children of seasonal migrant workers

Bernard van Leer Foundat ion

Inves t ing in the development of young chi ldren

ear lych i ldhoodmagazine.org bernardvan lee r.o rg

The Bernard van Leer Foundation funds and shares knowledge about work in early childhood development. The Foundation was established in 1949 and is based in the Netherlands. Our income is derived from the sale of Royal Packaging Industries van Leer N.V., bequeathed to the Foundation by Dutch industrialist and philanthropist Bernard van Leer (1883 to 1958).

Our mission is to improve opportunities for children up to age 8 who are growing up in socially and economically difficult circumstances. We see this both as a valuable end in itself and as a long-term means of promoting more cohesive, considerate and creative societies with equal opportunities and rights for all. We work primarily by supporting programmes implemented by local partners. These include public, private and community-based organisations. Working through partnerships is intended to build local capacity, promote innovation and flexibility, and help to ensure that the work we fund is culturally and contextually appropriate.

We also aim to leverage our impact by working with influential allies to advocate for young children. Our free publications share lessons we have learned from our own grantmaking activities and feature agenda-setting contributions from outside experts. Through our publications and advocacy, we aim to inform and influence policy and practice not only in the countries where we operate but globally.

In our current strategic plan, we are pursuing three programme goals: reducing violence in young children’s lives, taking quality early education to scale, and improving young children’s physical environments. We are pursuing these goals in eight countries – Peru, India, the Netherlands, Israel, Uganda, Turkey, Brazil and Tanzania – as well as undertaking a regional approach within the European Union.

Children of seasonalmigrant workers

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Early Childhood Matters is a journal about early childhood.

It looks at specif ic issues regarding the development

of young children, in particular from a psychosocial

perspective. It is published twice per year by the Bernard

van Leer Foundation. The views expressed in Early Childhood

Matters are those of the authors and do not necessarily

reflect those of the Bernard van Leer Foundation. Work

featured is not necessarily funded by the Bernard van Leer

Foundation.

© Bernard van Leer Foundation, 2013

Reproduction of ar ticles by photocopying or electronic

means for non-commercial purposes is permit ted. However,

it is requested that the author, Early Childhood Matters and

Bernard van Leer Foundation are cited as the source of the

information. Permission must be obtained to use photos.

ISSN 1387-9553

Cover: Seasonal migrant workers camp in Konya, Turkey

Photo: Selim Iltus/Bernard van Leer Foundation

Early Childhood Matters is also published in Spanish:

Espacio para la Infancia (ISSN 1566-6476). Both publications

are available electronically on earlychildhoodmagazine.org

and single hard copies can be requested free of charge.

Bernard van Leer Foundation

PO Box 82334

2508 EH The Hague, The Netherlands

Tel: +31 (0)70 331 2200

www.bernardvanleer.org

Series editor Teresa Moreno

Consultant editor Andrew Wright

Text edited by Margaret Mellor

Design Homemade Cookies (cookies.nl)

3 • Ear ly Ch i ldhood Mat ters • November 2013

5 Realitiesoflifeforchildrenofseasonalmigrantworkers

Selim Iltus

8 Anearlychildhoodprogrammetailoredtomigrantandseasonalfarmworkers’children

Guadalupe Cuesta and Kevin Skolnik

12 Healthrisksforchildrenofseasonalmigrantagriculturalworkers

Martin Donohoe

14 Informationmap:Livingconditionsandyoungchildren

16 SeasonalagriculturalmigrationinTurkeyandyoungchildren

Özsel Beleli

20 Seasonalmigrants’realities:astudyof686Turkishhouseholds

Müge Artar

23 ThechildrenofseasonalmigrantsinTurkeyarestillvulnerable

Mehmet Ülger and Astrid van Unen

27 AhealthyandsafeenvironmentforyoungmigrantsaturbanIndianworksites

Umi Daniel

31 TheHumara Bachpancampaign:asuccessforseasonalmigrantchildreninOdisha

Jyoti Prakash Brahma

35 Meetingmigrantfamilies’needsthroughon-sitecrèches

Mridula Bajaj and Mayanka Gupta

39 PoliticalactionforthechildrenofseasonalmigrantfarmlabourersinMexico

Patricia Urbieta and Claudia Cabrera

43 ‘Familiesmustbesupported’:aviewfromtheprivatesector

Dora Isabel Ochoa Aguilar

47 Childrenofseasonalagriculturalmigrantworkers:anAfricanperspective

Moussa Harouna Sambo

49 Cashtransfers,information,andseasonalmigration

Karen Macours

Contents

4• Bernard van Leer Foundat ion

‘ The Bernard van Leer Foundat ion’s interest in the chi ldren of seasonal migrant workers is inspi red by our strategic goal to improve chi ldren’s heal th by improving the i r l iv ing condi t ions.’

Often, migrant workers and their families live in makeshift tents or shacks without water, sanitation, health services or play areas. Photo • Courtesy U-producties


Selim Iltus, the Bernard van Leer Foundation’s Research and Evaluation Officer, introduces the articles in this edition of Early Childhood Matters and explains why children of seasonal migrant workers face particular challenges that require our special attention.

ThisissueofEarly Childhood Mattersfocusesonanalmostinvisiblepopulation.Mostofusaresurprisedtolearnhowmanypeoplefrequentlymigrateinsearchofwork.Forexample,itisestimatedthatthereare5millionmigrantworkersintheuSA,andinIndiatheirnumbersreachhundredsofmillions.

Howisitpossibleforsuchalargegrouptoremaininvisible?Systemsforcollectingdataandinformationtendtofocusonsettledpopulationsandoverlookthosewhomovearoundalot.Seasonalmigrantworkerskeepmovingfromonelocationtoanother,typicallynotstayinglongenoughtogetontotheradaroflocalgovernments.Thisisoneofthebiggestchallengesforresearchersandgovernmentauthoritieswhotrytomapthesituationoftheseworkerssothattheycanprovidetherightlevelofservices.Manyofthearticlesinthisissuehighlighthowseasonalmigrantworkersrarelygetthebasicservicesthatarecriticalforthemandtheirchildren.

Eveniflocalgovernmentandmunicipalentitiescouldaccuratelytrackmigrantsandtheirneeds,meetingthoseneedsrequirescoordinationamongmanydifferentagencies:health,education,water,sanitation,housing,anddaycare,amongothers.Suchcoordinatedeffortsareextremelydifficult.

Afurtherproblemisthatpeoplewhotravelfrequentlyfinditinherentlymoredifficulttoorganisethemselves.ThereisthereforealackofngOsseekingtofocustheattentionofthepublicandpolicymakersonseasonalmigrants’needs.

TheBernardvanLeerFoundation’sinterestinthechildrenofseasonalmigrantworkersisinspiredbyourstrategicgoaltoimprovechildren’shealthbyimprovingtheirlivingconditions.Whiletheyareawayfromtheir

homes,migrantworkersandtheirfamiliestypicallyliveinhorribleconditionsonornearthesiteswheretheyareworking.Asdocumentedbyarticlesinthisissue,oftentheyliveinmakeshifttentsorshackswithoutwater,sanitation,healthservicesorplayareas.

Whiletheseconditionsaredeplorableforallagegroups,themostvulnerableareyoungchildren.Stilltooyoungtogotothefieldstoworkwiththeirparents,theyareoftenabandonedinthecampsforlonghours,eitheraloneorundertheinadequatesupervisionofonlyveryslightlyoldersiblings.DuringavisittoacampinTurkey,Iwitnessedaveryyoungchildsittingaloneinanemptytent,playingwithalarge,sharpknife.

Acarefulreaderofthearticlesinthisissuewillimmediatelyrecognisethattheproblemsfacingthemigrantworkers,andtheconsequencesfortheiryoungchildren,transcendnationalboundaries.TheyarereflectedindetailinarticlesincludingthosebyMügeArtar(Turkey),PatriciaurbietaandClaudiaCabrera(Mexico),umiDaniel(India)andMartinDonohoe(uSA).Inaddition,MoussaHarounaSamboprovidesanAfricanperspective,highlightingtheissueoffathersleavingtheirfamiliestofindworkandsometimesneverreturning.

Thisissuealsoincludessomeverycreativeandpromisinginterventionsdesignedtoimprovethelivesofthechildrenformigrantworkers.TheHyderabadModelinIndia,describedinthearticlebyumiDaniel,triestosolvetheshelterissuebydesigningandprovidingimprovedhousingtothefamilies.Healsodescribeshowthisinterventionhasprovidedsafeplayspacesforchildrenwhopreviouslywereafraidtogooutsidebecauseoftherisksofaccidentsorabuse.

JyotiPrakashBrahmapresentsanotherinnovativeprogramme,alsofromIndia,showinghowthepoornutritionalstatusofchildrencanbeimprovedbyprovidingmealsthroughlocalICDScentres.Theprogrammeistryingtostrengthenthisapproachthroughextensivelobbyingandbysupportingthedevelopmentofguidelines.

Edi tor ia l

Real i t ies of l i fe for chi ldren of seasonal migrant workersSe l im I l tus, Research and Eva luat ion Of f ice r, Bernard van Leer Foundat ion


ThearticlebyguadalupeCuestaandKevinSkolnikexplainstheMigrantSeasonalHeadstartprogrammeintheuSA,whichaddressestheproblemofseverelackofchildcareservicesformigrantfamilies.Thestrengthoftheprogrammecomesfromitssensitivitytowardsneedsandlivingpatternsofthefamiliesitisserving–forexample,bykeepingtheservicehoursextremelylong(5a.m.to7p.m.,6daysaweek)andcarefullyconsideringtheculturalrelevanceoftheprogrammeforthepeopleitserves.Thiscanserveasamodelformanynewprogrammesthatarebeingdesignedforseasonalmigrantsinothercountries.

Dowehavehardevidenceshowingthatthesetypesofinterventionsdowork?ArticlesfromIndia(byMridulaBajajandMayankagupta)andnicaragua(byKarenMacours)notonlydescribeeffectiveinterventions,

abutalsoprovidestrongevidenceabouttheirpositiveimpactsonchildren.InIndia,daycareandeducationalservicesdeliveredbyMobileCrèchesresultedinastrongimprovementinchildindicators.Forexample,after200daysofexposure,childrenscoredat91%intermsoftheircognitiveskillscomparedto67%forthecontrolgroup,whohadfewerthan100daysofexposure.Similarimprovementswerealsorecordedinchildren’slanguage,sensory-motorandsocial-emotionalskills.Innicaragua,theinterventionincludedaConditionalCashTransfer(CCT)programme,wheretheconditionwasparticipationineducationalprogrammesonnutritionandhealth.Preliminaryfindingsindicatethatsimplyprovidingextracashtofamiliesisnotenough,andprovidinginformationcanbeevenmoreeffective.

“During a visit to a camp in Turkey, I witnessed a very young child sit ting alone in an empty tent, playing with a large, sharp knife.”Photo • Selim Iltus


Thereisdefinitelymoreresearchneededinthisarea,sincethefindingscanhavesignificantimplicationsfordevelopingpolicy.

Themainrequirementwithallthesesolutionsandprogrammesistospreadthemsothattheycanreachalltheseasonalworkerfamilieswhoneedthem.Thiswillbeanimmensetask,requiringnotonlypoliticalcommitmentandfunding,butalsocoordinationamongministries,municipalitiesandcivilserviceorganisations.

ThiseditionofEarly Childhood Matters givesstrongcluesaboutwhatkindofactionisneeded.InherarticlefromTurkey,ÖzselBelelirecommendsthreelevelsofaction:theneedtoaddresstherootcauseofseasonalmigration;theneedtoimprovethelegalframeworkanddeveloppolicies;andtheneedtoimprovelivingconditionsandservicestoseasonalmigrantsthroughprojectscarriedoutatthelocallevel.

Thefirstissueshouldnotbeoverlooked,asmigrantworkerstraveltodistantlandstofindworkonlybecausetheylackjobopportunitiesinorneartheirhomelocations.unlesstheavailabilityoflocaljobsincreases,theirnumberswillnotdiminish.Furthermore,bettereconomicopportunitiesnearmigrants’hometownsisvitaltogivethenextgenerationalternativeopportunitiestoearnaliving.Often,childrenofseasonalmigrantworkersslipintothesamedifficultandimpoverishedlifestylebecausetheyhavenootheroptions,startingtowork–atanagethatmaydefylawsonchildlabour–whentheyshouldstillbecompletingtheireducation.

Itisalsoimportanttobringtotheattentionofdecisionmakersandthepublicthelackofalegalframeworkinmanycountriestoprotecttherightsofmigrantworkersandtheirchildren:minimumwageregulations,unemploymentinsurance,healthcareandsoforth.Evenwherethepoliciesexist,inmanycasestheyarenotbeingfullyimplemented.

Effectivecampaignscanandshouldincludestrikingmessagesandtools.Intheirarticle,MehmetÜlgerandAstridvanunengiveanexcellentexampleofthisbyshowinghowawell-madeshortdocumentaryfilminTurkeyonthisissuegeneratedintensediscussionevenoutsidethecountry,andislikelytoleadtopositiveaction.

