chinese grammar index_ox.ac.uk

7/31/2019 Chinese Grammar Index_Ox.ac.Uk

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Grammar Index

Stative verbs [1]

A stative verb expresses quality or conditions. In Chinese a stative verb is used where

in English one would use the verb to be with an adjective. For instance, in

t hn mng he is very busy mng is a stative verb and means to be busy.

Possessive de [1]

This construction indicates that the noun after de belongs to the noun that comes

before

de, as in

Xio Wng de yupioXiao Wangs stamp.

V yxi[1]

When yxi is preceded by a verb, it has two functions.1. It is used as a time measure to imply that the action lasts for a little while.

2. It is used to soften the tone of voice. (See lesson 6)

The verb zi[1]

When zi is used as the main verb in a sentence, it means to be located...; to be in,on, orata place, as in zi zhrto be here, t zi zhrhe ishere.

The linking verb sh [2]

The linking verb sh is used to link nouns or pronouns, as in t shloshhe is a teacherand w sh xushengI am a student. (Seelessons 4 and 5)

Co-verbs [2]

This term refers to a verb when its function, used together with its own object, is to

modify the main verb of a sentence. An example is zi, which can be used as aco-verb meaning to be located in, on orata place. Please note in this context that

sequence and background are important in Chinese when it comes to describing

actions. The first action in a sequence should come first in an utterance. In Xio Dng zi ji kn shXiao Ding is reading a book at home the firstaction in the sequence could be described as the background to the main action, but it

still has to come first, with the co-verb zi followed by the noun ji forming a

co-verb clause. In the example given here Xiao Ding would have had to be at home

before he started reading the book.

The particle ba [2]

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The particle ba is placed at the end of a sentence to indicate suggestion.

Modal verbs [2,10]

Modal verbs are like auxiliary verbs and are placed before main verbs. Examples are:

ynggi should, to be obligedand dito have to; kyto be

permitted; nngto be able; xing to want, to intend; and i to like, to befond of.

Choice type questions [3]

One type of choice type questions is formed by following an affirmative verb with a

negative verb as in: V b V or V mi V. The following patterns are those mostcommonly used.

subject verb verb object

n

sh bu sh

xusheng

Are you a student or not?

subject verb object verb

n

zu linx

bu zu

Are you going to do the exercises (or not)?

subject verb verb object

n

zu mi zu

linx

Did you do the exercises or not?

subject verb object verb

n

zule linx

mi zu

Did you do the exercises (or not)?

If a verb has a double syllable it can be used in the following ways:

A B A B

x

huan

bu

x

huan

A A B

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x bu x huan

A B A B

xu

x

mi

xu

x

A A B

xu

mi

xu

x

Measure words [3]

The word cup in a cup of tea and the word bottle in a bottle of beer are measure

words'. In Chinese a measure word is used when quantifying or specifying a noun. A

measure word is preceded by one of the following: a number word; a specifier such as

zh this, n that, ormi every ; or a question word such as n which?or jhow many?

ti expresses excessiveness [4]

The affirmative form of the ti construction is ti [stative verb] le, whichmeans extremely [stative verb] as in ti ho le extremely good. Thenegative form is bti [stative verb] without le, which means that somethingis not very [stative verb], as in b ti ho not very good.

The question particle ne [4]

ne is placed at the end of a sentence. It can be used in the following situations:1. To bounce a question or statement back to the person you are having a

conversation with, as in:

A: n ho ma ?how are you?

B: w hn ho. n ne?I am very well, and you?

2. To ask the question where? as in w de sh newhere is my book?3. To reinforce questions formed with a question-word [who? what? which? when?

why? where?] and to show that a speaker really wants to know the answer, as in: t sh n gu rn ne what nationality IS he? n kn de sh shnme sh ne what book ARE you reading? nq nr ne where ARE you going?

...... bsh sh sentence construction [4]

The ...... bsh sh sentence construction is used to deny one statementand confirm another, as in , bsh w de

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yf b ho, sh yf ti nn leit is not that my grammar is weak, it is that thegrammar is too difficult.

Use of yhu [4]

yhu is used to form time clauses. So, if yhu is placed after a noun orphrase to form a time clause, it defines a time after the action indicated by the noun

or predicate, as in: wfn yhu after having lunch. However, ifyhu is placed at the beginning of a phrase and used as a time word, it means later,in the future, as in yhu w xing q Zhnggulater/oneday I would like to go to China.

