 187Eliot, T. S. 3Elizabeth I, of England

translation of Calvin’s Institutes131–3

translation of Calvin’s sermon 12,122, 123, 127, 128

translation of Marguerite de Navarre127, 128

translation of Ochino 12, 127,127–8

translations of Parr’s Prayers 127,128

and Henri de Navarre 136Ochino’s meeting with 123political currents early in reign of

81, 103, 111, 134Protestant ideology 139works dedicated to 46, 129–30

Elizabethan Settlement (1559) 130Elyot, Sir Thomas 62, 87

The boke named the Governour 68The Castel of Helth 54–5

England, political problems inmid-Tudor period 103

Englands Helicon (anthology) 191epic poetry, contemporary vernacular

13–14, 161–2epistolary art see lettersepitome 5, 26, 31Erasmus, Desiderius 26, 39, 44, 62

The Civilitie of Childehode (Paynell’stranslation) 9, 40

Colloquia 28De contemptu mundi (Paynell’s

translation) 10, 44, 45–6Panegyricus 73Paraphrases on the New Testament

(Udall’s translation) 72Erondelle, Pierre, The French Garden

20–1Essex, Earl of see Devereux, Robert;

Parr, WilliamEstienne, Robert 82, 90, 91, 94Europe see continental EuropeEusebius of Caesarea

Christopherson’s Latin translation10–11, 80, 83, 84, 85, 88–95

Hanmer’s English translation 81,95

Valesius’s edition and Latintranslation 91–2, 94

Fagius, Paul 89Fairfax, Edward, Godfrey of Bulloigne

(translation of Tasso) 5, 13–14,162, 163–72, 191

Family of Love 7, 13, 147, 155

PROOF


Index 223

Fanshawe, Sir Richard, translation ofCamões 162

Felch, Susan 130Fiennes de Clinton, Elizabeth see

Clinton, Elizabeth Fiennes deFisher, Christopher 62Fisher, John, Bishop of Rochester 68Flemish see Dutch languageFlores, Juan de, Grisel y Mirabella 9,

18, 19, 23, 29–30, 31–2, 33Florio, John, Florio His firste Fruites

20, 21, 21–2, 27–8Fox, Alistair 43–4Foxe, John 87, 154

Acts and Monuments 89, 149France

adverse criticism of Du Bartas175, 176

connection of Livy’s third decadewith wars in 68, 69, 70, 71–2,73

culture of translation 102England’s political problems with

103, 106, 107, 111, 112see also St Bartholomew’s Day

MassacreFrancisco, Andrea 84French communities, exiles in London

143, 144–5, 148, 155French language

Elizabeth’s translation of Parr’sPrayers into 127

manuals for learning 20, 20–1, 21,23, 24

Meigret’s translation of Polybius102

Spenser’s knowledge of 143teaching of vernacular 19, 19–20version of Van der Noot’s A Theatre

148–9Froben press 85–6, 86, 87, 88Frontinus, Iulius 65–6, 67, 68

Galen 81Galilei, Galileo 185Gardiner, Stephen, Bishop of

Winchester 80, 127, 131Gascoigne, George 166Gawdy family 103

Gelenius (Sigismond Gelen) 85–6translation of Philo’s works 83, 85,

86–7, 94gender

and Locke’s work as translator134–5

representation of book and breast inearly modern writings 137

see also womenGeneva 123, 129, 130Gheeraerts, Marcus (the Elder) 149Gilbert, Sir Humphrey 67glosses see marginalia, manuscript;

marginalia, printedGodsalve, Edward 85, 88–9, 92, 94Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 184Golding, Arthur

translation of de Mornay 136translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses

2Gorboduc (play) 102, 103Gorges family 148Goulart, Simon 178, 180, 181, 185, 187Grafton, Anthony 60, 61, 67, 73Grafton, Richard 115Grantham, Henry 24Greek sources

appropriation by both Catholicsand evangelicals 79–80

first printed editions 82, 94–5Latin translations from 5, 6,

10–11, 79–81, 86–7, 94, 110and translations as part of classical

heritage 6see also under authors’ names

Green, Ian 122, 123Greene, Robert 29Gregory of Nyssa, St 84Gresham, Sir Thomas 49Grey de Wilton, Arthur, Lord 148Grindal, Edmund 145Guevara, Antonio de