Ülgerandvanunen’sarticlealsodrawsattentiontotheimportanceofconsideringallbeneficiariesfromtheworkofseasonalmigrantworkers,includinglandowners,agriculturalagents,whomatchseasonalworkerswithlandowners,companieswhichbuyandselltheproductsgeneratedbythemigrantworkers–includingwell-knownmultinationals–and,ultimately,consumers.

Solutionsshouldseektoengagetheactiveparticipationoftheprivatesector.Amodelforhowsociallyresponsiblecompaniescansupportthemigrantworkerstheyemploy–andtheirfamilies–isprovidedbytheMexicantomato-growingenterpriseAgrícolaBelHer.Theinterviewwiththeirhumanresourcesmanager,DoraIsabelOchoaAguilar,highlightspracticeswhichwewouldencourageallemployersofseasonalmigrantworkerstoemulatetoengagetheactiveparticipationoftheprivatesector.


An ear ly chi ldhood programme tai lored to migrant and seasonal farmworkers’ chi ldrenGuadalupe Cues ta, D i rec tor, Nat iona l Migrant/Seasona l Head Star t Co l laborat ion Of f ice, and Kev in Sko ln ik ,Program Of f ice r, Nat iona l Migrant/Seasona l Head Star t, Wash ington DC, USA

1

In the United States, the Migrant/Seasonal Head Start programme (MSHS) seeks to ensure that the children of seasonal migrant farmworkers do not miss out on the early childhood services. This article describes how MSHS, set up in 1969, provides essential support such as free childcare for 10–12 hours a day, and transporting children to preschool services and health care facilities.

I was on the phone with my 77-year-old mother. She mentioned that she had been thinking of the years when we migrated to the Northern States. We were migrant farm workers and traveled throughout the Midwestern states following the harvest of crops. Mother mentioned a certain year in Michigan when during the cherry harvest the only place available to live was a tent located at the edge of the orchard. The dirt had been covered with bricks and stones to make a floor but even so when it rained the water leaked into the tent and the ‘floor’ became a muddy mess. She asked me,

‘How did we put up with living like that?’ I replied that I didn’t know. As a child it did not occur to me to think that things should not be so.

This isaquotefrom ElidaPerezKnapp,recallingherchildhood,whenMigrantandSeasonalHeadStartprogrammesdidnotexist.MSHSwascreatedasaresultoffierceadvocacyandlobbyingformigrantfarmworkerrightsbyleadersandorganisationssuchasCesarChavez,DoloresHuerta,EdwardR.Murrow,andthenationalFarmWorkersAssociation(nFWA),tonameafew.Inresponsetotheincreasedawarenessoftheplightofthemigrantfarmworkerthattheseandothersworkedformanyyearstobringabout,thefederalgovernmentcreatedtheMSHSprogrammein1969toaddresstheuniqueneedsofmigrantfarmworkerfamilies(MartinezandRodriguezJr,2013).2

In addition to transportation, access to health care is dif ficult for migrant farmworkers and their families. Photo • Migrant and Seasonal Head Start programs. Courtesy of Academy for Educational Development


ForfamilieslikeElida’s,earningalivelihoodwasdifficult.Thechallengesofpiecingtogethertemporaryagriculturalworkalongthousand-milemigrantstreams,however,stillexist.AsElidasays: Migrant families today face many of the same issues as they

travel in search of work. Families deal with substandard housing, low wages and difficulty finding jobs. Fortunately, thanks to programmes and services like Migrant and Seasonal Head Start, families now have a way to access the necessary resources to help make their journeys easier. Organisations at the local, state and national level are constantly networking and collaborating with each other, and advocating on behalf of migrant families in an effort to ensure that their needs are not forgotten. As a result, migrant families have a voice via staff/programmes who work passionately advocating on behalf of children living in poverty.

ThisarticleexploreshowMSHShelpsmigrantfamiliestomeetthechallengestheyfaceinbringinguptheiryoungchildren.

The challenges of migrant and seasonal farmworker

families

Duetothetemporarynatureofwork,beingavailableonlyduringharvestseason,familiesmustcontinuouslyandfrequentlyuproot.Workopportunitiesofteninvolve10-to12-hourworkdaysofstrenuouslabourupto6daysaweek(MartinezandRodriguezJr,2013).

Inparticular,someofthebiggestchallengesthatMSHSwasdesignedtoaddressaretransportation,healthcare,childcare,language,culturaldifferences,andaccesstoqualityearlychildhoodeducation.Transportationfromoneworksitetothenextisdifficult.Afamilymustpackeverythingtheyownintoonevehicle,andwhattheyhavemustsustainthemthroughouttheirmigration.Eachmigrationmaylast8to10months.Inaddition,familymembersarelikelytofindemploymentindifferentfields,sotransportingallfamilymemberstoworkusingasharedvehicleisanissue.Doctor’sappointmentsorschooleventsmaybemissedduetolackofavailabletransport.

Inadditiontotransportation,accesstohealthcareisdifficultformigrantfarmworkersandtheirfamilies.

ManyfamiliesqualifyforMedicaid,butitisnotportablefromonestatetothenext,sotheyarenotcoveredastheytravelandhavetocontinuallyreapply.Eachtimeafamilyreapplies,delaysinprocessingleaveparentsandchildrenwithoutcriticalcoverage.Someseasonalandmigrantfarmworkerfamiliesdonothaveaccesstoanyhealthinsurance.Forthesefamilies,thepriceoffee-for-servicehealthcareisprohibitivelyhigh,especiallyforpreventivecare.Healthcareiscriticalforthispopulation,duemainlytothehigh-riskenvironmentinwhichtheywork,involvingsuchfactorsashardphysicallabourandexposuretotoxicpesticides.

However,themostperiloussituationsoccurwhenfamiliescannotfindchildcare.Childcareisessentialtothesurvivalofthefarmworkerfamily.Withnoreliablesourceofchildcare,familiesareforcedtobringtheirchildrenintothefieldsduringthelengthyworkday,exposingthechildrentopoisonouschemicalsanddangerousfarmingequipment.Iffamiliesdonotbringtheirchildrenintothefields,theymaybeforcedtoleavethemwithanoldersiblingwhomaynotbematureorknowledgeableenoughtocareforyoungchildren.Thefinaloptionisthatfamiliesleavetheirchildrenwithsomeonethattheydon’tknowwell.Eachofthesechoicesisapotentiallydangerouschildcaresituation.

Otherkeydifficultiesthatmigrantandseasonalfarmworkerfamiliesencounterarelanguageandculturalbarriers.Thesebarriersmakeitdifficultforfamiliestointeractwithanyoneoutsideoftheirinsularcommunities.AvastmajorityofthesefamiliesspeakSpanishastheirprimarylanguage.Inaddition,languageandculturalbarrierskeepfamiliesfromaccessingmuch-neededcommunityresources.Isolationandlimitedresourcesmakesurvivalandsuccessdifficulttoattain.

Onefinalmajorchallengethatmigrantandseasonalfarmworkersfaceisgainingaccesstoqualityearlychildhoodeducation.Migrantfarmworkerfamiliesplaceahighvalueoneducation.Itisviewedasapathtoabetterqualityoflifeandanopportunityforchildrentogainbetteremploymentthanthatoftheirfarmworker


parents.Likeallparents,migrantandseasonalfarmworkerswanttheirchildrentogetaheadstartontheireducationinordertoachievetheirfullpotentialandaspirations.

Migrant and Seasonal Head Start: a tailored solution

TheMigrantandSeasonalHeadStartmodelhashelpedmigrantandseasonalfarmworkerfamiliesovercomethesemyriadchallenges.MSHSwasadaptedfromtheHeadStartmodel: Head Start was launched in 1965 as a part of President Lyndon B.

Johnson’s War on Poverty. The goal of Head Start was to create a child development programme that could reach preschool children in low-income families in an effort to help break the cycle of poverty by providing early childhood education and comprehensive social services designed to meet the emotional, social, health, nutritional and psychological needs of young children and their families.

(MartinezandRodriguezJr,2013)

MSHSistailoredtoaddresschallengesthatmigrantfarmworkersface.Forinstance,MSHSaddressestheissueoftransportation.MSHSisoneofthefewearlychildhoodeducationprogrammesthattransportschildrentoandfromMSHSpreschoolcentres.Becausemigrantandseasonalfarmworkerparentsareworkingduringtheday,MSHSprogrammesalsoprovidetransportforchildrentorequiredmedical,dental,orotherneededservices.Parentscanattendtotheirworkintheknowledgethattheirchildwillvisitthedoctorordentistandreceivethecaretheyneed.

MSHSleadsthewayinhealthcarebyassistingfamiliesingettingthemedicalattentiontheyneed.Tobridgethegap,MSHSprogrammesutiliseacollaborativerelationshipwithfederallyfundedhealthcentres.Partneringwithhealthcentresallowsforexpediteddeliveryofservicesforfamiliesduringtheshortwindowoftimetheyareatasite.Bycollaborating,MSHSprogrammesandhealthcentresalsomaximiseresourcesandreduceduplicationofservices.Healthcentresarelocatedthroughoutthecountry.Bytappingintothisnationalnetworkofhealthcentres,MSHSfamiliesandchildrenhaveaccesstoacontinuityofservicesthat

waspreviouslyunattainableastheytravelacrossthecountry.

MigrantandSeasonalHeadStartuniquelyaddressestheissueofchildcareforfarmworkerfamiliesbyprovidingfreechildcaretoallqualifyingfamilies.Also,MSHSprogrammesareopen10–12hoursperdaywhenneeded.Programmesmayopenasearlyas5inthemorningandstayopenaslateas7intheeveningtoallowparentstoworkthelonghoursmandatedbyagriculturalwork.Furthermore,programmesmayoperateupto6daysperweekifneeded.Thisalsohelpsensurethatparentsfeelsecureintheknowledgethattheirchildrenaresafeduringthetimetheyareatwork.

Additionally,MSHSismandatedbylawtoaddresstheissueoflanguageandcultureintheservicesitprovidestochildrenandfamilies: Effective Head Start programming requires understanding,

respect, and responsiveness to the cultures of all people, but particularly to those of enrolled children and families. (Early Head Start National Resource Center, 2008)

Earlychildhoodservices(assessments,instructionalaids,teaching)aredeliveredwiththechild’sprimarylanguageandcultureinmind.ThisisalsotrueforservicestoMSHSparents(parenteducation,parentengagementactivities,translationservices,interpretation,etc.).Programmesareresponsivetothelanguageandcultureofchildrenandparentsalike.

Inresponsetothefinalchallengeoutlinedabove,HeadStarthelpschildrenacquiretheskills,knowledgeandattitudestosucceedinschoolandlife.

‘ Some of the biggest chal lenges that MSHS was des igned to address are t ranspor tat ion, heal thcare, chi ldcare, language, cul tura l d i f ferences, and access to qual i t y ear ly chi ldhood educat ion.’


The Head Start Approach to School Readiness means that children are ready for school, families are ready to support their children’s learning, and schools are ready for children. … Head Start often has led the early childhood field with a strong, clear, and comprehensive focus on all aspects of healthy development, including physical, cognitive, social and emotional development, all of which are essential to children getting ready for school.

(OfficeofHeadStart,2011,online)

MSHS: a model that works

FamiliesenrolledinMSHSvalueandappreciatethephilosophyofHeadStart.ThewordsofLeAnn,aMSHSparent,arerepresentative: My son, Nicholas, attended preschool at a Migrant and Seasonal

Head Start programme in Texas. This year will be his last year before he moves onto Kindergarten. I know that with all of the positive enrichment he has experienced here at the Migrant & Seasonal Head Start he will excel in school. I am so proud that my son attends Texas Migrant Council (TMC). The education he is receiving and the assistance TMC provides to families and children is outstanding! I was so impressed with the programme, I became motivated and wanted to be involved. I want what every parent wants for their children. An excellent start in education so our children may achieve their dreams and become whatever they wish in life! With my son’s great start at TMC he is on the path to success!

ForfamilieswhotravelthroughoutthecountryfollowingthemigrantstreamtoharvestthefoodthatfeedsAmerica,theMSHSmodelworks.Thisisduetocontinuousfederalfunding,continuedadvocacyandlobbyingforfarmworkerrights,andtheMSHSprogramme’scommitmenttoadaptingtotheneedsofmigrantfarmworkersastheirworkinagricultureevolves.

Thankstotheseefforts,thereisavastdifferencebetweenthefeelingsexpressedbyElidaPerez-Knapp,amigrantfarmworkerchildfrommanyyearsago,andthatofLeAnn’srecentexperienceasamigrantfarmworker.MigrantandseasonalfarmworkerfamiliesnowreceivetheresourcestheyneedtoturntheirchallengesintosuccessesviatheMigrantandSeasonalHeadStartmodel.AsElidaconcludes:

I had no words of comfort for my mother’s pain of so long ago, but what I did respond was to let her know how much things have changed. I let her know that programmes such as Migrant and Seasonal Head Start support families, and that it is no longer acceptable to have to live at the edge of a cherry orchard in a tent with a dirt floor covered in bricks and stones. Families no longer have to put up with living like that.