Telling the time [4]

The linking verb sh to be is not needed when giving the time or the date: jntin xngq tin today is Sunday. xinzi ling dinlng w fn it is five past two. (See lessons 2 and 5)

The adverb () n (me)[4]

n is short for n me . If () n (me) is placed at the beginning of asentence it implies if this is the case.

Giving the day, month and/or year [5]

When you ask for the time or the date, sh is omitted, as in: jntin jho what date is it today? jntin shw ho today is the 15th. Thesh in hish choice-type questions cannot be omitted. (See lessons 2 and 4)

Topic [5]

The object of a sentence is called a topic if it is placed before the verb. It can be a

noun, or a noun-functioned phrase in list form. The subject of a sentence in this

pattern can be placed either before the topic or before the verb.

Pronoun or name + zhror nr [5]

When zhrand nrare placed after a pronoun or name, they identify aplace associated with that person. zhrimplies that the speaker is actually inthe place to which he refers, while nrimplies that the speaker is not in the

place to which he refers: w nrmy place (though I am not in my place as Ispeak). w zhrmy place (I am in my place as I speak).

Duplicate verbs [6]

A verb is duplicated to soften the tone of voice, especially when used at the end of a

sentence, as in qng n gi t jishaojishaoplease tellhim about it. (See lesson 1)

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Resultative verb phrases [6,10,18]

A resultative verb phrase is used to describe the result of an action. It is formed by an

action verb and its result, as in w ch wn leI finished eating. Theverb is to eat, the result of the eating isfinished, so the resultative verb phrase is

eating to a finish.

Attributive clause with de [6]

An attributive clause is used to modify a noun preceded by de. The clause can beformed from a word or a phrase, as in y ge hn ho depngyou a very good friendand w cng XioWng nr ji li de sh the book which I borrowed from Xiao Wang.

Combined directional verb phrase [7]

A combined directional verb phrase is formed from a verb of action with a directional

word such as jn in, ch out, shng up orxi down and is followed byli or q (indicating the position of the speaker). li indicates that the actionis moving towards the speaker, and q indicates that the action is moving awayfrom the speaker, for instance, zu jn li to walk in (the speaker is inside).A simple object is placed between jn and li, as in zu jntsh gun li to walk into the library. The object tsh gun library is

placed between the directional word and li orq .

sh ... de construction [7]The sh ... de construction is used to emphasise the state or situation of thenoun. The emphasised statement is placed between sh and de, as in w de sh sh xn de my book is the new one.

Position words [7]

Position words are qin front, hu back, png beside, yu to theright, zu to the left, shng above,xi beneath and zhng

middle/inside. These position words can all be followed by binside. Theexception is zhng middle/inside, which cannot be used with bin, butinstead is used with jin . When position words are used to describe nouns theyare placed after the noun, as in fngjin l bin inside the room.

Complement of degree construction [8,19]

A complement of degree construction is used to describe how an action is habitually

carried out, as in t ch de hn kui he eats very fast. The verb isplaced before de, while the elements which follow de are usually adverbs

describing the outcome of the action.

This construction can also be used to describe a particular action. For example, in

zutin wnshang w zu fn zu de hn holast night I cooked the meal very well, hn ho describes the outcome of the

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cooking. (See lessons 19)

Potential verb phrases [8,20]

A potential verb phrase is used to indicate that an action can or cannot be achieved. It

is formed from a verb of action with de [for affirmative] orb [for negative]and is followed by a resultative or directional word, as in ch de wn to be

able to finish eating. zu bu jn q to be unable to walk in.Most resultative or directional verb phrases can be turned into potential verb phrases

by inserting de orb between the verb and its resultative or directional word.But some potential verb phrases such as du b qare only used asidiomatic expressions.

k[8]

k can be used as an adverb to reinforce a statement or to emphasise desires andfeelings. k can precede the linking verb sh as in

Xio Wng k sh y ge d mng rn Xiao Wang is a really busy person.A stative verb such as hogoodormng busy, or a modal verb such as xing intend to orxhuan like to.. can be placed between k ...leto form an affirmative construction. The negative form is k b,but le isnot used, for instance, jntin k lng le today is really cold. w k xing q Zhnggu leI really want to go to China.w k b xhuan ch Ynggu ci I really dont like eating

English food.

The conditional construction with ...... yoshiji...[8]

The ... ... yoshiji... construction is used to form a conditional sentence.The condition is placed after the yoshi clause, and the consequence is placedafter ji.

Use of the V O zhnzi V zhe O nesentence

pattern [9]

This sentence pattern indicates that an action is under way. Note that some of the

elements of this pattern can be omitted: all the following sentences mean he iswatching TV.

