china environmental crisischina environmental crisis

8/19/2019 China Environmental CrisisChina Environmental Crisis

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China: Capitalist Development and Environmental Crisis

Dr. Dale Wen, Visiting Scholar

International Forum on Globalization

Dr. Minqi Li, Assistant Pro essor

De!artment o Political Science, "or# $ni%ersit&, 'oronto

(Publishe) in Socialist Register 2007 *

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1. Introduction

hina-s s!ectacular economic gro th has been one o the most )ramatic

)e%elo!ments in the global econom& o%er the !ast quarter o centur&. /et een 0123

an) 4++5, the hinese econom& e6!an)e) at an annual rate o 1.5 !ercent. 7o other

large econom& has e%er gro n so ra!i)l& or so long in the orl) economic histor&.

As a result, measure) b& !urchasing !o er !arit&, hina no accounts or about 08

!ercent o the orl) out!ut or about one9thir) o the orl) economic gro th that has

ta#en !lace since 4+++.

:o e%er, hina-s economic gro th has ta#en !lace at the !rice o enormous social

an) en%ironmental costs. In recent &ears, ra!i) increase in social an) economic

inequalit&, en%ironmental )egra)ation, mounting rural crisis, gro ing urban

unem!lo&ment an) !o%ert&, !er%asi%e go%ernment corru!tion, )eteriorating !ublic

ser%ices (es!eciall& in basic e)ucation an) healthcare*, as ell as escalating social

unrests ha%e gro n to )angerous le%els that coul) !otentiall& lea) to an e6!losi%e

situation. 0

In this !a!er e ocus on the en%ironmental im!act o ca!italist )e%elo!ment in

hina. Gi%en hina-s enormous size in !o!ulation an) its gro ing im!ortance in the

global econom&, the im!lications o hina-s en%ironmental crisis go ar be&on) hina

itsel . It has become an im!ortant an) gro ing !art in the )e%elo!ment o global

en%ironmental crisis.

It is unli#el& that either the hinese or the global en%ironmental crisis can be

e ecti%el& a))resse) ithin the e6isting ca!italist institutional rame or#. 'o buil)

an en%ironmentall& sustainable societ&, the economic s&stem has to be un)amentall&

0

;n the social consequences o hina-s mar#et9oriente) re orm as ell as the im!act o neoliberal

globalization on hina, see Wen (4++8* an) Li an)


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trans orme) so that !ro)uction an) consum!tion acti%ities are oriente) to ar)s

meeting the basic nee)s o the general !o!ulation rather than the !ursuit o !ro it an)

ca!ital accumulation.

2. From State Socialism to Capitalist Development

/et een the 018+s an) the 012+s, hina )e%elo!e) un)er the state socialist or the

Maoist mo)el. Maoist hina as b& no means an i)eal socialist societ&. =conomic

inequalities an) bureaucratic !ri%ileges continue) to e6ist. 'he econom& su ere)

rom ine iciencies an) imbalances. 'he issues o en%ironmental sustainabilit& ere

!oorl& un)erstoo). 'he ocus on hea%& in)ustrial )e%elo!ment le) to a number o

en%ironmental blun)ers. :o e%er, these !roblems nee) to be set against their

historical conte6t. Pre9re%olutionar& hina as an o!!resse), !eri!heral state ith a

tin& mo)ern or#ing class. 'he ne re%olutionar& state as con ronte) ith the

hostilities o !o er ul ca!italist states an) orce) to res!on) to the !ressures o ca!ital

accumulation an) militar& com!etition im!ose) b& the ca!italist orl) s&stem. 'hese

ob>ecti%e circumstances greatl& limite) the historical !otential o hinese socialism.

Des!ite these historical limitations, the e6!erience o Maoist hina )emonstrate) that

or#ing !eo!le-s li e coul) be greatl& im!ro%e) in a socio9economic s&stem gui)e)

b& socialist !rinci!les.

In the cities an) the in)ustrial enter!rises, the means o !ro)uction ere mostl&

o ne) b& ?all !eo!le@ or the state. 'he !hrase ?iron rice bo l@ as use) to )escribethe in)ustrial em!lo&ment s&stem an) its associate) bene its. Wages ere quite lo .

:o e%er, or#ers en>o&e) li etime em!lo&ment, guarantee) !ension bene its, health

care, housing, an) e)ucation or )e!en)ents, !ai) maternit& lea%e, an) other bene its

that create) a high le%el o societal equit& an) securit&. In the rural areas, lan) an)

other means o !ro)uction ere o ne) b& the collecti%es or the communes. Des!ite

%arious economic !roblems an) %er& lo le%els o material consum!tion, the

commune s&stem !ro%i)e) a i)e range o social bene its (inclu)ing basic !ublic

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healthcare an) e)ucation* so that the ma>orit& o the rural !eo!le coul) li%e ith

securit& an) )ignit&.