ReferencesEarly Head Start National Resource Center. (2008). Revisiting and Updating the

Multicultural Principles for Head Start Programs Serving Children Ages Birth to Five, Information memorandum: Multicultural principles for Head Start programs Log No. ACYL-IM-91-03. Washington, DC: Administration for Children, Youth, and Families, US Department of Health and Human Services.

Martinez, J.E. and Rodriguez Jr., C. (2013). Migrant and Seasonal Head Start: A program that works. Washington, DC: National Migrant and Seasonal Head Start Association.

Office of Head Start. (2011, online). Head Start Approach to School Readiness. Available at: http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/sr/approach/pdf/OHSApproach-to-School-Readiness_complete.pdf: http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/sr/approach/pdf/OHSApproach-to-School-Readiness_complete.pdf (accessed September 2013)

Notes 1 The authors can be contacted as follows: Guadalupe Cuesta, Director, National Migrant/Seasonal Head Start

Collaboration Office, Head Start Region XI & XII , T/TA Collaboration Center, Early Care and Education, US Education and Workforce Development. O: 202.884.8595| F: 202.884.8732 |E: [email protected] | www.fhi360.org

Kevin Skolnik, Program Officer, National Migrant/Seasonal Head Start and National American Indian/Alaska Native Collaboration Offices, Head Start Regions XI & XII, Early Care and Education, US Education and Workforce Development. O: 202.464.3788 | F: 202.884.8732 | E: [email protected] |

www.fhi360.org 2 For further detail on the history of seasonal and migrant farmworkers in the

USA, see About America’s Farmworkers – History on the website of the National Center for Farmworker Health: http://www.ncfh.org/?pid=4&page=2 (accessed September 2013).


Often living in poor temporary housing, close to the fields in which their parents are working, young children of seasonal migrant agricultural workers are exposed to a variety of health hazards. Children in general are more vulnerable to communicable and respiratory diseases and may also be more affected than adults by exposure to pesticides, given that they have a higher ratio of surface area to bodyweight, greater circulatory flow rates and less mature immune systems (Bearer, 1995). This article highlights the main health hazards faced by seasonal migrant agricultural workers and their children.

Chemical and pesticide-related illnesses

Intheabsenceofproperlaundryfacilities,clothingcontaminatedwithpesticidesmaybewashedinthesamesinkinwhichfoodisprepared,orinthebathtub

inwhichchildrenarebathed.Childrenmayplayinfieldstreatedwithpesticides.Andifseasonalmigrants’housingcampsarelocatednexttopesticide-treatedfields,theremayalsobepersistentpesticideexposureviawinddrift.Exposuretoorganophosphates,thebasisofmanypesticides,canresultinsymptomsincludingblurredvision,nausea,vomiting,cramps,lowbloodpressure,andheartandlungproblems.Inseverecasestheeffectscanbefatal.Long-termexposurecancauseneurologicalproblems(Rosenstocket al.,1991;vonEssenandMcCurdy,1998).

Infectious disease

Livingconditionsmaybeovercrowded,withpoorventilation,lackofsafedrinkingwater,andrubbishheapsandstagnantwaterallowingrodentsandinsectstobreed.Migrantworkersareconsequentlyat

Health r isks for chi ldren of seasonal migrant agr icul tural workersMar t in Donohoe, Ad junc t Associa te Professor, Schoo l of Communi t y Hea l th, Por t land Sta te Univers i t y, Oregon, USA

1

Young children of seasonal migrant agricultural workers are exposed to a variety of health hazards as they are often living in poor temporary housing, close to the fields in which their parents are working. Photo • Courtesy U-producties


significantlyincreasedriskofcontractingavarietyofviral,bacterial,fungalandparasiticinfections(vonEssenandDonham,1997;gwytherandJenkins,1998;Sandhaus,1998).

Dermatitis

Skindisorderscanbecausedbyexposuretopesticides,fertilisers,latex,chemicals,andallergenicplantsorcrops.

Respiratory conditions

Thesecanbecausedbyexposuretodusts,gases,herbicides,fertilisers,solvents,fuelsandfumes(Schenker,1996).

Cancer

Migrantworkersareexposedtoawidevarietyofcarcinogens,includingpesticides,solvents,oils,fumes,andultravioletradiationfromchronicsunexposure.Childrenexposedtopesticidesseemtoshowhigherrelativerisksthanadultsofdevelopingmanyofthesecancers(ZahnandWard,1998).

Abuse and mental il l-health

Inadditiontotheinsecureandlow-paidnatureofthework,seasonalmigrantworkersareoftensociallyandgeographicallyisolated.StudiesintheuSAshowthatchildrenofmigrantworkersaresixtimesmorelikelythanaveragetobemistreated(VillajeroandBaron,1999).Frequentmoves,interruptedschoolinganddemeaningracialepithetsarefeaturesofthelivesofmanymigrantworkers’children,whichcanimpactontheirmentalhealth.

ReferencesBearer, C.F. (1995). How are children dif ferent from adults? Environmental Health

Perspectives 103(6): 7–12.Gwyther, M.E. and Jenkins, M. (1998). Migrant farmworker children: health status,

barriers to care, and nursing innovations in health care delivery. Journal of Pediatric Health Care 12(2): 60–6.

The Pesticide Health Ef fects Study Group: Rosenstock, L., Kiefer, M., Daniell, W.E., McConnell, R. and Claypoole, K. (1991). Chronic central nervous system effects of acute organophosphate pesticide intoxication. Lancet 338(8761): 223–7.

Sandhaus S. (1998). Migrant health: a harvest of poverty. American Journal of Nursing 98(9): 52–4.

Schenker, M.B. (1996). Preventive medicine and health promotion are overdue in the agricultural workplace. Journal of Public Health Policy 17(3): 275–305.

Villarejo, D. and Baron, S.L. (1999). The occupational health status of hired farm workers. Occupational Medicine 14(3): 613–35.

Von Essen, S.G. and Donham, K.J. (1997). Respiratory diseases related to work in agriculture. In: Langley, R.L., McLymore, R.L., Meggs, W.J. and Roberson, G.T. (eds) Safety and Health in Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes.

Von Essen, S.G. and McCurdy, S.A. (1998). Health and safety risks in production agriculture. Western Journal of Medicine 169(4): 214–20.

Zahn, S.H. and Ward, M.H. (1998). Pesticides and childhood cancer. Environmental Health Perspectives 106(3): 893–908.

Note1 Professor Donohoe is a Member of the Social Justice Committee, Physicians for

Social Responsibility, a Member of the Board of Advisors, Oregon Physicians for Social Responsibility, and Senior Physician, Internal Medicine, at Kaiser Sunnyside Medical Center.


Sanitation

Lack of adequate sanitation systems poses a threat to children’s health and wellbeing

Poor sanitary conditions can lead to malnutrition and disease, like diarrhoea.Poor sanitary conditions can lead to rodents, insects and other carriers of disease.

Lack of adequate drainage systems can spread disease and pose a risk of drowning.Lack of proper sanitation solutions like private toilets can lead to increased stress levels, fear and shame.

Transport

Poor infrastructure can pose a threat to children’s safety and social skills Dangerous traffic can lead to physical injuries, such as when playing.

Lack of safe modes of transportation can prevent children from exploring and participating in community life.

Housing

Poor indoor air quality poses a threat to children’s health

Air pollution poses a threat to children’s health

Air

Poor indoor air quality may contribute to respiratory diseases.Damp air caused by lack of ventilation leads to moulds that can harm children’s brain development.Tobacco smoke damages children’s respiratory system, leading to illnesses like asthma and pneumonia.Poor indoor air quality has been associated with pre-term delivery.

Outdoor air pollution, for example by traffic or industry, contributes to respiratory diseases.Air pollution has been associated with pre-term delivery.

Lack of clean water poses a threat to children’s health

Difficult access to clean water can harm children’s learning abilities and social skills

Time spent by children collecting clean water is lost for other activities, such as school or playing.

Lack of access to clean drinking water and sanitation causes a range of diseases, like diarrhoea.Toxins and chemical pollutants in water can cause a range of health problems.Toxins and chemical pollutants can harm pre-natal development of the body and brain.Unhygienic storage of water increases the risk of contamination with pollutants.

Water

Insecure housing can harm children Insecure tenure can harm children’s sense of safety and belonging.

Evictions can cause traumatic experiences for children and harm their emotional stability and social skills.Homelessness poses a threat to children’s health due to lack of shelter and facilities.

A crowded living environment can harm children’s development and wellbeing

Poor quality of housing poses a threat to children’s health

Lack of space and opportunity to play in the house hampers the development of motor- and social skills.Noise negatively influences children’s stress level and physical health, such as hormonal functioning.

Chronic crowding leads to behavioural difficulties in school and poor academic achievement.

Poor construction quality can lead to inadequate protection from (extreme) weather conditions. Poor construction quality can cause injuries or death, especially in the event of natural disasters.

Poor construction quality can lead to inadequate protection from insects and other disease carriers.Poor design can lead to lack of sufficient daylight.

Lack of safe spaces to play can harm children

Poor quality of public space can harm children’s wellbeing and social skills

Lack of safe public spaces to play can harm learning ability, especially between the ages of zero and four. Lack of safe spaces for play and exploration can harm children’s physical development and social skills.

Lack of spaces for interaction, like youth clubs and community centres, can harm children’s social skills.Unsafe public spaces prohibit children from participating in communal life, play and recreation activities.

Crowded and chaotic public space can harm children’s emotional well being due to increased stress levels.Lack of spaces to play that provide challenges (but no great risk) can harm children’s development.

Public space

The Bernard van Leer Foundation aims to improve opportunities for children who are growing up in socially and economically difficult circumstances.This Information Map concerns children from minus 9 months to age 8. This map focuses on the direct in�uences of children’s living conditions and

doesn’t include second order e�ects. Additionally, the in�uence of the living conditions on caregivers (often parents) is not explicitly mentioned.However, many aspects of the living conditions in�uence caregivers. For example, crowded living conditions heighten stress levels and so increase the

risk of domestic violence; di�cult access to drinking water means much time is spent by caregivers collecting it. This Information Map was made by The Argumentation Factory, on the basis of literature study and a meeting with international experts. We thank all participants for their contribution.

Power

Unsafe power – infrastructure poses a threat to children’s safety and health

Lack of power sources poses a threat to children’s safety and development

Lack of light can harm children’s development by preventing them from playing and learning.Lack of light poses a threat to children’s safety when moving and playing around the house.Lack of adequate power for cooking and preserving food can lead to malnutrition.Lack of power can cause extreme and harmful physical discomfort (extreme heat or cold).

Power lines and power stations that are accessible to children can lead to physical injuries.Radiation can harm the pre-natal body and brain.

Contaminated soil poses a threat to children’s health

Soil that has been contaminated with toxic chemicals can cause health problems and harm development.Contaminated soil has been associated with pre-term delivery.

How can the quality of living conditions directly

influence young children?

• Made by The Argumentat ion Factory In format ion Map © 2012

Soil

Informat ion map: L iving condit ions and young chi ldren

• Ear ly Ch i ldhood Mat ters • November 2013

Sanitation

Lack of adequate sanitation systems poses a threat to children’s health and wellbeing

Poor sanitary conditions can lead to malnutrition and disease, like diarrhoea.Poor sanitary conditions can lead to rodents, insects and other carriers of disease.

Lack of adequate drainage systems can spread disease and pose a risk of drowning.Lack of proper sanitation solutions like private toilets can lead to increased stress levels, fear and shame.

Transport

Poor infrastructure can pose a threat to children’s safety and social skills Dangerous traffic can lead to physical injuries, such as when playing.

Lack of safe modes of transportation can prevent children from exploring and participating in community life.

Housing

Poor indoor air quality poses a threat to children’s health

Air pollution poses a threat to children’s health

Air

Poor indoor air quality may contribute to respiratory diseases.Damp air caused by lack of ventilation leads to moulds that can harm children’s brain development.Tobacco smoke damages children’s respiratory system, leading to illnesses like asthma and pneumonia.Poor indoor air quality has been associated with pre-term delivery.

Outdoor air pollution, for example by traffic or industry, contributes to respiratory diseases.Air pollution has been associated with pre-term delivery.

Lack of clean water poses a threat to children’s health

Difficult access to clean water can harm children’s learning abilities and social skills

Time spent by children collecting clean water is lost for other activities, such as school or playing.

Lack of access to clean drinking water and sanitation causes a range of diseases, like diarrhoea.Toxins and chemical pollutants in water can cause a range of health problems.Toxins and chemical pollutants can harm pre-natal development of the body and brain.Unhygienic storage of water increases the risk of contamination with pollutants.

Water

Insecure housing can harm children Insecure tenure can harm children’s sense of safety and belonging.

Evictions can cause traumatic experiences for children and harm their emotional stability and social skills.Homelessness poses a threat to children’s health due to lack of shelter and facilities.

A crowded living environment can harm children’s development and wellbeing

Poor quality of housing poses a threat to children’s health

Lack of space and opportunity to play in the house hampers the development of motor- and social skills.Noise negatively influences children’s stress level and physical health, such as hormonal functioning.