1. t zhngzi knzhe dinsh ne full version2. t zhng knzhe dinsh ne without zi3. t zi knzhe dinsh ne without zhng4. t zhngzi kn dinsh ne without zhe5. t zhngzi knzhe dinsh without ne6. t zi kn dinsh ne without zhng and zhe7. t kn dinsh ne without zhng , zi and zhe(See lesson 16)

Aspectual marker le with verbs [10,11,14]

When placed after the main verb of a sentence the aspectual markerle is used to

indicate that an action has been completed, as in w mile

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y ling z xng chI bought a bike.The aspectual marker le is not used in the following situations:1. The aspectual markerle is not used in the negative form, but instead ()

mi(yu) is placed before the main verb. , w mi mi xn ch, ksh w mile y ling ji chI didnt buy a new bike, but Ibought an old one.

2. When sh to be, zi to be in oryu to have are used as the main verbs ofa sentence, the aspectual markerle is not used with them. qnin w yu y ling hn ho de ch last year I had a very good bike.3. If a sentence contains a modal verb, the aspectual marker le is not used. qnin w xing mi y ling ch last year I wanted to buy abike.

4. The aspectual marker le is not used in the complement of degree construction.

zu wn t fn zu de hn ho last night he cooked verywell.

5. The aspectual marker le is not used for those verbs which indicate direct andindirect speech. t shng ge yu shu yo li kn whe said last month that he would visit me.

6. The aspectual marker le is not used in attributive clauses. wzutin mi de ch the bike which I bought yesterday.

The modal particle le implying change of situation [11]

le can be placed at the end of a sentence to imply a change of situation or to implythat something is no longer in the same state as it was. w b shlosh leI am no longer a teacher. xitin le its summer now. t ho du le he is much better now.

Imminent actions [12]

The following sentence patterns are used to indicate that an action is about to take

place or that a particular time is approaching.

1. yole2. kuiyole3. jiyoleElements which can be placed between yo leand le are: V-O patterns; andtime words such as snyuMarch, chntinspring, zhngwnoon and ling din 2 oclock.

The adverbial marker de [12]

The adverbs or phrases which are placed before de describe the intention, manneror method with, in or by which an action is carried out, as in t goxng de chngle y ge g she happily sang a song. xusheng men du y ge y ge de hu ji le the students wenthome one by one.

V zhe O [12]

The V zhe O pattern can be used in the following two situations:1. It is used to describe how something has been left, as in zhushng fngzhe y bn sh there is a book left on the table;

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qing shng xizhe sn ge z there are three characters written on the wall; mn kizhe the door has been left open.2. It can also be used to make this action simultaneous with the main verb in the

sentence, as in t chngzhe g hu jishe went home singing.

Time measures [13]

A time measure quantifies duration or length of time. A time measure is placed afterthe verb in an affirmative sentence, as in w xuhny xu le ling ge yu leI have been learning Chinese for two months. leat the end of the sentence marks a stage in a progressing action.

When describing a future action the time measure is placed after the verb, as in mngnin w yo zi Bijng xux sn geyu hnyI will study three weeks of Chinese in Beijing next spring.The following three sentence patterns forI learnt Chinese for three years are all

acceptable.

1.s v o v () tm

w

xu

hny

xu le sn nin

2.

s o v () tm

w

hny

xu le sn nin

3.

s v () tm o

w

xu le sn nin de

hny

A time measure is placed near the beginning of a negative sentence, as in

w sn nin mi knjin t leI havent seen her for three years. The le at the end of the sentence marks a stage in a continuing situation.

The particle guo [14]

The particle guo is placed after a verb and is used in the following two situations.

1. It is used to indicate that a particular action has been experienced, as in w chguo Ynggu ciI have eaten English food.2. It can also to be used to indicate that a regular action such as the daily eating of a

meal has been completed, as in n chguo fn ma have you eaten?

The action measure [14]

c is used as an action measure in sentences. Like time measures, an actionmeasure is placed after the verb in an affirmative sentence and before the verb in a

negative sentence, as in w qguo y c ZhngguI havebeen to China once.

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zi used in a resultative verb phrase [15]

zi can be used as a verb or co-verb. It can also be placed after a verb of action toform a resultative verb phrase, so that the action has a direct effect on the object. For

instance, in fng zi zhu shng to put(it) on the table, the item is onthe table as a result of the action to put. However, in zi Zhnggu

xux to study in China the action to study does not have a direct effect on China,meaning that zi Zhnggu to be in China is a co-verb clause which givesthe background to an action and/or indicates the sequence of action.