Possibl& the greatest the achie%ement o Maoist hina as its success in meeting the

basic nee)s o the great ma>orit& o the !o!ulation at %er& lo le%els o !er ca!ita

income an) consum!tion. /et een 01 + an) 013+, the hinese !o!ulation-s li e

e6!ectanc& at birth rose rom B &ears to 2 &ears, an increase o B0 &ears o%er

t ent& &ears. /& com!arison, o%er the same !erio), the a%erage li e e6!ectanc& o all

lo income countries increase) rom 55 &ears to 8B &ears, an increase o onl& 1 &ears.

/et een 012+ an) 013+, the hinese a)ult !o!ulation-s illiterac& rate ell rom 52

!ercent to BB !ercent, a all o 05 !ercent. ;%er the same !erio), the a%erage

illiterac& rate o all lo income countries ell rom 0 !ercent to 8B !ercent, a all o 3

!ercent. 'o ar)s the en) o the Maoist !erio), hina-s !er ormance in basic health

an) e)ucation in)icators generall& matche) or ere better than the a%erage

!er ormance o mi))le income countries )es!ite hina-s %er& lo le%els o !er ca!ita

income. /& com!arison, in the !erio) o mar#et9oriente) re orm, hina has allen

behin) other lo an) mi))le income countries in the im!ro%ement o basic health an)

e)ucation in)icators )es!ite hina-s s!ectacular economic gro th. 4

hina-s mar#et9oriente) re orm o iciall& starte) in 0121. During the irst ten to

i teen &ears, some salient eatures o the re orm inclu)e)C brea#ing u! o rural

communes, )esignating o S!ecial =conomic


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In the 011+s, the hinese lea)ershi! urther embrace) economic globalization an)

liberalization. 'o ar)s the en) o the 011+s, most o the small an) me)ium9size)

state o ne) enter!rises an) nearl& all o the collecti%el& o ne) enter!rises ere

!ri%atize). Foreign an) )omestic ca!itals are no encourage) to o n sta#es in the

remaining large state o ne) enter!rises. 'he number o S!ecial =conomic


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'he en)less !ursuit o e6!losi%e gro th is not onl& a necessar& outcome o the

ca!italist s&stem. Moreo%er, it is in)is!ensable or the sur%i%al o ca!italism. 'he

o!erations o the ca!italist economic s&stem ten) to cause e%er9rising inequalit& in

income an) ealth )istribution ithin an) bet een states. I not alle%iate) b& some

economic gro th, the ten)enc& to ar)s rising inequalit& coul) soon translate into

absolute )eclines in li%ing stan)ar)s or the great ma>orit& o the orl) !o!ulation,

!ro)ucing a sociall& unsustainable situation.

'he gro ing economic acti%ities are generall& associate) ith the gro ing

consum!tion o material resources. Moreo%er, !ro)uction an) consum!tion !rocesses

generate material astes that ha%e !olluting im!act on the natural en%ironment.

'here ore, unlimite) economic gro th ten)s to )e!lete the resources as ell as cause

en%ironmental )egra)ation. Potentiall&, the consequences coul) be so catastro!hic

that the %er& sur%i%al o the human ci%ilization oul) be at sta#e.

Sometimes !eo!le use the ollo ing ormula to illustrate the im!act o economic

gro th (or ca!italist accumulation* on the en%ironmentC

=n%ironmental Im!act P E A E '

'his is the so9calle) PA' ormula, here P stan)s or !o!ulation, A stan)s or

A luence (measure) b& the le%el o consum!tion !er ca!ita or the le%el o ca!italstoc# !er ca!ita*, an) = stan)s or technolog&, or the en%ironmental im!act !er )ollar

o a luence.

'heoreticall&, i technological !rogress can bring about e%er9lo er en%ironmental

im!act !er )ollar, in !rinci!le !o!ulation an) a luence can gro to in init&. In

!ractice, unless certain basic la s o !h&sics can be %iolate), no !ro)uction or

consum!tion acti%ities can ta#e !lace ithout using some resources or ha%ing some

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im!act on the en%ironment. 'here are !h&sical limits to the re)uction o

en%ironmental im!act o human acti%ities. 'o the e6tent en%ironmental technological

!rogress su ers rom )iminishing returns to scale (that is, more an) more )ollars o

e6!en)itures ma& be require) to accom!lish certain amount o re)uction o

en%ironmental im!act*, there are economic limits as ell. 5

A)mitte)l&, in the Maoist era in)ustrial )e%elo!ment as mainl& ocuse) on creating

a s&stem o social equit&. 'he lin#s bet een natural resources an) social ell9being

ere !oorl& un)erstoo) in man& as!ects. As ba) as some in)ustrial !ractices ere

then, at the aggregate le%el, the e6tent o resource )e!letion an) en%ironmental

)egra)ation ere limite) b& the %er& lo le%els o material consum!tion that

!re%aile) )uring the Maoist era.