Libro aureo de Marco Aurelio 22, 31Menosprecio de corte 22, 23, 25

Guicciardini, Francesco, Loci duo 25Gunpowder Plot 138

Hacket, Thomas 45, 49–50, 52, 103Hadfield, Andrew 5, 12, 12–13, 15

PROOF


224 Index

Hakewill, George 182Hall, Edward 115

The union of the two noble and illustrefamelies 105–8, 109–10, 111,112, 116

Hall, Rowland (printer) 130Hanmer, Meredith 81, 92–3, 95Hannapes, Nicolas de, The ensamples

of Vertue and vice (Paynell’stranslation) 46, 47

Hannay, Margaret 134Hanseatic League 145Hardyng, John, verse Chronicle 115Harington, Sir John 163, 166

translation of Ariosto’s Orlandofurioso 162, 162–3, 191

Harvey, Gabriel 105, 108annotations to Livy and Cope’s

translation 10, 58–60, 59, 63,64–9, 72–3

language materials collected by24–5

and ‘pragmatic’ humanism 61,72–4

and Spenser 144, 146, 148Hatton, Sir Christopher 148health see medical textsHealy, Margaret 53Hebrew sources

Humphrey’s Latin translation ofObadiah 86

Philo’s learning 84Heere, Lucas de (of Ghent) 149Helgerson, Richard 28Henry IV, of France (Henri de Navarre)

136Henry V, of England 11–12, 104–5,

105–8, 111, 112, 116Henry VIII, of England 42, 126

and destruction of religious images132–3

and Katherine Parr 131relationship with Cope and his Livy

translation 10, 62, 69–72, 73uncertainty over Church doctrine

80–1Herbert, George 184heroic character, and Harvey’s and

Cope’s interest in Livy 64–7, 72

Hezekiah, in Calvin’s sermons 129,130

Hilton, John 187historical contexts 4, 7–8, 101–2,

121–2, 139Watson’s Polybius 102–3, 111–12,

114–15, 116women translators supporting

Protestantism 12, 122, 128,129–31, 134, 135–6, 139

Hoby, Sir Thomas, translation of Bookof the Courtier 2

Hodge, Mary 20–1Holinshed, Raphael 20, 116Hollyband, Claude

The Italian Schoole-maister 20, 22,23

dialogues in popular manuals of20, 21

Homer 85, 161–2, 178Hooker, Richard, Of the Laws of

Ecclesiastical Polity 138Hosington, Brenda 7, 12, 15How, William (publisher) 147Howard, Henry see Northampton, Earl

of; Surrey, Earl ofHudson, Thomas, version of Du

Bartas’s Judit 177, 178, 191Huet, Pierre-Daniel 91Huguenots 12, 131, 135, 145humanism 1, 2

in English education 6importance of vernacular 6, 8,

39–40and modern language learning

20–1, 25–7and philology 4, 11‘pragmatic’ type shown by Cope

and Harvey 61, 72–4and romances 29–30, 34, 44–5and translation 6, 60–1, 9–10, 10,

11–12, 39, 40–4, 46, 50–2, 54,72–3, 74, 101, 105

Watson’s study for translation ofPolybius 106–7, 114–15

Hume, David, History of England 163Humfrey, Dorcas 20–1humours 52–3

PROOF


Index 225

Humphrey, LaurenceInterpretatio linguarum 5, 6, 7, 11,

42, 85, 86, 87Optimates 86The Nobles or of Nobility (English

translation of Optimates) 86Latin translation of Cyril 85Latin translation of Origen 80, 85,