Chronic crowding leads to behavioural difficulties in school and poor academic achievement.

Poor construction quality can lead to inadequate protection from (extreme) weather conditions. Poor construction quality can cause injuries or death, especially in the event of natural disasters.

Poor construction quality can lead to inadequate protection from insects and other disease carriers.Poor design can lead to lack of sufficient daylight.

Lack of safe spaces to play can harm children

Poor quality of public space can harm children’s wellbeing and social skills

Lack of safe public spaces to play can harm learning ability, especially between the ages of zero and four. Lack of safe spaces for play and exploration can harm children’s physical development and social skills.

Lack of spaces for interaction, like youth clubs and community centres, can harm children’s social skills.Unsafe public spaces prohibit children from participating in communal life, play and recreation activities.

Crowded and chaotic public space can harm children’s emotional well being due to increased stress levels.Lack of spaces to play that provide challenges (but no great risk) can harm children’s development.

Public space

The Bernard van Leer Foundation aims to improve opportunities for children who are growing up in socially and economically difficult circumstances.This Information Map concerns children from minus 9 months to age 8. This map focuses on the direct in�uences of children’s living conditions and

doesn’t include second order e�ects. Additionally, the in�uence of the living conditions on caregivers (often parents) is not explicitly mentioned.However, many aspects of the living conditions in�uence caregivers. For example, crowded living conditions heighten stress levels and so increase the

risk of domestic violence; di�cult access to drinking water means much time is spent by caregivers collecting it. This Information Map was made by The Argumentation Factory, on the basis of literature study and a meeting with international experts. We thank all participants for their contribution.

Power

Unsafe power – infrastructure poses a threat to children’s safety and health

Lack of power sources poses a threat to children’s safety and development

Lack of light can harm children’s development by preventing them from playing and learning.Lack of light poses a threat to children’s safety when moving and playing around the house.Lack of adequate power for cooking and preserving food can lead to malnutrition.Lack of power can cause extreme and harmful physical discomfort (extreme heat or cold).

Power lines and power stations that are accessible to children can lead to physical injuries.Radiation can harm the pre-natal body and brain.

Contaminated soil poses a threat to children’s health

Soil that has been contaminated with toxic chemicals can cause health problems and harm development.Contaminated soil has been associated with pre-term delivery.

How can the quality of living conditions directly

influence young children?

• Made by The Argumentat ion Factory In format ion Map © 2012

Soil


Seasonal agr icul tural migrat ion in Turkey and young chi ldrenÖzse l Be le l i , soc ia l po l icy consu l tant, Deve lopment Workshop Cooperat i ve, Ankara, Turkey

1

What do official figures tell us about the young children of seasonal migrant workers in Turkey, and what policy changes could be made to improve their situation? This article outlines the current state of knowledge and explores three possible axes along which solutions could be based.

Fromearlysummertolateautumn,hundredsofthousandsofpeopleinTurkeymovefromtheirhomestoworkinthefields,orchards,forests,andmeadowsacrossthecountry,harvestingcottonandpotatoes,collectinghazelnuts,orangesandapricots,grazinganimals,andlogging.Yetwehaveonlyalimitedunderstandingoftheexperiencesoftheseseasonalagriculturalmigrantworkers,whichisbasedonsomehard-to-accessandquestionableofficialfiguresandahandfuloffieldstudies.Weknowevenlessabouttheirchildrenandthechallengesthesechildrenare

facedwith.Toalargeextent,theseasonalagriculturalmigrantworkersandtheirchildrenremaininvisibletothepubliceye.

Whattheofficialfigurestellusisthatapproximatelyone-quarterofthelabourforceinTurkeyisinagricultureandabout8%ofthemareemployedasregularorcasualworkers.Employmentinthissectorfluctuatesthroughtheyear,sotheseasonalincreaseinthelabourdemandismetbybothmigratoryandlocaltemporaryworkers.Accordingtoofficialfigures,in2011closeto300,000peoplewereestimatedtohavemigratedinsearchofemploymentinseasonalagriculturalwork.Somerecentreportsestimatethataboutonemillionpeopletakepartintheseasonalagriculturalmigration.Therearenoofficialestimatesofthenumberoflocalworkersorimmigrantsemployedinseasonalagriculturalwork.Therearealsonoofficialestimatesofthenumberof

Field studies suggest that the direct and indirect effects of seasonal agricultural work and seasonal migration on children vary based on children’s involvement in migration and agricultural work. Photo • Courtesy Development Workshop Cooperative


childrenwhoarepartoftheseasonalmigrationforagriculturalwork.

Young children

Fieldstudieslookingattheconditionsofseasonalagriculturalworkerssuggestthatthedirectandindirecteffectsofseasonalagriculturalworkandseasonalmigrationonchildrenvarybasedonchildren’sinvolvementinmigrationandagriculturalwork.Somechildrenareemployedinseasonalagriculturalworkintheirareaofresidencesotheycontinuelivingattheirhomes.Otherchildrenmigratewiththeirfamiliesandarealsoemployedasseasonalagriculturalworkers.Otherswhomigratewiththeirfamiliesdonotworkinthefieldsbuteitherperformdomesticchoresintheirtemporaryhomesordonotworkatall.Asmallnumberofthechildrenmigratewithouttheirfamiliesandareemployedasagriculturalworkers.Finally,somechildrenareleftbehindbytheirfamilieswhomigrateandremainwithrelativesintheirregularplaceofresidence.

Youngchildrenfallundertwoofthesecategories:theyeithermigratewiththeirfamiliesbutarenotinvolvedindomesticoragriculturalwork;ortheyareleftbehindintheirregularplaceofresidencewithoutparentalcare.Thefieldstudiesgiveussomeinformationaboutthechallengesfacedbyyoungchildrenmigratingwiththeirfamilies.Thesituationoftheyoungchildrenwhoareleftbehindwiththeextendedfamilyorneighbourswithoutparentalcareremainstobestudied.

Thesestudieshighlighttheimmediateandlong-termrisksthatseasonalagriculturalmigrationposestoyoungchildren’sdevelopment,healthandeducation.Inthecourseofmigrationandintheareasoftemporarysettlement,youngchildrenareputathigherriskofbeinginjuredinaccidents.Poortransportandlivingconditions,combinedwithmalnutrition,increasetheriskoftemporaryandchronichealthproblems.Similarly,poorlivingconditionsincreasetheriskofneglectandabuse.

Thesameunfavourableconditionsalsoincreasetheriskofirreversibledamageinthelongerterm.Young

childrenwhomigratewiththeirfamiliesforseasonalagriculturalworkaremorelikelynottostartschool,tostartschoollate,andtodropoutearly,allofwhichincreasetheoddsoftheirbeingtrappedinthecycleofpovertyanddeprivation.Parentsandoldersiblingswhoareabletodevotesometimetoyoungchildren’sdevelopmentintheirregularhomesmayfindnofreetimetospendwiththemduringmigrationduetotheirincreasedworkloads.Asaresult,youngchildrenaremorelikelytobedeprivedoftheattentionandsupportofadultsthatcontributetotheiremotionalandcognitivedevelopment.Seasonalmigrationandagriculturalworkalsoincreaseyoungchildren’svulnerabilitytoviolence,neglect,abuseandsocialexclusion,whichinturnadverselyaffecttheiremotionalandsocialdevelopment.

Legal and socio-economic context

Seasonalagriculturalmigrationispartofacomplexequationwithnumerousactorsandalonglistofsocialandeconomicvariables.Amongtheactorsareagriculturalworkers,agriculturalintermediaries,employers,buyersofrawproducts,processorsofrawproducts,buyersoffinishedproducts,nationalandlocalauthorities,labourunionsand,infact,allofusasconsumersofagriculturalproducts.Eachoftheseactorsalsoshowsgreatdiversityinternallyinwaysthataffecttheirpossibleresponsestogovernmentinterventions.Forexample,someemployersaresmallfamilyenterpriseshiringafewworkerswhileothersarelargeagriculturalcompaniesemployinghundredsofworkers.

Amongthelistofsocialandeconomicvariablesareagriculturalsubsidies,agriculturalcommoditymarkets,labourregulations,landdistribution,inter-grouprelationsbetweenmigrantsandlocals,intra-familydynamics,andurban–ruralrelations.Hence,anylegal,economicorsocialinterventionhastotakeintoaccountthecomplexityofthisequationandtheunpredictabilityoftheresponseofthenumerousactorsandvariablestoexternalinterventions,andremainfullyawareofthelikelihoodof‘doingharm’unintentionallybothtothepeopleseekingseasonalagriculturalworkandtheirchildren.


Possible interventions

Onthelegalfront,itremainsnecessary,thoughnotsufficientbyitself,toreviewcurrentlegislationinordertoidentifyexistinggaps,andmaketherequiredrevisions.Aconsiderablenumberofregulationshavebeenenactedduringthelastfewyearsconcerningagriculturallabour,yettheoveralllegalframeworkremainsinadequateduetoseverallegalloopholes,unenforceableregulations,andruleswithnoteeth.Overall,thecurrentlegislationfailstoprovideaccessiblelabourrightsandprotectionfortheseasonalagriculturalworkersduetotheshort-termandoftenundocumentednatureoftheiremployment.

Theexistingbodyoflegislationalsosuffersfrompatchyandinconsistentimplementation.On-siteinspection,forexample,canbeamajorlogisticalchallengeincertaincircumstanceswherefarmsaredispersedacrossvastspacesandsomeareremotewithlimitedroadaccess.Thegenerallylowlevelofeducationamongtheemployees,intermediaries,andattimesemployersalsoposesachallengetocreatingawarenessaboutrightsandobligations,andtoensuringthatcomplaintmechanismsarefrequentlyutilised.

Onasimilarnote,thereremainstheneedforconcertedeffortsbypublicagenciestoensureamoresystematicandconsistentimplementationofthelegalframework.Attheveryleast,theMinistryofLabourandSocialSecurityneedstocommunicatemoreeffectivelytheregulationsanditsinspectionprioritiestotheprovincialoffices,employmentboards,andseasonalmigrantagriculturalworkers’monitoringboards.

Socio-economicinterventionsformitigatingtheadverseeffectsofseasonalagriculturalworkonyoungchildrencouldbedesignedonthreeaxes:1 reducingthenumberofpeoplewantingtoworkas

seasonalmigrantworkersbycreatingalternativesourcesofincome

2 improvingthewageandsocialsecuritypoliciesthatdirectlyaffectseasonalagriculturalworkers

3 improvingtheworking,travelling,andshelterconditionsforeveryoneinseasonalagriculturalwork,butparticularlyforchildren.

Foryoungchildrenspecifically,socio-economicinterventionscouldbothaimtopreventthedetrimentaleffectsofseasonalagriculturalmigrationontheirphysical,cognitiveandemotionaldevelopment,andusethisasanopportunitytoimplementprogrammesthatsupporttheiroveralldevelopment.Aspartoftheseinterventions,prioritycouldbegiventoimplementingcentre-,family-andcommunity-basedearlychildhoodprogrammesinplaceswheremigratoryagriculturalworkersareaccommodated.Similarly,freechildcareservicescouldbeprovidedduringworkinghourssothatparentsdonotendupwiththechoiceofhavingtoeithertaketheiryoungchildrentotheirworksitesorleavethemunattendedatthetemporarylivingareas.

Apossiblefutureinterventionthatstillrequiresmuchresearchandconsultationcouldinvolvecashandin-kindbenefitsthatencouragerelativesandneighboursremainingbehindtoprovidecarefortheyoungchildrenofagriculturalworkersduringthemigrationseason.

Strongpoliticalandbureaucraticcommitmentswillbeessentialifnewpoliciesandmeasuresaretohavelong-termresults.Asdiscussed,seasonalagriculturalworkanditseffectsonchildrenareamulti-dimensionalissueandonethataffectsalargepopulation.Althoughthegovernmenthassetitselfthegoaloferadicatingallpaidagriculturallabourinseasonalagriculturalworkforchildrenby2016,inlinewiththeInternationalLabourOrganizationConventionno.182concerningtheProhibitionandImmediateActionfortheEliminationoftheWorstFormsofChildLabour(1999),ithas

‘ S t rong pol i t ica l and bureaucrat ic commitments wi l l be essent ia l i f new pol icies and measures are to have long-term resul ts.’


sofaroptedforshort-termprojectsandtemporaryinterventions,whichhavebeenshowntobeinadequateforcopingwithanissueofthissize.Inordertoensuresignificantandsustainableprogress,itisnecessarytodevelopanationalpolicybackedbyadequatefundingandsolidcommitment,andtomobiliseallrelevantpublicandprivateactors.

ReferencesBeleli, Ö. (2012, 2013). Seasonal Agricultural Work and Children: Problem analysis and

policy recommendations. Ankara: Development Workshop/Kalkınma Atölyesi. Available at: http://goo.gl/udC1vj (accessed September 2013).

International Labour Organization. (1999). Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (Convention No. 182). Geneva: ILO.

Note1 This article is based on a policy note (Beleli, 2012, 2013) prepared by the author

for the Development Workshop Cooperative (www.kalkinmaatolyesi.org).