As hina shi ts to ar)s a mar#et ca!italist s&stem integrate) in the global ca!italist

econom& an) culture, an) as the hinese econom& e6!an)s at breathta#ing !ace,

resource )e!letion an) en%ironmental )egra)ation no ta#e !lace on gigantic an)

gro ing scales. As hina becomes the global center o manu acturing e6!orts, hina

has simultaneousl& become the center o resource )e!letion an) generation o

in)ustrial astes. hina has become not onl& the orl)-s or#sho! but also the

orl)-s )um!ing groun). Its natural en%ironment is ra!i)l& being !ushe) to the brin#

o colla!se.

In a can)i) inter%ie ith the German magazine Der Spiegel , Pan "ue, hina-s

)e!ut& minister o =n%ironmental Protection A)ministration, a))resse) the

en%ironmental crisesC ?;ur ra materials are scarce, e )on-t ha%e enough lan), an)

our !o!ulation is constantl& gro ing. ities are gro ing, but )esert areas are

e6!an)ing at the same time habitable an) usable lan) has been hal%e) o%er the !ast

5 ;n the limits o technical solutions to the en%ironmental !roblems, see Foster (4++4*.


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8+ &ears. H hina-s GDP miracle ill en) soon because the en%ironment can no

longer #ee! !ace.@

'he situation is )ire not onl& or hina. limate change, ater !ollution an)

shortages, aci) rain, il)li e e6tinction, an) man& other en%ironmental actors a ect

the sustainabilit& o the entire globe.

4. Agricultural rivati!ation and Environmental Degradation

Agriculture is an economic sector that arguabl& has the most intimate relations ith

the en%ironment. /e ore 0121, most hinese armers ere organize) into collecti%e

communes. hina-s mar#et9oriente) re orm began ith de facto !ri%atization o

agricultural !ro)uction. 'he irst ste! as the im!lementation o the amil& contract

s&stem. 'his s&stem bro#e u! the communes an) ga%e contracts o lan) to in)i%i)ual

amilies. Initiall&, agriculture out!ut an) rural incomes increase) signi icantl&. /ut

economic gro th in the rural areas slo e) )o n consi)erabl& in the mi) 013+s. /&

the late 013+s an) earl& 011+s, most rural areas entere) a state o stagnation or e%en

)egeneration. 'o)a&, hina-s rural areas ace an un!rece)ente) social an)

en%ironmental crisis.

Since 0121, the hinese agriculture has been trans orme) through the massi%e use o

chemical ertilizers, !estici)es, an) h&bri) see)s, hich ha) been ma)e !ossible b&

the in)ustrial an) technological buil)9u! in the !re9re orm era. Initiall&, the chemical9 base) agricultures or#e) on)ers, hel!e) b& the ater or#s an) irrigation s&stems

built in the commune era. Fertilizer usage more than )ouble) bet een 0123 an)

0135, hel!ing armers to achie%e recor) har%ests.

Another actor that contribute) to the short9term increase in househol) income as

the e6!loitation o communal assets. For e6am!le, there as no control o%er ram!ant

cutting o trees, hich ere !lante) b& communes o%er the !re%ious B+ &ears as

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in recent &ears has o set all the bene its an) urther e6acerbate) the !roblem. While

man& multi9national automobile cor!orations ha%e ta#en this as an o!!ortunit& to sell

?clean %ehicle technolog&@ to hina, the hole !remise o automobile oriente)

gro th an) urban !lanning nee)s to be calle) into question. For the ma>orit& o the

resi)ents ho still rel& on bic&cles an) !ublic trans!ortation, the& ha%e to su er rom

the ilth& air an) increasing tra ic >ams brought b& the e6!losion o %ehicles. For

e6am!le, the a%erage bus s!ee) in /ei>ing as 0+ miles !er hour in the 013+s. It

)ecrease) to 8 miles !er hour in the 011+s. 7o a)a&s, it is urther re)uce) to a

cra ling 4.8 miles !er hour. In 4++5, hina became the orl)-s ourth largest

!ro)ucer an) thir) largest consumer o automobiles. 'he number o automobiles in

hina is gro ing at 01 !ercent !er &ear. leaner technolog& cannot )eli%er cleaner

air i this tren) is not abate).