87Latin translation of Philo 85, 86,

88and John Christopherson 85, 86,

87praised by Bale 87as product of revolutionary Tudor

moment 42Huntington Library, San Marino,

Harvey’s collection in 24–5Hutson, Lorna 29Hutten, Ulrich von, De morbo gallico

(Paynell’s translation) 50–1

ideologymarketplace and publishing of

translations 125–6and translators’ appropriation of

texts 121, 121–2, 126, 139women translators supporting

Protestantism 122, 127, 128,131–3, 133–5, 135–6

The Images of the Old Testament24, 25

imitation 5, 6in Du Bartas’s Les Semaines

186–7Milton’s reading of Du Bartas 183and study of amatory Latin texts

27translation’s alignment with 4–5

immigrant communities, London12, 144–5, 148, 155

indexing/indexes 40, 186Ipswich 124Ireland 103, 146, 148, 154

connection of Livy’s third decadewith wars in 67–8, 71

Isocrates 50

Italian languageElizabeth’s translation of Parr’s

Prayers into 127teaching and learning of 19–20,

21–2, 23Italian literature

English translations of epic poetry162–72

influences on Spenser 15, 143, 166translation 102see also Petrarchism

James VI of Scotland (and I ofEngland) 138

translations of Du Bartas 176, 177Jardine, Lisa 60, 67, 73Jerome, St, De viris illustribus 84–5Jewel, John 89, 126Jewish beliefs, Philo 84, 86John of Damascus, St 84Johnson, Samuel 188Jonson, Ben 175, 176, 178Joscelyn, John 113Justinian, Emperor 46, 83

Keiser, George 54Knox, John 129, 130

La Noue, Odet de, Le grand dictionairedes rimes françoises 186

La Pichonnaye, Guillaume de 23language learning

across social and gender lines20–1

European vernaculars 19–20link with literature 22–5role of sentimental romances 9,

18–19, 33in studia humanitatis 25–7vernacular manuals 20–1, 21–2, 34

Latimer, Hugh 122Latin

in polyglot editions 23techniques for studying 26–8, 34translations from Greek into 5, 6,

10–11, 79–81, 86–7, 94, 110translations as part of classical

heritage 6Latin sources see under authors’ names

PROOF


226 Index

Lauder, William 183Lawrence, Jason 21, 22–3Le Havre 112Lefevere, André 121Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of 21,

92, 134Leiden, University of 145Leland, John 115Leo VI, Emperor, Tactica 86Lepage, John 183–4letters

rhetorical qualities in sentimentalromances 30–1

Watson’s ‘To the Questioners’ in hisPolybius 104

see also dedicationsLinacre, Thomas 80linguistic instruction see language

learningLipsius, Justus 53, 145, 147Lisle, William, translation of Du Bartas

176–7, 177, 177–8, 180, 183,187–8, 191

literature and literary culturedevelopment of English literature

8, 41importance of early modern

translations 1–2, 4, 5, 8, 40–2,101–2, 103, 121–2

link with language pedagogy 22–5and study of translations in Tudor

context 5, 101, 166–7Livy

Ab urbe condita (third decade) 63,63–4

Cope’s translation The historie ofAnniball and Scipio 7, 10, 58,62, 63

Cope’s translation and Harvey’sannotations to his copy 10,58–60, 59, 64–9, 72–3

in Cambridge-based humanisticstudy 105, 108

studied with Polybius 110–11Locke, Anne

translation of Calvin’s sermons 12,122, 128–31

translation of Taffin’s treatise 12,123, 133–5

Protestant ideology 130–1, 139Protestant upbringing 129

Lodge, Thomas, translation of DuBartas 181

LondonDutch and French exiles 143,

144–6, 148, 155Protestant circle of Edward VI 123sale of Watson’s Polybius 103Spenser and influence of polyglot

culture 13, 143, 144–6, 148, 155Van der Noot’s exile 146–7

Louvain, Christopherson’s exile 81,81–2, 87, 88

Lovelace, Richard 189Low Countries

English Catholic exiles in 81exiles in London 143, 144–5, 145,

146–7, 148, 155influence on Spenser 13, 15,

143–55religious wars and persecution

123, 133, 155see also Antwerp; Dutch literature;

Family of Love; Leiden,University of

Lownes, Humfrey 178Lucan 178

De bello civili 161–2Luther, Martin 42, 126–7, 137Lydgate, John 132Lyly, John 25, 29