‘ For young chi ldren, socio-economic inter vent ions could both a im to prevent the detr imental ef fec ts of seasonal agr icul tura l migrat ion on the i r phys ical, cogni t ive and emotional development, and use th is as an oppor tuni ty to implement programmes that suppor t the i r overal l deve lopment.’


Seasonal migrants’ real i t ies: a s tudy of 686 Turkish householdsMüge Ar tar, Ass is tant Professor, Cent re for Research on Ch i ld Cu l ture, Ankara Univers i t y, Turkey

Every year between April and November, hundreds of thousands of seasonal agricultural workers in Turkey leave their permanent residences and migrate to agriculturally intensive areas for jobs such as planting, harvesting and hoeing. Many take their young children. This article describes a study of 686 households, revealing more about the reality of the lives of these seasonal migrant families.

AccordingtotheMinistryofLabourandSocialSecurity,therearearound300,000registeredseasonalmigrantworkersinTurkey.However,manyothersarelikelytobeunregistered:inreality,includingchildrenwho

travelwiththeirfamilies,thenumberofseasonalmigrantsmaybeatleastamillion(TarimdaMevsimlikI�çigöçüTürkiyeDurumÖzeti,2012).Inanattempttounderstandmoreaboutthesefamilies,weconductedasurveyof686householdsinfiveprovinceswhicharethesourceofmanyseasonalmigrantworkers:Adıyaman,Diyarbakır,Hatay,urfaandMaras.

unsurprisingly,wefoundthatseasonalmigrantworkersarecharacterisedeconomicallybylowincomelevelsandlackofregularemploymentopportunities–56%ofrespondentssaidtheyhadnosourceofincomeinthemonthswhentheywerenotmigratingforagricultural

According to the study, in terms of shelter while employed in seasonal work, most of the respondents said that they lived in some kind of tent. Photo • Courtesy Adnan Avcı Bucakli i/ TEGV Firefly Mobile Education Unit


work.Only15%ofthehouseholdssurveyedsaidtheyhadaregularincomeallyear,andalmostthree-quarterssaidtheyearnedaregularincomeforlessthan6monthsoftheyear;35%statedthattheirmonthlyincomewas250Turkishlira(about95euros)orless,andafurther27%saiditwaslessthan500Turkishlira(about190euros).

Educationlevelsamongsurveyrespondentsweremuchlowerthannationalaverages:35.3%wereilliterateandafurther9.7%wereliteratebutdidnotattendevenprimaryschool.Fewerthan10%attendedhighschool.Abouttwo-thirdssaidtheyhadbeenengagedinseasonalmigrationforatleastthelast10years.

Intheory,lawsentitletemporaryagriculturalworkerstosocialsecuritybenefitssuchassubsidisedhealthcare.Inpractice,however,itseemsthatmanyfamiliesslipthroughthenet,especiallyasemployersmaynotassistthemtoclaimtheirrights.43%ofrespondentstothehouseholdsurveysaidtheydidnotreceiveanysocialsecuritybenefits.

Shelter, health and childcare

Thebusisthemostcommonformoftransportforworkerswhoaremigratingtoanotherprovince.Around40%saidthatthey,ratherthantheiremployersoragents,mettheirowntransportcosts.Mostofthesurveyrespondents(63%)saidtheyhadmigratedtoonlyoneprovincewithinthelastyear;afurther25%namedtwoprovincesandtheremaining12%hadtravelledtothreeormore.TheprovincesofTurkeywhichreceivethehighestnumberofseasonalworkersincludeMalatya,Adana,giresun,Konya,AnkaraandKayseri.

Intermsofshelterwhileemployedinseasonalwork,mostoftherespondents(65%)saidthattheylivedinsomekindoftent.Mostly,theaccommodationinwhichworkersstayisownedbytheemployer(75%)andarrangedbyeithertheemployeroragent(83%);aroundoneinsevenrespondentsreportedowningorarrangingtheirownshelter.

Table 1 Type of accommodation for migrant workers

Shelter %

Nylon tent 43.3

Cloth tent 21.7

House/apartment 13.1

Warehouse 6.1

Outdoors 1.6

Other 14.2

Abouthalfoffamiliesreportedhavingelectricityintheirshelterforatleastpartoftheday,buttheotherhalfhadnoelectricityatall;thisposesseriouschallengesforkeepingfoodfromspoiling.Themainsourcesofdrinkingwateraresprings(28.2%),containersshippedinbytheemployer(22.2%),fountains(20%)orwells(10.4%).Sanitationisaseriousproblem:in23.2%ofcases,familieshadtodefecateintheopenfield,with45%needingtodigholes.Bycontrast,intheirpermanenthomes,over90%ofrespondentssaidtheyhadpipedwaterandmorethanhalfhadanindoortoilet.

In41%ofcases,familiessaidtheylivedinornearthefieldwherethecropsweregrown,whichimpliespotentialexposuretoagriculturalchemicals.ThedangersposedtohealthbythisarediscussedinthearticlebyDrMartinDonohoeonpages12–13.Only15%ofsurveyrespondentsreportedseeingahealthprofessional;interviewsrevealedfearsaboutthecostofhospitaltreatmentandhostileattitudesamonghealthpersonneltowardsKurdish-speakingmigrants(ÖzbekmezciandSahil,2004;ÇınarandLordo�glu,2011).

Whenmigratingforagriculturalwork65%ofrespondentssaidtheytooktheiryoungchildrenwiththem.Whenweaskedwhathappenedtotheirchildrenwhiletheywereworking,42%saidtheytookthechildrentothefields,whichimpliespotentialexposuretohazardouschemicalsandmachinery.Whileatleastthismeansparentsareabletobeclosetotheirchildren,inmanyinterviewsitwasstatedthatemployersarecriticalofworkingparentswhentheytaketimetokeepaneyeontheirchildren.Ofthechildrenwhodonotcometo


thefieldduringworkinghours,mostarelookedafterbyanadultfamilymember,butinourstudy5.9%werelookedafterbyolderchildrenand10.6%wereleftentirelyontheirown.

Table 2 Types of care for children of agricultural workers

Childcare while working in the field %

Comes to the field with us 42.0

Adult family member 31.9

Nobody 10.6

Elder siblings 5.9

Hired caregiver 4.3

Other 5.3

The role of agents

Asweattemptedtounderstandthesituationofseasonalmigrantworkers,itwasimportantalsotointerviewtheagentswhoplayasignificantroleinbringingworkersandemployerstogether.Legally,agentsshouldberegisteredwiththeTurkishEmploymentAgency,butonly9ofthe55wesurveyedsaidtheypossessedthenecessarycertificateand36saidtheyhadnoinformationabouttheirlegalstatusandobligations.

Manyoftheagentstoldusininterviewsthattheychoosetoworkinformallybecauseemployersdonotwanttoworkwithformallyregisteredagents;theywouldthenhavetohavetheiremployeesregisteredandpayapartoftheirsocialsecuritycontributions,whichtheydonotwanttodo.Thissituationseverelylimitsthecapacityofagentstotackleproblemsrelatedtosuchissuesasshelter,remuneration,accommodationandhealth.

Trainingandextensionprogrammesforagentsareoneobviouspossibleapproachtotheproblemshighlightedbythesurvey.However,giventhatasmanyas17ofthe55agentsweintervieweddidnothaveevenprimaryschooleducation,thepotentialforsuchtrainingisopentodebate.Whatisnotopentodebateisthatactionneedstobetakenurgentlytoaddressthelivingconditionsoffamiliesengagedinseasonalagriculturalwork,andtheireffectsonthephysicalandmentaldevelopmentofyoungchildren.

ReferencesÇınar, S. and Lordoglu, K. (2011). Mevsimlik tarım işçileri:marabadan ücretli tarım

işçiliğine (Seasonal agriculture workers: from cropper to salaried agriculture labour). Presentation at 3rd International Symposium on Social Rights, University of Kocaeli, 25–26 October. Available at: www.sosyalhaklar.net/2011/bildiri/2011sosyalhaklar.pdf (accessed October 2013).

Mevsimlik I∙ çi Göçü I∙ leti im Agı (MI∙GA). (2012). Tarımda mevsimlik i çi göçü Türkiye durum özeti (Migration of seasonal agriculture workers: case summary, Turkey). Available at: http://goc.bilgi.edu.tr/docs/FES-dünyadan_12.pdf (accessed October 2013).

Özbekmezci, . and Sahil, S. (2004). Mevsimlik tarım i çilerinin sosyal, ekonomik ve barınma sorunlarının analizi (Analysis of the social, economic and housing problems of seasonal agricultural workers). Gazi Üniversitesi Mühendislik Mimarlık Fakültesi Dergisi 19(3): 261–74.


The chi ldren of seasonal migrants in Turkey are s t i l l vulnerableMehmet Ü lger and As t r id van Unen, journa l is ts , Nether lands

In 2010 a film documentary, Children of the Season, told the story of child labour and poor working and living conditions among Turkish seasonal migrants employed to harvest hazelnuts. Its reception was explosive: governments, companies and international organisations were in uproar, and the film triggered a raft of activity. However, as this article by the documentary makers relates, the children of seasonal migrants still remain vulnerable.

uzunisaisseenasaflagshipcampinOrdu,oneofTurkey’shazelnut-growingBlackSeaprovinces,inthefightagainstthedeplorablelivingconditionsofseasonalworkers.Weweretherein2013tofollowup,aswedoeveryyear,onour2010documentaryChildren of the Season,madepartlythankstoacontributionbytheBernardvanLeerFoundation.

Onourunannouncedvisit,wemeetMünever,abeautifulyounggirlwithlongwavyhair.Sheiscarryingherbabysister,tiedtoherback.Shepullsthestrapseverycoupleofminutestopullherlittlesisterstraight.

Münevertellsusthatsheis10,butshelooksmorelikea6yearold.‘Thatisbecause,’sheexplains,‘IhavehadtocarryheavythingssinceIwaslittle.SoInevergrewmuch.’Weknowthatparentsontheplantationsoftenencouragetheirchildrentopretendtheyareolder,whichcanbeusefulincaseofspotchecksagainstchildlabour.Inanycase,Müneverenjoystalkingtous.Shetellsusthatthebabyisheavyforher,andshedoesnotenjoyhavingtolookafterher.Afterashortwhile,Münevertrudgesbacktohertent.Shewalksunderalargebannerthatreads‘Childlabourisforbiddenbylaw’.Itseemsthatchildcareisnotconsideredtobelabour.

At the end of each March, together with her family, Zara leaves Urfa, in the south-eastern part of Turkey, to do seasonal agricultural work. Photo • Courtesy U-Producties


nonetheless,in2010thecampwasnothinglikeitistoday.nowithastoilets,showers,basinsandrunningwater.Thesituationoftheveryyoungestchildrenoftravellingseasonalworkerswholiveintentsisoftenmuchmoremiserableandsaddeningthanthis.

Wesawthisonceagainlastsummer,bothinthetentedcampsinthehazelnut-growingregionsontheBlackSeaandintheagriculturalareasontheMediterraneancoast.Onceagain,theproblemsthatwesawincluded:agenerallackofhygieneinthetentedcamps;childrenwashingthemselvesandswimmingindirtywater;agenerallackofsanitaryfacilities;noregularrunningwaterinoneofthecampsinOrdu;toofewtoiletssothatpeoplewouldrelievethemselvesanywhereoutdoors.Veryyoungchildreninparticulargowhenandwheretheyneedto.Thismaybejustoutsidethetentwhereotherchildrenplay.

Manychildrensufferfromundernourishment.Forthem,thetentedcampsareanunsafearea,bothphysicallyandemotionally.Theyoungestonesoftenwalkaroundinbarefeet,oftenhalfdressed.Theywalk,fallandrunaroundamongthechickensandarethusvulnerabletoillnesses.Theyplaywithwhatevertheyfindontheground,becauseeducationalorstimulatoryplaymaterialsarenon-existent.Thechildrenreceiveverylittleattentionbecausetheirmothersareoftentootiredafterworktotakecareofthem,orareawaybecausetheyareworking.Thissituationcreateschild-motherslikeMünever,whoisstillachildherself,stilllearningandstillgrowing.

The documentary and its impact

Themaincharacterinour45-minute2010documentarywaslittleZara.Zarawas9yearsoldandworkedpickinghazelnutsfor11hoursintheburningsun,dayin,dayout.Herlittlesistertookcareofheryoungestbrotherandthetent.Therestofthefamilyworkedintheplantations.

AttheendofeveryMarch,Zara’sfamilyleavesurfa,inthesouth-easternpartofTurkey,todoseasonalagriculturalwork.Theytravelalloverthecountryto

pickstrawberries,apricots,sugarbeetandonions.Pickinghazelnutsisalwaysonepartoftheirwork.Zara’sfamilyisatypicalfamilythatsymbolisesmillionsofagriculturallabourerswhotravelconstantlywiththeirfamilies,tryingtosurvive.Thefilmpremièredinnovember2010,followinganewsitemonthissubjectfortheDutchcurrentaffairsprogramme,EénVandaag.