!ater Scarcit" and !ater Pollution

hina is acing one o the orl)Ks orst ater shortages. 'he countr& is )i%i)e) into

t o regionsC the ?)r& 7orth@, re erring to all areas north o "angtze basin, an) the

?humi) South@, hich inclu)es the "angtze Ji%er basin an) e%er&thing south o it.

'he north has a !o!ulation o 88+ million, t o9thir)s o the countr&-s cro!lan), an)

one9 i th o the ater. 'he South has a !o!ulation o 2++ million, one9thir) o the

cro!lan), an) our9 i ths o the ater.

'he ater shortage is most serious in the "ello Ji%er basin, in 7orthern hina,hich is generall& consi)ere) the birth!lace o hinese culture. 'he ri%er lo s

though the Loess Plateau, a !lace ith the !lanet-s most e6tensi%e soil erosion. With

se%eral thousan) &ears o continuous culti%ation, much o the natural %egetation is

stri!!e) a a&. 'his is com!oun)e) b& the act that loess soil is note) as being among

the most erosion9!rone soils #no n on the !lanet. 'he ri%er is la)en ith &ello

se)iments, hich gi%e it its name.

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'he )eteriorating abilit& o local %egetation to conser%e ater an) o%er9!um!ing o

groun) ater ha%e shrun# the ri%er-s ater su!!l& in the last se%eral )eca)es. In

0124, the ri%er aile) to reach the sea or the irst time. In 0112, a &ear ith se%ere

)rought, the ri%er aile) to reach its last 2++ #ilometers or 44 )a&s the )r& !erio)

as BB+ )a&s or its last 0B 9#ilometer stretch. 'he )r& runs ha%e se%erel& a ecte)

the normal li e an) !ro)uction o !eo!le along the mi))le an) lo er reaches an) le)

to a urther )eterioration in the local ecolog&. 'here is ierce an) bitter com!etition

or ater bet een the mainl& agricultural u!stream !ro%inces an) more in)ustrialize)

coastal !ro%inces.

Due to ater shortages an) i)es!rea) !ollution o sur ace ater, more cities an)

%illages are increasingl& ta!!ing into un)ergroun) aqui ers. $n)er the 7orth hina

Plain, a region that !ro)uces 5+ !ercent o hinaKs grain, the ater table is )ro!!ing

b& an a%erage o 0.8 meters !er &ear. In 0111, the ater table un)er the ca!ital cit&

/ei>ing )ro!!e) b& 4.8 meters. Since 01 8, the ater table un)er the cit& has allen

b& some 81 meters. What ill !eo!le )o hen the aqui ers are )e!lete) 3

About + !ercent o the ater in se%en ma>or ri%er s&stems the "angtze, "ello ,

:uai, Songhua, :ai, Liao, an) Pearl Ji%er are classi ie) as gra)e IV or orse

meaning, not suitable or human contact. Se%ent&9 i%e !ercent o the la#es su er

rom %arious )egrees o eutro!hication. 'he cul!rits are o ten agriculture runo an)

untreate) aste ater rom in)ustries. 'he hinese armers use 4.B times as muchchemicals ( ertilizers an) !estici)es* as the $.S. armers. About one9thir) o the

in)ustrial aste ater an) t o9thir)s o the munici!al aste ater is release) into

ater a&s ithout an& treatment. 1

3 ;n hina-s ater shortages, see Ma (4++5*.

1

See #uang$in Ri%ao (Guangmin Dail&*, March 45, 4++8, ?B+ !ercent o ater in the se%en ma>or

ri%er s&stem is classi ie) as Gra)e V.@

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In 0115, the go%ernment began a massi%e clean u! cam!aign or the :uai Ji%er, one

o the most !ollute) ri%ers in hina. A ter billions o )ollars ere !oure) into the

cleanu! e ort, the im!ro%ement o the ater qualit& still remains an illusion. =%en

here ater treatment equi!ments are installe), man& com!anies oul) rather !a&

ines instea) o o!erating equi!ment. hina-s State =n%ironmental Protection

A)ministration has so little authorit& that the ines the& le%& are o ten less than

e6!enses o using the ater treatment. So naturall& man& manu acturers choose to

!a& ines instea). Accor)ing to go%ernment estimations, hile ater treatment

acilities are installe) in most ma>or in)ustrial !lants un)er go%ernment man)ate, one9

thir) o these are not o!erate) at all an) another one9thir) are o!erate) onl&

occasionall& .0+

Pollution is e6acerbating the ater scarcit& !roblem. In !re%ious ater rich Pearl

Ji%er Delta an) "angtze Ji%er Delta regions, ater shortages ha%e emerge) in recent

&ears, an) much ater has been ren)ere) unusable )ue to hea%& !ollution.

ontamination is s!rea)ing to un)ergroun) aqui ers as ell it is estimate) that 48

!ercent o the aqui ers are being !ollute).