Euphues 45

MacCulloch, Diarmaid 127, 132–3Mantuan (Mantuanus, Baptista

Spagnuoli) 61manuscripts

archival and manuscript literature101–2

and Christopherson’s translations82, 94–5

Cottonian 113, 113–14Marciana 82, 91

marginalia, manuscript 6in Harvey’s copy of Livy 10, 58–60,

59, 63, 64–9, 72–3in language textbooks 20–1, 24–5in sentimental romances 31

PROOF


Index 227

marginalia, printed 40, 43in Hall’s history 105, 109–10in editions of Du Bartas 185,

185–6in editions of Eusebius 91

Marguerite de Navarre, Elizabeth’stranslation of 127, 128

Marino, Giambattista, Crashaw’stranslation of 162

Marlowe, Christopher 166Marot, Clément

Visions de Pétrarque 150Spenser’s translations 13, 149, 151

Marprelate Tracts 134Marshall, Peter 84Marvell, Andrew 182, 189–90, 191Mary I, of England 42, 43, 80, 88,

130Mary, Queen of Scots 69Matthiessen, F. O. 3Maule, Jeremy 70McConica, James 39, 40Medforth, Henry 115medical texts

Elyot’s The Castel of Helth 54–5humanist translations 43Latin translations from Greek 80overlap with religious writing 52–3Paynell’s translations 9, 40, 42, 44,

50–1, 51–4Van der Noot’s treatise on the

plague 146–7medieval ideas, and Paynell’s

humanism 40, 41, 42–3, 53–4medieval romances see chivalric

romancesMeigret, Louis, French translation of

Polybius 102Melville, Andrew 145Merchant Taylors’ School 13, 145,

146merchants

learning of languages 20, 21see also Hanseatic League

Merton, Walter de 115metaphrase 5Meteren, Emmanuel van 145, 149Meteren, Jacob van 145

metre, translations and developmentof English 161–2, 162

military conflictsDutch wars 133, 155and Harvey’s and Cope’s interest in

Livy 61, 64–72, 72, 73subject of Livy’s third decade of Ab

urbe condita 63–6Miller, Jacqueline 137Milton, John 25, 166

and Du Bartas’s Les Semaines 176,179–80, 183, 187, 191–2

Minsheu, John 21Pleasant and Delightfull Dialogues in

Spanish and English 22A Mirror for Magistrates 102, 103, 124Montaigne, Michel de 189Moore, Helen 6, 9, 9–10, 15moral instruction

and language manuals 18–19, 25,26

in sentimental romances 9, 18–19,31–4

in study of amatory texts 26–8moral philosophy, Paynell’s

translations of Scripture 46More, Thomas 39, 62, 81, 122, 132

Paynell’s tabulation for Englishworks of 42, 43, 46

Morini, Massimiliano, TudorTranslation in Theory and Practice4, 8, 163, 167

Morison, Sir Richard 65–6, 68, 69Morley, Baron see Parker, HenryMornay, Philippe de 122

De la vérité de la religion chrestienne135–6

Traicté de l’église 136Mary Sidney’s translation of

A Discourse of Life and Death12, 123, 133, 135–6

translation of Fowre Bookes aboutthe Eucharist 138–9

Morvilliers, Jean de 83Mulcaster, Richard 13, 143–4, 145,

148The First Part of the Elementarie 146

multilingualism see polyglot,parallel-text editions

PROOF


228 Index

Muret, Marc-Antoine 82Musculus, Wolfgang, translations of

Ecclesiasticae historiae autores 90,92, 93, 94

Nannius, Petrus (Pieter Nanninck)82, 90

Latin version of Athanasius 86–7,88, 94

Naudé, Gabriel 186Neville family 11–12, 112

see also Westmorland (Earls of)New Criticism and New

Historicism 3Nicholas V, Pope 102, 108Niclaes, Hendrik 147Noot, Jan van der

A Theatre for Voluptuous Worldlings7, 12, 12–13, 13, 146–8

Spenser’s verse translations inA Theatre for VoluptuousWorldlings 5, 7, 12, 13, 143,148–55

impact on Dutch literature146–7

religious background andreconversion 147–8, 154–5

Spenser’s connections with 147,148, 150

Norfolk, Gawdy family 103Norris, Sir John 146North, Thomas, translation of

Plutarch’s Lives 2Northampton, Henry Howard, Earl of

147, 148northern marches 107, 111, 116Norton, Glyn 42Nowell, Alexander 145, 146Nowell, Laurence 146numerology, Spenser’s conception