Use of the V O zhnzi V zhe O nesentence

pattern [16,9]

This sentence pattern indicates that an action is under way. Note that some of the

elements of this pattern can be omitted: all the following sentences mean he is

watching TV.

1. t zhnzi knzhe dinsh ne full version2. t zhng knzhe dinsh ne without zi3. t zi knzhe dinsh ne without zhng4. t zhngzi kn dinsh ne without zhe5. t zhngzi knzhe dinsh without ne6. t zi kn dinsh ne without zhng and zhe7. t kn dinsh ne without zhng , zi and zhe(See lesson 9)

V zhe O [16,12]

The V zhe O pattern can be used in the following two situations:1. It is used to describe how something has been left, as in zhushng fngzhe y bn sh there is a book left on the table; qing shng xizhe sn ge z there are three characters written on the wall; mn kizhe the door has been left open.2. It can also be used to make this action simultaneous with the main verb in the

sentence, as in t chngzhe g hu jishe went home singing.

Comparatives [17]

The following constructions are used to compare one item or action with another.

1. The construction is used to indicate whether A is better or worse than B.

A B (stative) verb + quantity

t

b

w

d ling su

He is (two years) older than me.

A B complement of degree +

t

b

w

[]

ch de du [du le]

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He eats (much) more than I do.

2. The gn...yyng construction indicates that A is in the same stateas B.

A () B () stative verb

t

gn

w

yyng d

He and I are the same age.

A B complement of degree ()

t

gn

w

ch de yyng du

He and I eat the same amount.

3. The construction implies that A is as [stative verb] as B.

A () B stative verb

t

yu

w

?

d ma

Is he as old as me?

A () B complement of degree

t

yu

w

?

ch de du ma

Does he eat as much as I do?

sh ... de construction [17,7]

The sh ... de construction is used to emphasise the state or situation of thenoun. The emphasised statement is placed between sh and de, as in w de sh sh xn de my book is the new one. (See lesson 7)

Word order in Chinese corresponds to the sequence of

action. [18]

1. Sentence with a co-verb clause

zu ch q xuxio (I) go to school by car. The action of sitting in acar happens before going to school, so zu ch is placed before qxuxio.2. Sentence with a complement of degree construction

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fngjin dso de gngnjngjng the room [has beencleaned so that it] is spotless. The outcome of the cleaning is that the room is

spotless, so gngnjngjng is placed afterdso de.3. Sentence with an adverbial marker det yjyj de shu he said it sentence by sentence. Sentenceby sentence is the manner in which he said what he had to say, so

yjyj de is placed before shu.4. Sentence with a resultative verb phrase

w kn dng leI have understood it[by reading]. I understood itbecause I read it first, so kn should be placed before dng.

Complement of degree construction [19,8]

A complement of degree construction is used to describe how an action is habitually

carried out, as in t ch de hn kui he eats very fast. The verb isplaced before de, while the elements which follow de are usually adverbsdescribing the outcome of the action.

This construction can also be used to describe a particular action. For example, in zutin wnshang w zu fn zu de hn holast night I cooked the meal very well, hn ho describes the outcome of thecooking. (See lessons 8)

Potential verb phrases [20,8]

A potential verb phrase is used to indicate that an action can or cannot be achieved. It

is formed from a verb of action with de [for affirmative] orb [for negative]and is followed by a resultative or directional word, as in ch de wn to beable to finish eating. zu bu jn q to be unable to walk in.Most resultative or directional verb phrases can be turned into potential verb phrases

by inserting de orb between the verb and its resultative or directional word.But some potential verb phrases such as du b qare only used asidiomatic expressions. (See lesson 8)

The b construction [21]

The b construction is used to indicate what one does to a particular object, orhow one does it. Verbs used in the b construction take complex forms, and areverbs of action attached to resultative words, directional words or other elements. The

attached elements refer to the direct object of the sentence. For instance, in w b ji h wn leI finished the wine the resultative word finish refers tothe wine, but not to the action of drinking.I finished drinkingwould be expressed by

the simple utterance w h wn ji le.

Passive construction with bi[22]

The passive construction with bi indicates how a particular object (abstract orphysical) is dealt with or disposed of by somebody or something. The verbs in these

constructions take complicated forms. They are verbs of method of action, plus other

elements. Most of the elements that are attached to the main verbs in bisentences are similar to those used in the b construction. For instance, sh yjng bi t ji zu le the book has been borrowed by him. In

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b sentences this will be t yjng b sh ji zu lehehas already borrowed the book.

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