Land Degradation and Soil Pollution

Accor)ing to the monitoring results o hinaKs State Forestr& A)ministration in 0111,

hina has 4. 2 million square #ilometers o )esert lan), accounting or 42.1 !ercento its total territor& an) the )esert areas are still e6!an)ing at an a%erage rate o

0+,5++ square #ilometers !er &ear. B2 !ercent o the total territor& (B.8 million

square #ilometers* su ers rom %arious )egree o soil erosion. 00

0+ 'he State =n%ironmental Protection A)ministration, &hina's (nviron$ental Situation )rief 4++5.

00

;n statistics o hina-s lan) )egra)ation an) soil erosion, see the State =n%ironmental Protection

A)ministration, &hina's (nviron$ental Situation )rief 4++5.

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Due to actors inclu)ing soil erosion, salination, !ollution, 5+ !ercent o the countr&-s

arable lan) is )egra)e). In recent &ears, ra!i) in)ustrialization an) urbanization are

claiming armlan) at an alarming s!ee). In or)er to !rotect the alrea)& scarce arable

lan), the go%ernment has sti!ulate) an ?arable lan) balance act@C or an& armlan)

con%erte) to in)ustrial, commercial or construction use, the res!onsible !art& has the

inancial obligation to create the same amount o arable lan) some here else. While

this act has slo e) )o n the emergence o lan)less armers, the net e ect is that more

an) more marginal lan)s are reclaime) or culti%ation hile ertile armlan)s are

con%erte) or other uses.

'he remaining armlan)s su er rom !ollution cause) b& agricultural chemicals,

mining acti%ities, an) in)ustrial !ollution. hemical !estici)es ha%e !ollute) some

0B90 million hectares o armlan)s. 4+ million hectares o armlan)s (about one9

i th o the arable lan)* are contaminate) b& hea%& metal (ca)mium, arsenic, lea),

chromium, etc.*. It is estimate) that about 04 million tons o grain is contaminate)

(i.e., harm ul or human consum!tion* an) that !ollution is res!onsible or more than

0+ million tons o re)uce) grain !ro)uction. 04

"angtze Ji%er Delta an) Pearl Ji%er Delta, t o !ros!erous regions )ue to recent ra!i)

e6!ort9oriente) gro th ser%e as t o e6am!les. For centuries, the ertile an) ater

rich ri%er )eltas ere hina-s rice an) ish bas#ets. 'he& still su!!l& the countr& itha consi)erable amount o agricultural !ro)ucts. /ut !robabl& un#no n to most

consumers or e%en gro ers themsel%es, the armlan)s in these regions are su ering

rom e6tensi%e contamination rom hea%& metal an) !ersistent organic !ollutants,

much o it rom !olluting in)ustries outsource) rom the a)%ance) ca!italist

countries, or e%en electronic astes im!orte) rom the $.S. illegall&.

04 &hina Ne*s*ee+ , Nul& 5, 4++8, Fang Ouanchang, ?:o much )irt& earth- is there in hina @

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From 0111 to 4++4, Guang)ong Pro%ince carrie) out a geological sur%e& o 0+,+++

square #ilometer armlan)s in the Pearl Ji%er Delta region. 'he& oun) that onl& 0+.

!ercent o the lan) can be classi ie) as clean, B8.1 !ercent is me)iall& or hea%il&

!ollute), an) the rest is lightl& !ollute). 5 !ercent o the lan) is contaminate) b&

ca)mium an) 04. !ercent is contaminate) b& mercur&. 0B

'he "angtze Ji%er Delta e6hibits a similar situation. Scientists ha%e oun) 0 #in)s o

PA:s an) more than 0++ #in)s o P /s, both are highl& carcinogenic !ersistent

organic !ollutants. In a 4++4 sur%e& b& 7an>ing Agriculture $ni%ersit&, more than 2+

!ercent o the soil sam!les ere oun) ith abo%e9normal le%els o hea%& metal.

:ighl& contaminate) grains inclu)ing ?mercur& rice,@ ?lea) rice,@ an) ?ca)mium

rice@ ha%e been oun) in the mar#et. 05

'. China$ (lo)al Energ* Crisis$ and Climate Change

Accor)ing to International =nerg& Agenc&, hina accounte) or 2.4 !ercent o the

orl)-s total !rimar& energ& consum!tion in 012B an) 0B.8 !ercent in 4++B. /et een

012B an) 4++B, the orl) energ& consum!tion e6!an)e) at an a%erage annual rate o

0.1 !ercent an) hina-s energ& consum!tion e6!an)e) at an a%erage annual rate o

5.+ !ercent. 08 I hina-s energ& consum!tion #ee!s gro ing at this rate, it ill )ouble

in less than 4+ &ears. In recent &ears, hina-s energ& )eman) actuall& accelerate).