153Nuttall, A. D. 190

Obadiah 86Ochino, Bernardino 122

Tragoedia de papatu 127Argentine’s translations of sermons

124, 125, 126

Cooke’s translations of sermons12, 123–7

Elizabeth’s translation of sermon12, 127, 127–8

Ogilby, John, translation of Virgil’sAeneid 161

orationin humanist education 25–6in Watson’s translation of Polybius

109, 112Origen, Humphrey’s Latin version

80, 85, 87Ortelius, Abraham 145, 147Ovid 2, 26–7, 45, 161–2, 178Oxford, University of

Corpus Christi College 113,115–16

Magdalen College 42, 80, 85, 86Oxford Dictionary of National Biography

42Oxford English Dictionary 132The Oxford History of Literary

Translation in English 1–2, 5

Palsgrave, John, French–Englishdictionary 132

paraphrase 4–5Paris see St Bartholomew’s Day

MassacreParker, Henry, 10th Baron Morley

62, 70Parker, Matthew 113, 115–16, 126Parr, Katherine 87

Prayers and Meditations (Elizabeth’stranslations) 127, 128

and Elizabeth’s translation ofCalvin’s Institutes 131, 132

and Anthony Cope 62, 68, 72Parr, William, Earl of Essex 81Pasquier, Estienne 187patronage 62–3, 68, 72, 148Paynell, Thomas

translation of A Moche ProfitableTreatise against the Pestilence 9,42, 53–4

translation of Agapetos, Thepreceptes teachyng a prynce 46

PROOF


Index 229

translation of de Hannapes, TheEnsamples of Vertue and vice46, 47

translation of Erasmus, De contemptumundi 10, 44, 45–6

translation of Erasmus, The Civilitieof Childehode 9, 40

translation of Regimen sanitatisSalerni 9, 42, 44, 51, 51–2, 54

translation of The treasurie of Amadisof Fraunce (from Amadis deGaule) 9, 40, 44, 45–6, 48,49–50

translation of von Hutten, De morbogallico 50–1

humanism and social practice oftranslation 6, 9–10, 39, 40–1,42–4, 46, 50–2, 54, 55

importance to debates on literaryculture 40–2

significations of terms used 41, 42,51–2

translations of Scripture collections40, 46–7

pedagogy see educationPerceval, Richard, Bibliotheca Hispanica

24Perotti, Niccolò, Latin translation of

Polybius 102, 104, 108, 112, 116Perrenot de Granvelle, Antoine 86–7,

90Persons, Robert, A Treatise of Three

Conversions of England 138Petrarch (Francesco Petrarca) 149,

150, 168, 169, 171Petrarchism 14, 168–70, 171–2Petrus, Suffridus 89, 90Philip the Handsome, Duke of

Burgundy 73Philo Judaeus

De iudicis officio 86Christopherson’s Latin translation

10–11, 11, 80, 81–5, 86, 88, 90,95

Gelenius’s Latin translation 83, 85,86–7, 94

Humphrey’s Latin translation 85,86, 88

background and beliefs 84

philology 4, 11, 79–95Pichonnaye, Guillaume de la see La

Pichonnaye, Guillaume dePienaar, W. J. B. 148Pilkington, James, Bishop of Durham

113Pincombe, Mike 41, 51, 53Plantin, Christopher 147Plato 104plays 102, 103, 127Pliny 45, 49, 181Plutarch