Themessagewasclear:75%ofalltheworld’shazelnutscomefromTurkey–contributingabout2billiondollarstoTurkey’seconomy–andtheyareinlargepartpickedbychildren’shands.Thesehazelnutsareusedinmanyproductssuchaschocolates,icecream,mixednuts,saladsandoil.

Thedocumentaryhadimmediatepoliticalimpactinthenetherlands,withdemandsforinternationalpressuretobeputonTurkey.IntheHouseofRepresentativesinthenetherlands,fivepoliticalpartiessubmittedquestionstoministers.ThisledtotheDutchembassyinAnkaracarryingoutresearchwhichconfirmedtheexistenceofchildlabourinthehazelnutsector.Oneyearlater,whenwemadeafollow-upprogrammeforEénVandaag,questionswereagainraisedintheHousebyninepoliticalparties.DuringhertrademissiontoTurkeyin2012,MinisterPloumen’sfirstactiononbehalfofForeignTradeandJointCooperationwastosignanagreementwiththeInternationalLabourOrganizationtostartananti-childlabourprojectinthehazelnutsector.Ploumenallocated90,000eurosforthis.

QuestionswereaskedoftheEuropeanCommissionintheEuropeanParliament,andchildlabourbecameanitemofnegotiationinTurkey’saccessiontotheEu.

Authorit ies in denial

Respondingtothispressure,theTurkishgovernmenttaskedthegovernorsoftherelevantprovinceswithimprovingitsimagevis-à-visseasonalworkers.Anumberofchangesfollowed.InOrdu,thelocalauthoritiesimprovedtwotentedcampsbyprovidingsanitationfacilities,runningwaterandaplayground.upto2011,theseasonalworkershadjustcampedanywhere.Inanotherhazelnut-producingprovince,


thetownofgiresunbuiltabout20barracksequippedwithwashingandshoweringfacilitiesandkitchens.Everythingwasverycleanandtherewasalsoaplaygroundforthelittlechildren.Sincelastyear,bannershavebeenputinbothareaswiththewarning‘Childrenunder16maynotwork’.

Whiletheseareobviouslywelcomesteps,wefearthatthelocalauthoritiesarenowindenialabouttheextenttowhichchildlabourisstillused.Everyyear,wefollowupontheChildren of the Seasondocumentary,meetinggovernorsortheirrepresentatives.Typically,theystronglydenythatchildlabourgoeson–whileatthesametimetellingusabouttheircampaignagainstchildlabour.Itseemsrathercontradictory:ifchildlabourisnotaproblem,whytheneedforthecampaign?Inreality,weknowthatchildlabourstillexistsbecauseeveryyearwestopatplantationsatrandom.Andwealwayshearchildren’svoices.Sometimestheyaresinging,sometimestheyarecomplaining,sometimestheyaregiggling.Butthechildrenarealwaysworking.

InMarchofthisyear,aconferencetookplaceingiresunwiththeobjectiveofraisingawarenessaboutchildlabour,informingplantationowners,andreachingagreementbetweenhazelnutproducersandgovernmentonhowtoendchildlabourforgood.Wewereinvitedtoshowourdocumentaryandtoprovidefurtherinformation.However,thediscussionthatfollowedirritatedtheprovincialgovernor,whoclaimedthatchildlabournolongerexistedingiresunandthatthechildrenoftheseasonalworkerswereinhisbeautifulprovinceforholidays.Wefeltcalledupontodisagree,andthediscussionendedwiththegovernorwalkingoutoftheroom.

Industry-led action

TheconferenceorganiserwasÖzerAkbaslı,formerchairofgiresun’sprovincialChamberofAgriculture(Ziraat Odası).Throughhisfamilyinthenetherlands,hehadseentheEénVandaagprogrammeandwasdeeplyshocked.Hesays: Our view of children of seasonal workers, and even of our own

children, has completely changed. We always say that our children are our future. We must protect them as best we can. We think about everything that has to do with children, but when it comes to work, we degrade them. We knew that there were problems in the agricultural sector with child labour, but we thought that the children only worked for short periods so to leave it be. After seeing your programme and documentary, the view of very many people on this issue, including my own, has changed.

notonlywasAkbaslıdeeplyshocked,healsotookactionstraightaway.In2011hedeclaredhis200-hectareplantationfreeofchildlabour.Hehasalsomanagedtopersuade89otherfarmersfromthesameprovincetofollowhisexample. We are now more aware, look out better and are more selective. If

we phone labour agents, we now say, ‘My friend, we do not want children under 16 any more.’ At first they would ask, ‘Mr Chairman, can’t you take even one?’ Then I would say, ‘No, not even one. Not even a half or a quarter. From now on, children will not work for us any more.’ But they would eventually agree, which just proved that it was possible all along.

Heindicatesthefieldbehindhimwherehazelnutsaredryingandsayswithpride,‘Look!Thisharvestiscompletelyfreeofchildlabour.’

undertheleadershipofAkbaslı,thegiresunChamberofAgriculturestartedthe‘LaughingChildren’project.Heexplains: We first started by informing farmers. There are so many

agreements that say that we should not let children work. There are agreements in the Turkish constitution and in the uN treaties that Turkey has signed. But maybe we were not well informed about what the agreements said.

‘ Every year s ince 2010, we fol low up on the Chi ldren of the Season documentary, meet ing governors or the i r representat ives in Turkey.’


Afterthat,about5000leafletsweredistributed.‘Thenweplacedadvertisementsontelevision,radioandinnewspaperstodrawattentiontoourproject,’hesays.

In2012,Akbaslıbuiltnewlivingquartersforhisownseasonalworkers.Thereareseparateroomsformenandwomen,bunkbeds,showers,akitchenandashareddiningandlivingarea.Hehashighexpectationsofhisproject,whichalsoorganisesactivitiesforthechildrenwhotravelwiththeirfamiliesbutarenotallowedtowork,includingaphotographyproject.Thechildrenwereaskedtophotographthehazelnutharvestof2013fromtheirownperspective,andthephotoswillbeusedinanexhibitionwhichwillbepartoftheawarenesscampaign.

Thefarmerswhojoinedtheprojectaresupposedtoraiseawarenessamongtheplantationsintheirareas.Akbaslıexplains: It is a community approach, because the Laughing Children

project alone cannot reach enough people. In the future, the number of farmers taking part should grow from 89 to 8900, and then to 89,000. Only then can we keep ahead of the problem.

Pressure through buyers

Inthemeantime,Akbaslıhasenteredintoacollaborationwiththeprocessingfactory,noor,whichpaysthefarmersanextra4%iftheyguaranteethattheysupplychildlabour-freehazelnuts.WithTurkishhazelnutsusedintheproductsofmajorbrands,consumerpressureisanobviousroutetowardstacklingchildlabourandimprovinglivingandworkingconditions.

unfortunatelyallthemajorhazelnutpurchasersinitiallyrejectedthedocumentary.Thisisperhapsnotsurprising,asbeingassociatedwithchildlabourisverydamagingtoone’simage.However,theapproachofmultinationalsappearstobeevolving.Afteraperiodofreflection,oneofthemcommissionedanAmericanngO,theFairLaborAssociation,toassessthesituationofchildlabourinthehazelnutsector.Whatthecompanydidwiththeresultsisstillunclear.

ThegermansupermarketchainReWe,whichalsouseshazelnutsinitsproducts,startedaprojectforthechildreninseasonalworkers’tentedcampsin2012.Thisyear,intheuzunisatentedcamp,wesawanumberofyoungpeoplefromtheHayata Destek(SupporttoLife)association,fundedbyReWe,walkingaroundandkeepingtheyoungestchildrenbusy.Thebest-knowninternationalbuyerofhazelnutsisFerrero,whichproducesnutella.OnourvisitthisyearwecameacrossanumberofresearchersinDüzcewhohadbeentaskedbythisItalianmultinationaltolookintothesituationofchildlabourinthehazelnutharvestingseason.

Whiletheseareencouraginggestures,itremainstobeseeniftheywilltranslateintoeffectiveandcomprehensiveactiontotacklechildlabourandimprovelivingconditionsfortheyoungchildrenofseasonalmigrantworkers.Welookforwardtoseeingwhathaschangedwhenwereturnin2014.


A healthy and safe environment for young migrants at urban Indian worksi tesUmi Danie l , Reg iona l Head, Migrat ion Themat ic Un i t, Aide e t Ac t ion, South As ia, Bhubaneswar, Od isha, Ind ia

This article shares the findings of a study conducted by Aide et Action and the Bernard van Leer Foundation to assess the situation of seasonal migrant workers’ children in Indian cities. It also describes a model intervention at a brickworks in Hyderabad to explore how safer and healthier living conditions can be created for these children.

Anestimated326millionpeopleinIndiaaremigrants,accordingtothenationalSampleSurveyin2007–08.However,whiledataonpermanentmigrantsarerelativelyeasytocollect,seasonalmigrationoftengoesundertheradar.Lawsexisttoprotectmigrantworkers’basicrightstohousingandotherentitlements,butinpracticetheinvisibilityofseasonalmigrantsleavesthemvulnerabletospendinghalfoftheirlivesintestingconditionswherebasicservices,civicamenities,safeenvironments,entitlementsandrightsarelacking.

Seasonalmigrantworkersaretypicallypoorandmarginal–debt-riddenfarmers,farmworkers,landlesslabourers,tribal,Dalitandothervulnerablepeople–andtheyhavelittlecapacitytobargainfortheirconstitutionalrightsasworkers.Theyandtheir

familiesareconsequentlyoftenforcedtoworkandliveunderpracticallysubhumanconditions,inmakeshifttarpaulin-coveredhousesthatarenowacommonsightinalmostallbigcitiesinIndia.Theselivingconditionsaredetrimentaltoyoungchildren’sgrowthanddevelopment.

Brickworksareamongthebiggestemployersofseasonalmigrants.globally,India’sbrickmakingindustryissecondonlytoChina,producingcloseto140billionbricksayear.Seasonalmigrantlabourersarerecruitedfromdifferentstates,andchildrenformanintegralpartofthelabourunit;indeed,thereareworkswhicharetailor-madeforchildren.Someengageinmakingmuddough,moulding,stakingandalsohead-loadingthebrickstothefurnace.Therearealsochildrenwhoworkasbabysitters,lookingaftertheirsiblings.Theworkerslivewiththeirfamiliesinsidetheworksitefor7–8monthsandreturntotheirownvillagesbeforetheonsetofthemonsoonseason.

Aide et ActionisaninternationaldevelopmentagencythathasworkedinIndiaforpastthreedecades,onprojectssuchascreatingaccesstobasiceducationandsafe

The study also intended to inform an attempt to come up with a replicable model for creating a safe and healthy environment for the young children of seasonal migrant workers, in which they could enjoy care and learning opportunities. Photo • Courtesy Aid et Action


learningenvironmentsforseasonalmigrantfamiliesattheirworksites.Aide et Action’sMigrationInformationandResourceCentre(MIRC)haspartneredwiththeBenardvanLeerFoundationtoassessthesituationofyoungmigrantsandcreatereplicablemodelsformakingtheirenvironmentssaferandhealthier.In2013,Aide et ActionandtheFoundationinitiatedastudytoassessthesituationofyoungmigrantsatworksites,withtheaimofmakingtheirissuesvisible,heardandacteduponbygovernment,marketsandcivilsociety.

Thestudy,whichisnearingcompletionandwillbepublishedsoon,wasundertakeninsevencitiesinIndia:Delhi,Chennai,Hyderabad,Jaipur,guwahati,PatnaandBhopal.Thesewerechosenbasedonthepaceofgrowthoftheirpopulation,industryandinfrastructure;becauseoftheirfastereconomicgrowth,thesecitieshavebeenattractinglargenumbersofseasonalmigrantworkers.Thestudycoveredasampleof3500seasonalmigranthouseholdslivingwithoneormoreyoungchildrenatatotalof361worksites.Inall,thesehouseholdscomprised15,103people,ofwhom47%werechildrenand27%agedbelow6years.Oftheworksites,56%werebrickworks,40%constructionsites,andtherestengagedinstonecrushing,roadbuildingandlayingpipelines.

Study findings

Mostoftheworkerscomefromruralandtribalareas.Itisinterestingthat45%areclassifiedasBPL(BelowPovertyLine)and57%arefromscheduledtribesorcastes,giventhattheIndianconstitutionhasmadespecialprovisionforthewelfareofthesegroups.Inreality,thesepoorandvulnerablepeopleareunabletoaccessbasicfacilitieswhentheymovefromoneregiontootherasmigrants.Forexample,only17%ofthechildren

surveyedwerefoundtobeinschool,andonly5%hadaccesstopreschooleducation.

Regardinglivingconditions,56%ofhouseholdsreportedlivinginmakeshifttarpaulin-coveredhouses,41%inotherkindsoftemporaryshelter,andonly3%livedinhouseswithbetterconditions.Thestudyfoundthat90%offamilieslivedinone-roomeddwellings,and97%ofchildrenhadnoseparatelivingspace.Shockingly,91%ofhouseshadnoventilationandexperiencedsevereheat,dust,smokeandriskofsuffocationbecause63%ofhouseholdscookedtheirfoodinsidetheoneroomtheywerelivingin.