From 4+++ to 4++5, hina as res!onsible or 5+ !ercent o the orl)-s total increasein energ& consum!tion.

0B &hina Ne*s*ee+ , Nul& 5, 4++8, Liu Li&ing, ?the Pearl Ji%er DeltaC !oisone) lan)@.

05

&hina Ne*s*ee+ , Nul& 5, 4++8, hen Niang, ?the "angtze Ji%er DeltaC the )angerous metal lan)@.08 ;n international energ& statistics, see I=A (4++8*.

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oal accounts or about three9quarter o hina-s !rimar& energ& consum!tion. ;il

an) natural gas account or about one9 i th. 7uclear an) rene able energies together

account or less than !ercent an) their share has not increase) o%er the recent &ears.

'he e6!losion o !ri%ate %ehicles in recent &ears (at 01 !ercent annual gro th rate*

lea)s to ra!i) increase in oil consum!tion. hina currentl& im!orts B4 !ercent o its

oil an) the nee) or im!orte) oil is e6!ecte) to )ouble bet een no an) 4+0+. /&

4+4+, hina-s )e!en)ence on im!orte) oil coul) e6cee) 8+ !ercent an) b& 4+8+, it

coul) e6cee) 3+ !ercent. 0

It might be argue) that hina uses its energ& much more aste ull& than a)%ance)

ca!italist countries an) there ore there is great !otential or hina to uel its ra!i)

economic gro th ith im!ro%ement in energ& e icienc& rather than rising energ&

consum!tion. 'he argument is in act base) on la e) statistics. hina )oes a!!ear

to ha%e much lo er energ& e icienc& i its GDP is measure) b& the mar#et e6change

rate. :o e%er, measure) b& !urchasing !o er !arit& that better re lects the material

lo s o goo)s an) ser%ices, hina-s energ& consum!tion !er )ollar o GDP is higher

than the orl) a%erage onl& b& about 0+ !ercent, an) higher than the ;= D countries

b& about 4+ !ercent. 'his suggests that this is onl& limite) sco!e or hina to

im!ro%e energ& e icienc& in the uture. 'able 0 com!ares hina-s energ&

consum!tion in relation to !o!ulation, economic out!ut, an) greenhouse gas

emissions ith selecte) regions in the orl).

hina-s gro ing )eman) or energ& an) thirst or oil ta#e !lace against the

bac#groun) o a )e%elo!ing global energ& crisis. 'he orl) currentl& )e!en)s on oil

an) gas or 8 !ercent an) all orms o ossil uels or 3+ !ercent o its total !rimar&

energ& consum!tion. 'here is gro ing e%i)ence that global oil an) gas !ro)uction

coul) reach a !ea# an) start to )ecline in the coming )eca)e. A gro ing )e!en)ence

0 ;n a sur%e& o hina-s energ& )eman)s an) su!!l& !otentials, see Shao (4++0*.

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on coal oul) accelerate the )e!letion o coal an) greatl& orsen the im!act on

global arming. In the oreseeable uture it is highl& unli#el& that the %arious orms

o rene able energies can re!lace the ossil uels to sustain the current le%els o orl)

energ& consum!tion an) uture economic gro th. 'he current hinese gro th

!attern coul) greatl& accelerate the coming o the global energ& crisis an) lea) to

!otentiall& %er& )angerous geo!olitical situations .02

hina-s !er ca!ita emission rate o greenhouse gases is onl& about one tenth o that o

$.S. /ut )ue to its huge !o!ulation o 0.B billion !eo!le, the total emission is

consi)erable. 7e6t to the $.S., hina is alrea)& the secon) largest Green :ouse

Gases emitter in the orl). With the current GDP gro th tren), it is estimate) that

hina ma& e6cee) the $.S. as the to! emitter in 4+4+.

limate mo)els !re)ict that global arming oul) cause less rain all in northern

hina an) more rain all in southern hina. 'his is consistent ith obser%ations in

recent &ears. 'here has been a continuous )rought in the 7orth hina Plain since the

013+s, hile loo)ing )isasters ha%e ha!!ene) requentl& in southern hina. 'his

im!act has been es!eciall& enhance) since the 011+s. limate change coul) lea) to a

)ro! o bet een 4+ an) B2 !ercent in hinaKs &iel) o rice, heat an) maize o%er the

ne6t 4+ to 3+ &ears, accor)ing to a re!ort !ublishe) in Se!tember 4++5 b& the hinese

an) /ritish go%ernments. In short, climate change ma& greatl& e6acerbate hina-s

ater crisis an) threaten its oo) securit&. 03

02 ;n the e%i)ence an) issues relate) to the global !ea# o oil !ro)uction, see Mc#illo! (4++8*. ;n the

limits o nuclear an) rene able energies, see 'rainer (4++8*.