Moralia 46, 62, 81, 83, 84Parallel Lives 2, 62, 70Amyot’s translations 83–4

poetics, manuals 25–6poetry 8

‘The Centurion’ in The FrenchGarden 21, 23

see also epic poetry; metre; sonnetsPole, Reginald 84, 88politics

as backdrop to translations 7–8,80, 139

context of Locke’s translation ofCalvin 129–31

and context of Watson’s Polybius102–3, 109, 111–12, 116

and Harvey’s and Cope’s interest inLivy 61, 66–72, 73

views in Cárcel de amor 32–3Pollard, A. F. 42Polybius

Latin translation by Perotti 102,104, 108, 112, 116

Watson’s translation of Hystories 7,11–12, 101–2, 102–3, 103–12,116

source for Livy 105, 108, 110–11polyglot, parallel-text editions 21–5

sentimental romances 9, 18–19,22, 23, 26, 29–35

Ponet, Johntranslation of Ochino’s Tragoedia de

papatu 127Russell’s translation of Diallacticon

12, 123, 136–8, 138–9Pontanus (Giovanni Gioviano

Pontano) 178

PROOF


230 Index

Pope, Alexander 190population, increase in London

144–5Pratt, Adriana see Weyden, Adriana dePrayer Book 130, 134, 138prefaces/proems

accompanying humanisttranslations 41

Christopherson’s Eusebius 90, 92,93, 94

Christopherson’s Philo 83, 84, 90Elizabeth’s translation of Parr 128Elyot’s The Castel of Helth 54Gelenius’s translation of Philo 83,

85, 86see also dedications

Prescott, Anne Lake 153, 154, 175,186

printingclose relations with translation

122commercial concerns and

publishing Protestant texts125–6

demand for educational texts 103production techniques used for Van

der Noot’s A Theatre 149promotion of ideas during

Reformation 6–7‘profitable’ (as term) 41, 42–3, 50,

51–5Protestantism

background and ideology of AnneCooke 123–4, 126

background and motivation of AnneLocke 129, 130–1, 133–5, 139

British imperial vision 111, 112Calvin’s Institutes and Elizabeth’s

translation 131–3and English vernacular humanism

39–40, 47evangelicals 126–7, 128, 131, 134exiles on the Continent 6–7, 11,

123, 129–30, 133Mary Sidney’s motivation to

translate de Mornay 135–6role of sermons 122and Russell’s translation of Ponet

138–9

significance of Hezekiah 130strong connection with printing

125–6translators and writers 12, 13, 42,

62, 85, 110, 127–8Van der Noot 13

Prynne, William 27Psalms 68, 125

Penitential 128, 128–9Ptolemy 49Puritans 134, 138

Quintilian 25

Rastell, William, edition of More’sworks 43

readingactivities of reading and translation

72, 73relevance of Watson’s Polybius to

history of 101see also indexing/indexes;

marginalia, manuscript;marginalia, printed; sententiae;tabulation

Reformation 1, 8crucial importance of printing and

translation 6–7, 11–12and Henry VIII’s doctrinal struggles

80–1importance of women translators

139religious controversies

as backdrop to translations 7, 12,80, 89

generation of new social andlinguistic practices 41

Ponet and interpretation of theLord’s Supper 137–8

see also Reformationreligious politics

context of Anne Locke’s translations129–31, 133–4

Henry V’s actions described in Hall’schronicle 105–8

Henry VIII’s uncertainty overChurch doctrine 80–1

leading to cultural exchange 80

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Index 231

relevance to Watson’s Polybius109–10, 111, 114, 116

uncertainties under James I 138religious works 8, 12

Anthony Cope 62–3, 73Greek writers translated into English

79–80overlap with medical writing 52–3Paynell’s translations 10, 44women as translators of 122–3see also Bible; sermons; treatises