Thestudystarklyrevealshowdangerousitisforthechildrentoliveincloseproximitytoworksites.Childrenof306households–justover8%ofthosesurveyed–reportedhavingsustainedinjuriesinaccidentsontheworksite,includingfallingfrombuildingsunderconstruction.notonlythis,2%wereoftenabusedbythecontractorsorowners.Beingunfamiliarwiththeirsurroundings,61%ofthechildrensaidtheydidn’tgoouttoplayforfearofbeingabused.Mostofthefamiliesandtheirchildrenreportedfacingdiscriminationattheworksite.

Thestudyrecordedfoodinsecurityamongseasonalmigrantworkers’children,with25%ofthehouseholdsnoteatingtwosquaremealsperday;51%ofchildrendidnotreceiveabalanceddiet,andwentwithoutvegetables,meat,eggs,fishandmilk.Thisimplieshigherlevelsofmalnutrition-relatedailmentsand64%ofthehouseholdsreportedsufferingfromvariousdiseasesandailmentsattheirworkplace,58%havingnoaccesstoproperhealthcarefacilities.

Ingeneral,youngchildrenofmigrantworkersareinvisibleinurbangovernance,programmeplanningandpolicyframeworks.Theyaremuchmorelikelytoenjoyaccesstobasicfacilitiessuchashousing,healthcare,education,earlychildhoodservices,entitlementsandsecurityintheirnativevillages.Whentheymovetocities,itisasiftheybecomealiencitizensintheirowncountry.

‘ In 2013, a study star ted to assess the s i tuat ion of young migrants at works i tes, wi th the a im of making the i r issues v is ib le, heard and acted upon by government, markets and civ i l society.’


The Hyderabad model

Ourstudyintendednotonlytoshedmorelightontheplightofyoungmigrants,buttoinformanattempttocomeupwithareplicablemodelforcreatingasafeandhealthyenvironmentfortheyoungchildrenofseasonalmigrantworkers,inwhichtheycouldenjoycareandlearningopportunities.WiththehelpofitsHyderabadregionalofficecolleague,MIRCmadeablueprintforprototypelow-costhousingwithchild-friendlyspaces.Ayounglocalarchitectwashiredtoresearchhowmigrantslivedintheirhomevillagesandcameupwithadesign.

ThedesignwasfurtherdiscussedwithownersofbrickworksinHyderabad,tofindonewhowasespeciallyenthusiasticaboutprovidingdecenthousingfortheirworkers.Typically,whenthemigrantworkers–mostofwhomarefromtheneighbouringstatesofOdishaandChhattisgarh–reachtheworksiteduringnovemberandDecember,thefirstmouldedunbakedbricksareusedtoconstructtheirhouses,witharoofofpolythenesheets.Measuring8x7feetwithamaximumheightof5feet(roughly2.5x2x1.5m),thesearethehouseswherethemigrantsaregoingtocook,eatandshelterwiththeirfamiliesforalmost7–8months.

Aftervisitingseverallocations,finallythechoicewasmadetobuildthehousingatLBMbrickworksinAnnaramvillageofJinnaramMandalinMedakdistrict.Thissiteislocated20kmoutsideHyderabadcitylimitsandhasover100migrantfamiliesfromOdishaandChhattisgarhworkinginthebrickkilns,including65childrenagedunder14years.

Thefirmofarchitects‘23°DesignShift’wasengagedtoplanandexecutetheproject.Theentiresiteforthehousingprojectmeasured3200squarefeet(about300m2),toinclude12dwellingunits,child-friendlycommunityspaceandbackyards.Thelivingspacewasdesignedinsuchawaythatsleepingareasforadultsandchildrenweredemarcated,withspacesforstorage,andthecookingareawasinthecourtyardorbackyard.Twopublictoiletswereconstructed.Acavitywallconstructionmethodwasused,sothat

thedwellingspaceswouldbecoolerinsummer,andventilationshaftswereprovidedinbetweenthecavitywallsinordertoradiatetheheatoutwards.TheprojectwascompletedinApril2013.Elevenfamilieswereeachallottedahouse,whilethetwelfthhousewasusedastheworksite’sfirstaidandmedicalcentre.AndhraPradeshDepartmentofEducationhasalsostartedaworksiteschoolforthechildreninthecommunityspace.

Thehouseshaveprofoundlychangedtheexperienceofseasonalmigrantfamilies,suchas40-year-oldTimanKarvel,hiswifePadmaandtheirfourchildren,whohavemigratedtoworkatthebrickworksforthelast10years.Padmasays: I used to struggle a lot to take care of my kids and belongings.

During summer, we used to sleep outside and my kids inside the hut. When it rained, we all used to huddle inside and worry about whether the wind would blow away the tarpaulin roof. Now our living place is much better and my kids are also going to the child learning centre.

Chandrama,a12-year-oldgirl,says: The brick kiln area was always windy and dusty, but the new place

is spacious and cool. Before we had no place to play since heavy vehicles were always moving around. Now, my brother, I and our friends have a very good place to play, learn and spend time. We are also now getting midday meals served by the school authority.

Towards replication

RegionalManagerShredharMether,whoexecutedtheproject,says: We have already spoken to the local government administration,

who is interested to learn from the model and replicate it.

BabuRao,theownerofthebrickworks,adds: I was sceptical when Aide et Action first talked to me about the

project. However, now the houses are complete, people have

‘When young chi ldren move to ci t ies, i t is as i f they become al ien ci t izens in the i r own country.’


started demanding to have them for all the workers and their families. I will try to replicate this since it will increase the output of my labourers.

Migrationisheretostay,aspeoplearepulledtothecitiesbythehopeofabetterlivelihoodandpushedfromruralareasbyfactorssuchaspoverty,naturalcalamity,conflictandhumaninsecurity.ItisestimatedthatthepopulationofIndia’scitieswilldoubleby2030.Seasonalmigrantswholivepartoftheyearonworksitesarehardertotrackandreachthanpermanentmigrantswhosettleinslums–butreachingthemisimperativefortheirchildrentobeableaccessthebasicentitlementsandservicesrequiredforhumansurvival.


Many rural families in the Indian state of Odisha migrate seasonally to cities to work in areas such as brick making and construction. Their living conditions are typically dire, and in practice their young children cannot access the state services to which they theoretically have a right. This article describes how the Humara Bachpan campaign successfully persuaded the State Government of Odisha to issue guidelines about providing government services to seasonal migrant children.

PuspaThapa,an8-year-oldgirl,wasinclassIIatherschoolinBharamundvillage,Balangirdistrict,intheIndianstateofOdisha.Herlittlesister,aged3,attendedalocalearlychildhoodcentre.needingtoearnmoney,herparentsdecidedthefamilywouldmigratetoBhubaneswarcitytoseekworkinbrickmaking–a

seasonalactivity,startingeachyearafterthemonsoons.PupsaandhersisteraskediftherewouldbeschoolsandpreschoolsforthemtoattendinBhubaneswar.Herparentsdidn’tknow.Whentheyarrived,Puspadiscoveredtherewasnoschoolforher,nopreschoolforhersister,andthattheirlivingconditionsattheworksiteweredeplorable.

Pupsaisnotalone.AccordingtoastudybytheMigrationInformationandResourceCentreofAide et Action(whowritefurtherabouttheirworkonseasonalmigrantsonpages30–33ofthisissueofEarly Childhood Matters),45%ofIndianchildrenaged0–8yearswhomigrateseasonallywiththeirparentsaredeprivedofanyaccesstoearlychildcare,education,andnutritionandbasichealthservices.InstateslikeOdisha,withalargeproportionofpeoplelivinginpoverty,manyruraldwellersseasonally

The Humara Bachpan campaign: a success for seasonal migrant chi ldren in OdishaJyot i Prakash Brahma, Humara Bachpan, Bhubaneswar, Ind ia

The Humara Bachpan campaign set out to create 8 model child learning centres serving 14 brick kiln worksites within the suburban locations of Bhubaneswar. Photo • Courtesy Humara Bachpan


migratetofast-growingurbanareasbothwithinandoutsideofthestate.Theseilliterateandunskilledpeoplearebroughttocitiesbylaboursupplyagentstoworkinbrickkilns,stonecrusherunitsandconstructionsites,wherelivingconditionsformigrantfamiliesaretypicallydismal.

Intheirvillages,youngchildrencanusuallyaccessbasicgovernmentwelfareservicesprovidedbythelocalIntegratedChildDevelopmentServices(ICDS),orAnganwadicentre.Intheory,thesameshouldapplywhentheirfamiliesmigrateseasonallytocities–in2011thegovernmentofIndia’sMinistryofWomenandChildDevelopmentinstructedallstategovernmentstoextendtheICDSservicestothemigratorypopulation.Likewise,inprincipleschool-agechildrenshouldbecoveredbytheRightofChildrentoFreeandCompulsoryEducationAct2009–whichguaranteeseducationfromtheageof6to14–evenwhenmigratingseasonally.Inpractice,however,thishasnotbeenimplemented.Seasonalmigrantsarenotdocumentedbythegovernment,sotheyremaineffectivelyinvisibleinurbangovernance,andthereisnogovernmentpolicyorsetofguidelinesspecificallyaddressingtherightsofmigrantchildren.

The Humara Bachpan campaign

TheplightofchildrenlikePupsainurbanOdishaledtoHumara Bachpan (‘OurEarlyChildhood’),anationalcampaignfocusedonsafeandhealthylivingconditionsforyoungchildreninurbanpoverty,tochooseseasonalmigrantchildrenasoneofitsmajorstrategicinterventionareas.Supported,amongotherorganisations,bytheBernardvanLeerFoundation,theHumara Bachpancampaignisanetworkofchildren,communitymembers,ngOsandotherstakeholders.

Theobjectiveoftheinterventionwastoimprovethelivingconditionsofpoorseasonalmigrantchildrenbyprovidingbetteraccesstobasicamenitiesincludingnutritionandeducation.Mothersworkingasdailylabourershavelimitedtimetoprovidedirectcarefortheirchildren,socentresareneededtoofferalternativecare.Thecampaignsetouttocreate8modelchildlearningcentresserving14brickkilnworksiteswithinthesuburbanlocationsofBhubaneswar,incollaborationwiththeMigrationInformationandResourceCentreofAide et Action.Theplanwastousethispilotinterventiontoadvocateforpolicychangesthatwouldlinkmigrantchildrentoexistinggovernment-runservices.

Figure 1 The steps of the campaign

Step 1Situation assessment

Understand the situationat the worksites:

what issues are faced by seasonal migrant children

in terms of their living conditions and access to nutrition and education.

Step 2Pilot intervention

Identify key stakeholderswho could make a

difference, and implementmodel interventions to

improve the situation at the worksites.

Step 3Policy advocacy

Persuade the stategovernment to change

policy and issue guidelinesto address the problems on

a long-term basis.


Step 1: Situation assessment Whenthecampaignassessedthesituationattheworksites,itfoundthatchildrencomewiththeirparentstothebrickkilnsinthemonthsofOctoberornovember,returningtotheirvillagesinMayorJune.Thatis,theygenerallystayforaperiodof6–8months.Themigrantworkersarepaidlessthantheminimumwageprescribedbythegovernment,meaningthatfamilieshaveinsufficientmoneyforfoodandchildrenlackadequatenutrition.TheIndiangovernmentofferscomplementarynutritionprogrammesthroughAnganwadicentres,buttheyarenotaccessedbyseasonalmigrants.

Thesituationassessmentfoundthatthereweregovernment-runearlychildhoodcentreswithin1kmoftheworksites,buttheydidnotenrolthechildrenofseasonalworkers.Thiswasbecausetherewasnospecificpolicymandatingtheadmissionofmigrantchildren.TheyoungchildrennotenrolledinECCEcentreswerethereforeleftunderthesupervisionoftheiroldersiblings,whichinturnmadeitmoredifficultforthoseolderchildrentocontinuetheirstudies.

Step 2: Pilot interventionThesituationassessmenthelpedtoidentifythekeystakeholderswhosecooperationwascriticalforthecampaign:brickkilnowners,parents,andrelevantgovernmentdepartments.Thecampaignmanagedtosecurethecooperationofallthesestakeholderstoimplementapilotintervention.Thebrickkilnownersprovidedadedicatedspaceandatemporarystructuretobeusedaschildlearningcentre,whichprovidedcareandearlyeducationtonearly400youngmigrantchildrenwhiletheirmotherswereatwork.

Alongsiderunningthechildlearningcentres,theinterventionsoughttobuildcommunityownershipandawarenessontheimportanceofearlychildhoodeducationandcare.Mothers’committeeswereformed,andtrained177mothersonnutrition,healthandhygiene.

Toprovidenutritionalsupporttothesechildren,thecampaignneededtoengagelocalICDSservices.The

campaignlobbiedtheSecretaryofOdisha’sDepartmentofWomenandChildDevelopment,whosaidshedidnothavethebudgetorstafftoopenanadditionalICDScentreattheworksites,butcommittedtoprovidetake-homerations.TheDepartment’sDirectorofSocialWelfaresubsequentlybecameactiveinlinkingthecampaignandbrickkilnownerswithnearbygovernment-runcentresandofficials,toworktogetheronprovidingbothnutritionandlearningmaterials.