03

WebsiteC htt!CQQ .)e ra.go%.u#Qen%ironmentQclimatechangeQchinare!ortQchina9climatechange.!) .

?In%estigating the im!acts o climate change on hinese agriculture.@

0

http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/chinareport/china-climatechange.pdfhttp://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatechange/chinareport/china-climatechange.pdf


18/23

+. Environmental In,ustice and Environmental -nrest: Class Issues in the

Environmental Crisis

In recent &ears, there has been gro ing en%ironmental a areness among hina-s

urban resi)ents. In 0111, the Social Sur%e& Institute o hina sur%e&e) househol)s in

/ei>ing, Shanghai, 'ian>in, Guangzhou, hongqing, Wuhan, an) other cities on issues

that most concern citizens. =n%ironmental !rotection as the secon) highest !riorit&,

onl& a ter corru!tion. 'han#s in !art to increasing !ublic !ressure, the ca!ital cit&

/ei>ing an) a han) ul o other big cities are being cleane) u!. For e6am!le, /ei>ing

has mo%e) nearl& 0B+ actories out o the cit&. leaner, gas9 uele) !o er stations are

being built hile ol)er ones are being retro itte) ith scrubbers. Man& en%ironmental

7G;s in /ei>ing ha%e been instrumental in the !rocess. 01

;ne !rogressi%e scholar commente) on the issue, ?It is not clear to me hether these

organizations are !racticing en%ironmentalism or en%ironmental im!erialism.@ 'he

criticism is not un arrante). Instea) o being retro itte) to re)uce !ollution, man&

!olluting actories are sim!l& being relocate) to !oorer areas. Instea) o treating

aste ater, man& cities are )igging long )itches to sen) the ater a a&. While

/ei>ing an) Shanghai are increasingl& su!!lie) ith natural gas rom estern hina,

man& !eo!le an) actories in the gas9!ro)ucing areas ha%e to !urchase coal

(sometimes rom other areas ar a a&* or their o n energ& nee)s because much o

the cleaner uel is reser%e) or )istant big cities. As a consequence o these un air

!ractices, the rural !o!ulation su ers rom en%ironmental )egra)ation)is!ro!ortionabl&.

:ea%& metal !ollution ser%es as an e6am!le. Farmers !la& no !art in creating it the

!ro it9ma#ing ca!italist in)ustr& )oes. "et the armers bear the consequences, o ten

01

;n the gro ing en%ironmental a areness o hina-s urban resi)ents, see =conom& (4++8*. =lizabeth

=conom&, ?'he Ji%er Juns /lac#@, ornell $ni%ersit& Press, 4++8.

02


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ithout an& orm o com!ensation. Joughl& 4+ million hectares o armlan)s are

contaminate) b& hea%& metals. Gi%en the a%erage size o a amil& arm, that

translates into about 0B+ million armers ho are negati%el& im!acte). In some o the

orst hot s!ots, !ollution has become a li e an) )eath issue. In Shaan6i Pro%ince, in a

small %illage o onl& 085 !eo!le, there ha%e been B+ )eaths )ue to cancer o%er the

!ast 42 &ears. 4+ In :uangmeng&ing, a %illage o about 4,5++, there ha%e been 005

cancer )eaths o%er the !ast 05 &ears. 'he nearb& Sha&ing Ji%er is so !ollute) b&

in)ustrial aste that the ater is sometimes blac# li#e so& sauce. Accor)ing to :uo

Daishan, an in)e!en)ent en%ironmentalist, there are more than 4+ cancer %illages

along the ri%er in Shenqiu ount& alone. 40 Along some stretches o the :uai Ji%er,

the )eath rate is one thir) higher than !ro%incial a%erage, an) the cancer rate is t ice

the !ro%incial a%erage.