Renaissance , concept of 3Revue des deux mondes 175rhetoric

Cope’s strategies as writer 70, 73–4manuals and texts for learning

25–6, 27, 45role in translations 4in sentimental romances 9, 30–1,

31–4Watson’s resources for translating

Polybius 106–7, 109–11,112

see also letters; oration; poetics,manuals; sententiae

Roest, Theodor 149Rogers, Daniel 145, 146Rogers, John 145romances

instructive and narrative qualities28–9

see also chivalric romances;sentimental romances

Rufinus of Aquileia 93–4Russell, Elizabeth

translation of Ponet’s Diallacticon12, 123, 136–8, 138–9

personal life, and reasons fortranslations 131, 135, 137–8,139

Rymer, Thomas 167

St Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (Paris,1572) 135, 155

St Mark’s, Venice, library 82, 91Saint-Beuve, Charles-Augustin 175,

186Salic Law 106

San Pedro, Diego deArnalte y Lucenda, polyglot and

multilingual editions 9, 18,22, 23, 29–30, 31, 33

Cárcel de amor, polyglot andmultilingual editions 9, 18,29–30, 31, 32–3

Lord Berners’s Castell of Love(translation of Cárcel de amor)30

Santa Cruz, Melchor de, Florestaespañola 22, 30

Sassenus, Servatius 89Savile, Sir Henry 91Scaliger, Julius Caesar 178Schmitt, Charles B. 60–1, 79Scoloker, Anthony (printer) 125, 126Scotland

connection of Livy’s third decadewith wars in 68, 69, 70, 71–2

England’s problems with 103, 107,108, 111, 112

Scott, William, translation of DuBartas 177

Scrimgeour, Henry 83, 84Seneca, Ten Tragedies (Tudor

Translations series) 3sententiae, in sentimental romances

31, 33sentimental romances

distinguishing features 29–30economic success 34–5as humanist 29–30, 34, 45polyglot editions of Spanish tales

9, 18–19, 26, 29–35popularity 18

Seres, William (publisher) 124, 125–6sermons 7, 12, 122

translated by women 123–31Seymour, Edward, Duke of Somerset

12, 123, 125, 126, 128Shakespeare, William 2, 27, 111,

116, 165, 182Sharpe, Kevin 116Shrank, Cathy 53Sidney, Mary 2, 139

A Discourse of Life and Death(translation of de Mornay) 12,123, 135–6

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232 Index

Sidney, Sir Philip 2, 25, 29, 45and de Mornay 135, 135–6and Du Bartas 177, 184and Roger Daniel 145, 146

Slack, Paul 52Smith, John (Anthony Cope’s tutor)

61–2Smith, Sir Thomas 58, 67, 86Smith, Thomas (junior) 58, 66–7, 72Snyder, Susan 177, 187Socrates ‘Scholasticus’ 88, 91–2Somerset, Duke of see Seymour,

Edwardsonnets

in Anne Locke’s translation ofCalvin 128

importance of Van der Noot fordevelopment of form 146

reference in Fairfax’s version ofTasso’s epic 169

Spenser’s translations in A Theatre5, 7, 13, 143, 146, 150–4, 155

Sophocles 82Sorbonne 127Sozomen 88, 89, 91–2Spain

English relations with 68, 69, 71,73

Dutch wars with 155Spanish language

manuals 20, 22, 24new teaching of vernacular 19–20

Spanish literaturelink with language pedagogy 22–3polyglot editions of sentimental

romances 9, 18–19, 26, 29–35translations by Paynell 45

Spenser, Edmund 25The Faerie Queene 13, 74, 152, 154,

166, 191The Shepheardes Calender 13, 150translation of Du Bellay in A Theatre

5, 7, 13, 143, 146, 150–4, 155translations in The Ruines of Rome

143, 146influence on Fairfax 166–7in London’s polyglot culture 13,

143, 144–6, 148, 155and Van der Noot 147, 148, 150

Stanivukovic, Goran 28Starkey, David 128Starkey, Thomas 53Stationers’ Register 133Stepney, William 21Strasbourg 136Summit, Jennifer 116Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl of 62, 87,

147, 161, 169, 169–70Surtees, Robert 113Switzerland see Basle; Bern; Geneva;

ZürichSylvester, Josuah, Du Bartas

translations 14, 175–90, 191,192

Tabourot, Etienne, Les Bigarrures186

tabulation, Paynell’s humanistpractice 41, 42, 43–4, 46,47–9, 48

Taffin, Jean 122, 135Des marques des enfans de Dieu and

Locke’s translation 12, 123,133–5

Tasso, TorquatoGerusalemme liberata 185Fairfax’s translation (Godfrey of

Bulloigne) 5, 13–14, 162,163–72, 191

Taylor, Andrew 6, 7, 10–11Terence (Publius Terentius Afer) 23,

24, 26textual criticism 91, 94–5theology see religious worksThomas, William, Principal Rules of the

Italian Grammer 22Thorius, John, The Spanish Grammer

24, 24–5Thresor des douze livres d’Amadis de

Gaule 45, 47–9Paynell’s translation (The treasurie of

Amadis of Fraunce) 9, 40, 44,45–6, 47, 48, 49–50

see also Amadis de GauleTofte, Robert, translation of Boiardo’s

Orlando innamorato 162Torrellas, Pere 32

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Index 233

Toscanella, Orazio, Bellezze del Furioso185

Tournes, Jean de 25Toussain, Jacques (Tusanus) 82translation

close relations with printing 122early modern theory and practice

4–5, 6English achievement compared

with Continent 79importance to history and literary

culture 4, 8revolutionary aspects in Tudor

literary culture 41–2theoretical works 42

translation studies 1–2, 3, 3–4,101–2, 121–2

translationsand connnection between

vernacular and humanism 6, 8engagement with contexts in Tudor

England 1, 101, 121–2importance to literary culture 1–2,

4, 5, 8, 41–2, 101–2, 103renewed focus on 14–15

treatiseson health and medicine 9, 42,

50–1, 53–4language manuals 20, 23, 24plague 9, 42, 53–4religious 7, 12, 122, 123, 131–9

Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis (1559)112

Tudor history, importance oftranslations to 1–2, 4, 8, 103

‘Tudor Translations’ series 3, 8Tunstal, Cuthbert , Bishop of Durham

81, 113Turnèbe, Adrien (Turnebus) 82, 85Tusanus see Toussain, JacquesTylus, Jane 191Tyndale, William, translation of New

Testament 2

Udall, Nicholas 72, 87Ussher, James, Archbishop of

Armagh 91

Valesius, Henricus (Henri deValois) 90

edition and Latin translation ofEusebius 91–2, 94

Valla, Lorenzo, Adnotationes to theNew Testament 62

Van der Noot see Noot, Jan van derVenice, Christopherson’s sojourn 84,

87Venuti, Lawrence 121vernacular languages

contemporary epic poetry 13–14,162

development of English literature in8

European 15, 19–20orations in Hall’s chronicle 110and relationship between

humanism and translations 6,8

techniques for studying languages34

used by English humanists andReformers 39–40, 41, 46–7

verse see poetryVettori, Pier 82Vicars, John 181Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel

180Virgil 5, 161, 175, 178, 186, 189

Aeneid, translations 161Vives, Juan Luis 9, 40, 45

Wakelin, Daniel 18, 40, 43, 47Waller, Edmund 14, 163, 166wars see military conflictsWarwick, Ambrose Dudley, 3rd Earl of

134Warwick, Anne Dudley, Countess of

133, 134Watson, Christopher

The Histories of Polybius 7, 11–12,101–2, 102–3, 103–12, 116

early life and education 112, 113,116

researches for ecclesiastical historyof Durham 12, 110, 113–15,116

Watson, Roger 114

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234 Index

Webster, John, The White Devil 184Westmorland, Charles Neville, 6th

Earl of 109, 116Westmorland, Henry Neville, 5th Earl

of 109, 111Westmorland, Ralph Neville, 4th Earl

of 106, 107–8, 109, 112Weyden, Adriana de 145Whetstone, George, The Honourable

Reputation of a Souldier 23, 23–4,25

Whitchurch, Edward 124–5Whitgift, John, Archbishop of

Canterbury 134Whittingham, William, Dean of

Durham 113Wilkinson, John, translation of

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics60–1

Winter, Thomas, translation of DuBartas 177

Wodroephe, John 21, 25Wolfe, Reyner (printer) 148women

Grisel y Mirabella and debates onposition of 32

readers of Erondelle’s The FrenchGarden 20–1

as translators of religious works 12,122–31

see also genderWood, Anthony 61woodcuts, in Van der Noot’s A Theatre

149–50, 151, 153Woolfson, Jonathan 39Wright, Louis 28Wyatt, Sir Thomas 62, 87, 169, 170

Zini, Pietro Francisco 84, 85Zürich 42Zwinglian doctrine 137

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