While the armers ma& be ignorant about the en%ironmental im!acts o the !olluting

in)ustries at the earl& stages, it is ob%ious to them that something is rong hen the

ri%er runs blac# or hen &oung chil)ren )ie rom cancer one a ter another. "et

o tentimes the cries an) !etitions rom the rural %ictims all on )ea ears o the local

o icials. 'he o icials are being e%aluate) b& GDP numbers, an) en%ironmental

)egra)ation is not ta#en into account at all. 'he local go%ernment )e!en)s on the

ta6es an) re%enues generate) b& the actories. In some cases, the o icials themsel%es

are big sharehol)ers o the !olluting actories, an) thus ha%e a )irect interest to #ee!

the actories running an) #ee! the e6!enses as lo as !ossible.When the %ictims ha%e no legitimate means to a))ress their grie%ances, social unrest

is una%oi)able. In the eastern !ro%ince o iang, there ha%e been three big

!ollution9relate) !rotests since A!ril 4++8. =ach in%ol%e) thousan)s or e%en tens o

4+ #ongren Ri%ao (Wor#er Dail&*, a re!ort a!!eare) in earl& Nune 4++0, ?:ea%& metals ma#e %illage

cancer rates [email protected] &hina Dail" , ;ctober 01, 4++5, Wang Niaquan, ?Ji%ersi)e %illages count cancer cases.@

03


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thousan)s !rotestors. In the A!ril e%ent that ha!!ene) in :ua6i %illage, more than

4+,+++ %illagers con ronte) an) )ro%e o B,+++ !olice ho ere sent in to brea# u! a

!rotest against an in)ustrial !ar#. In the most recent August e%ent, !rotestors set ire

to buil)ings o a batter& manu acturer that is belie%e) to be res!onsible or lea)

!oisoning in the region. It is note orth& that iang is a !ros!erous coastal region

an) in recent &ears it has en>o&e) one o the highest economic gro th rates among all

!ro%inces. "et the local !eo!le are increasingl& sa&ing ?no@ to this mo)el o

)e%elo!ment.

. Conclusion

a!italist economic gro th in hina is sustainable. I the current gro th !attern

continues, in the not %er& )istant uture, hina might ha%e to struggle ith ma>or

energ& crisis, )rastic )eclines in oo) !ro)uction, e6haustion o usable ater

resources, uncontrollable !ublic health crisis, as ell as catastro!hic natural )isasters.

7ot onl& the hinese econom& oul) ha%e to gro an) the e6isting social structure

oul) colla!se, the !otential consequences on the !o!ulation coul) be too horri ic to

imagine.

;n the other han), it is %er& unli#el& that hina-s an) the global en%ironmental

!roblems can be e ecti%el& a))resse) un)er the e6isting ca!italist institutional

rame or#. 'he !ursuit o !ro it an) accumulation as ell as the o!erations o the

global ca!italist mar#et is )ri%ing hina ine6orabl& onto the !ath o en%ironmentalsel 9)estruction.

'o !re%ent such a sel 9)estruction rom ha!!ening, it is necessar& to un)amentall&

trans orm the entire e6isting social an) economic structure. 'he econom& must be

oriente) to ar)s meeting the !o!ulations- basic nee)s rather than the !ursuit o !ro it

an) ca!ital accumulation. 'o stabilize an) im!ro%e hina- en%ironmental con)itions,

hina nee)s to irst o all stabilize its o%erall consum!tion o energ&, ater, an) lan)

01


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resources an) then gra)uall& re)uce the consum!tion o these resources to sustainable

le%els.

'his raises the question on ho to meeting the !o!ulation-s basic nee)s at relati%el&

lo le%els o consum!tion o energ& an) resources. /oth historical e%i)ence an)

theoretical arguments oul) !oint out that this can in no a& be accom!lishe) un)er

a mar#et ca!italist s&stem. 'he onl& ho!e lies ith a socialist econom& base) on

!ublic o nershi! o the means o !ro)uction an) )emocratic !lanning. In this

res!ect, the success o Maoist hina in a))ressing !eo!le-s basic nee)s ith limite)

material resources coul) certainl& !ro%i)e %aluable lessons or the uture e orts o

social trans ormation in hina.

4+


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0a)le 1

Energ* Consumption$ opulation$ and Economic utput

(4++B*E

Jegion 'P=S Q

Po!ulation

'P=S Q GDP 'P=S Q GDP

(PPP*

; 4 Q 'P=S

hina 0.0+ +.14 +.4B 4. 5

;= D 5. 2 +.4+ +.01 4.B2

Mi))le =ast 4.84 +. +.B3 4.53

Former $SSJ B.B 4.04 +.80 4.B3

7on9;= D =uro!e 0.31 +.2 +.42 4.8

Asia (e6. hina* +. 0 +.24 +.01 0.10

Latin America 0.+2 +.B4 +.0 0.3B

A rica +. +.32 +.B+ 0.B

Worl) 0. 1 +.B4 +.40 4.B

E 'P=S stan)s or total !rimar& energ& su!!lies measure) b& tons o stan)ar) oil,

hich equal consum!tion. ; 4 stan)s or carbon )io6i)e emissions measure) b&

tons.

SourceC I=A (4++8*.

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