Step 3: Policy advocacyWiththestategovernment’spositiveresponsetothepilotintervention,thecampaignturneditsattentiontopersuadingthegovernmenttoputinplacethepolicyframeworktoassumeresponsibilityforallseasonalmigrantchildren.Thesituationanalysisshowedthatabsenceofspecificstategovernmentguidelinesontheeducationandcareofyoungmigrantchildrenwasoneoftheirmainhurdlesinaccessingeducationandnutrition.AlongwiththenationalCommissionforProtectionofChildren’sRights,thecampaignsuccessfullypersuadedthestategovernmenttoissueguidelinesonextendingnutritionservicestothesechildrenandopeningtherequirednumberofearlychildhoodcarecentresattheworksites.

Thecampaignalsoadvocatedforguidelinesoneducationformigrantchildrenofschoolage.neighbourhoodprimaryschoolsdonotenrolthesemigrantchildren,astheyarrivewhentheannualenrolmentprocessisover,andtherearenogovernmentguidelinesonadmissionsoutsideoftheenrolmentperiod.Consequently,seasonalmigrantchildreneitherworkaschildlabourerswiththeirparentsonthekilns,orlookafteryoungersiblings,andresumetheirstudiesonlyontheirreturntotheir

‘ The object ive of the inter vent ion was to improve the l iv ing condi t ions of poor seasonal migrant chi ldren by provid ing bet ter access to basic ameni t ies including nutr i t ion and educat ion.’


homevillages.Afterthecampaign’sadvocacy,theOdishagovernmentbroughtoutguidancetoenrolseasonalmigrantchildreninneighbourhoodschools.

ItisoftenariskintheIndiancontextthatguidelinesmaybepreparedbutnotimplemented.Therefore,asfollow-upaction,thecampaignwillconductmeetingswiththeimplementinggovernmentdepartment,policymakers,brickkilnowners,andparentsofseasonalmigrantchildren,andengagestrategicallywiththemediatohighlighttheissue,whichwillcreatepressureonthegovernmenttoimplementtheguidelinesinbothletterandspirit.

The way ahead

TheguidelinescametoolateforPuspathisyear,butifherparentsmigrateagainnextyear,sheandherlittlesistershouldhavebetterprospectsofaccessingprimaryeducationandearlychildhoodcarerespectively.Thissuccessfulinterventionisanencouragingexampleofhowcampaignscanmakeadifferenceinimprovinglivingconditionsandaccesstoservicesforseasonalmigrantchildren,byworkingincollaborationwithallthestakeholders–theworksiteowners,themigrantparents,andlocalgovernmentdepartments.ThecampaignisnowtakingstepstoreplicatethemodelinotherstatesofIndia,takingaccountofdifferencesinlocalconditions.


Meet ing migrant famil ies’ needs through on-si te crèchesMridu la Ba ja j , Execut i ve D i rec tor, and Mayanka Gupta, Programme Of f ice r, Mobi le Crèches, New De lh i , Ind ia

Mobile Crèches works with employers to offer on-site crèche facilities to the young children of seasonal migrant workers who are typically unable to access government-run services in the cities to which they migrate in search of work. This article describes how the Mobile Crèches models work, evidence of their impact, and a study conducted by the organisation into the conditions of Indian migrants.

ManyseasonalmigrantsinIndiaworkinconstruction,thecountry’ssecond-largestemployerafteragriculture.TherelationshipofMobileCrècheswithconstructionworkersandtheirchildrengoesbackto1969,whenMobileCrèches(MC)openeditsfirstcrècheatthe

gandhiDarshansiteatRajghatinDelhi.now,44yearson,thelivingandworkingconditionsoftheseconstructionworkershavenotimprovedmuch,andtheplightofmigrantscontinuestobelargelyignoredbypolicymakers.

MobileCrèchescarriedoutastudy1in2008tounderstandmoreaboutthefamiliesofmigrantconstructionworkers.Thestudylookedat425familiesin15constructionsitesinthenationalCapitalRegion.Thesewereamongitsfindings:• Short-termmigrationwascommon–two-thirdsof

thefamiliesstayedlessthanoneyearatasite.• Mostfamilieslivedontheworksite,indifficultand

unhealthyconditions:crampedshacksmadefromtin

Establishing a crèche at a construction site requires convincing employers of the need and the benefits of having a crèche, while also developing people and systems to work with children in dif ficult circumstances. Photo • Courtesy Mobile Crèches


orbrick,withasbestosortinroofs.Withnoelectricitytopowerfans,thesesheltersgetextremelyhot.Onlyhalftheworkerssurveyedhadaccesstocleandrinkingwaterandonly23%tocleantoilets.

• Workingconditionsweresimilarlydeplorable,withtheconstructionsectorbeingwellknowninIndiaforitsdisregardoflabourlaws.Inmanycasesworkersweredeprivedofminimumwageratesandsocialsecurityentitlementssuchasmaternityallowanceoroldagepension.WorkerswerenotregisteredwiththeDelhiConstructionWorkers’WelfareBoardandtherewasnoawarenessoftheBuildingandOtherConstructionWorkersAct,1996,orthebenefitsofregistration.

• Conditionstendedtobeparticularlyexploitativeforwomen,whodotheleast-skilledjobsandonanaveragereceivetwo-thirdsofthewagesthatmenearn.

• Workerslackedaccesstobasicservicesforbringingupyoungchildren,suchashealthcare,nutritionalsupport,schools,preschoolsandimmunisationservices.noneofthefamiliessurveyedwasusingthenearestanganwadi,orgovernment-sponsoredchildcarecentre,reflectingalackofspecificoutreachstrategiestoreachfrequentlymobilepopulations.

• Twooutofthreechildrenweremalnourished.• Workers’hopesofimprovingtheirfinancialsituation

hadlargelynotworkedout.Only3%offamiliessaidtheyhadbeenabletoincreasetheirassetsthroughmakingamovefromthevillage.Theirincreasedincomewaslargelyconsumedbyspendingonfood,healthcareandpayingoffdebts.Healthwasfoundtobethehighestsinglereasonforincurringdebts,with84%ofthefamiliesreportingregular,monthlyhealthexpenses.

Indiahasarichtraditionofcaringforchildrenthroughtheextendedfamily,butwhenparentsmigratethatnetworkislost.Migrantmothersmustleavetheirinfantsunattendedforlonghourswhiletheyworkandbreastfeedingisdifficult,ifnotimpossible.Childrenarelargelycaredforbysiblingswhoarebarelyolderthanthemselves.

The three models of Mobile Crèches

MCbeganwiththeobjectiveofprovidingsafety,care,healthandeducationforthechildrenofworkingwomenatconstructionsites.Establishingacrècheataconstructionsitewasadifficulttaskthatrequiredconvincingemployersoftheneedandthebenefitsofhavingacrèche,whilealsodevelopingpeopleandsystemstoworkwithchildrenindifficultcircumstances.

Theorganisationprovideschildcareservicesunderthreemodels.Inthefirst,‘demonstration’model,MCitselfrunsthechildcareprovisionandthecontributionandparticipationoftheemployerareminimal.Inthesecond,‘sharedownership’model,MCmotivatesandfacilitatestheemployertoimplementandfinancetheservices,andprovidestechnicalsupport.Inthethird,‘transferownership’model,theorganisationprovidesconsultancyandsupportbutcompleteresponsibilityforprovidingqualitychildcarerestswiththeemployer.

AsshowninFigure1,theaimisalwaystomovetowardsthethirdmodel,graduallyreducingtheinvolvementofMC,withtheaimofthesiteownerbeingabletocarryonindependently.Insomerecentcasesithasbeenpossibletoskipthefirstmodelandmovedirectlytothesecond.MCcurrentlyoperates22daycarecentresatconstructionsites,andprovidessupportthroughtrainingand

Figure 1 Mobile Crèches models

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

DemonstrationModel

SharedOwnership

TransferOwnership

Day carecentres:

direct service

Facilitationand

Supervision

Consultancyand

Support

Nature of intervention


facilitationat20constructionsites.Todate,ithasreachedoutto750,000children,trained6500womenaschildcareworkers,run650daycarecentresandpartneredwith200builders.

AsshowninFigure2,MobileCrèchesofferacombinationofservicesincludingnutritionalandhealthsupportandeducation.Dailyactivitiesareinfusedwithstorytelling,dancing,singing,gamesandlocallymadetoys,celebratingadiversityofculturesandtraditions.CommunityengagementliesatthecoreofMC’soperations,andparentsworkcloselywithMCstaffandvolunteerstospreadawarenessaboutissuesrelevanttochilddevelopmentandeducation,health,nutrition,antenatalcareandparenting.

Impact of interventions

MCundertookastudy2in2008–09toestablishtheimpactonchildrenofattendinganMCcrècheoperatingitsnewtheme-based,child-centred,age-appropriatecurriculum,withitsemphasisonlanguage,numberexercisesandphysicalgamestofurtherchildren’scognitive,socialandemotionaldevelopment.Thetotalsampleforthestudywas100childrenagedbetween3and6years,from16MCcentres,anditusedacomposite‘DevelopmentalAssessmentMeasure’administeredbyatrainedinvestigator,workingindividuallywitheachchildtomeasurecognition,language,perceptual–motorskills(writingreadiness)andsocio-emotionalcompetence.

Figure 2 Mobile Crèches integrated programme

3 times daily hot cooked wholesome •balanced nutritious meal

Growth monitoring •Special diet for the malnourished •

• Age-appropriate needs of children• Play-based, child-centred approach• Readiness skills• Mainstreaming• Retention• Tutorial support

• Regular health check-ups• Immunisation• Vitamin A, iron supplementation• Deworming• Eye and dental care• Health camp• Medical card

One-to-one interaction •Mothers’ meeting •

Street plays, media •Building local leadership •

Nutrition Education

CommunityCommunication

Health


Asitwasnotpracticallypossibletogenerateacomparablecontrolgroupwithnoexperienceofthecrèches,thestudycomparedchildrenwithmorethan200daysofexposuretothecurriculumwithacontrolgroupofchildrenwhohadunder100daysofexposure.Thehypothesiswasthatchildrenwhohadexperiencedover200dayswouldscorebetterondevelopmentalandschool-readinessskillsthanthosewhohadattendedfewerthan100days.

Despitetherelativelysmallsamplesize,theresultswereencouraging.Thechildrenwithmorethan200daysexposurescored91%incognitiveskills(comparedto67%forchildrenwithunder100daysofexposure),87%inlanguageareas(comparedto71%),77%inperceptual–motorskills(comparedto57%),and80%insocio-emotionalskills(comparedto74%).

MC’srecordsfurthershowthat63%ofchildrenwhoattendedMCforatleast6monthsimprovedtheirnutritionalstatus,and98%whoattendedforatleast2monthsgotuptodatewithimmunisations.

Inthecomingyears,MCwillworktoensureinstitutionalisationofapolicyof‘childcareateverysite’whichcanprovideholisticcaretochildren.Itwillcontinuetoraiseawarenessamongsiteowners,offertrainingincrècheset-upandmanagement,andworktoimproveaccesstogovernmentservicesforthispopulationthatoftengoesundertheradarofofficialbodies.

Notes1 Distress Migration: Identity and Entitlements – A Study on Migrant Construction

Workers and the Health Status of their Children in the National Capital Region 2007–2008.

2 Accelerating Learning: An Evaluation of the Balwadi (Preschool) Programme of Mobile Crèches.


Pol i t ical ac t ion for the chi ldren of seasonal migrant farm labourers in MexicoPat r ic ia Urb ieta, Research Coord inator, and Claud ia Cabrera, Ass is tant Ch i ld Labour Coord inator, R i r i k i Soc ia l In te r vent ion, Mex ico

1

Seasonal migrant farm labourers are an impoverished, vulnerable, marginalised and largely invisible sector of the population. This article investigates the situation of such labourers – and their children – in Mexico, and the public policy solutions that have been pursued over the last two decades.

Migrantlabourers,mostlyfromthecountry’spooreststates,havebeenworkingMexico’sfieldsforcenturies.Theirnumbershavegrownsincethemid-20thcentury,withthespreadoftechnologicalprogressandglobalisation,andarenowestimatedtonumberover2million(SEDESOL,2009).Theytravelasfamilies,anditisestimatedthatatotalof9millionpeopleliveinthehouseholdsoffarmlabourers;ofthese,anestimated900,000aregirlsandboysagedbetween5and17years,

workingthesamehoursastheirparents(MuñozRíos,2013).

AroundOctoberandnovember,childrenleavetheirhomestatestotravelwiththeirfamiliesforaperiodthatvariesfrom3to9months,inanattempttoboostthefamilyincome.Fromasyoungasage4or5,theyworkillegallyasfarmlabourersduringthesowingandharvestingseasons,orpackagingproductsdestinedfortheinternationalmarket.Childlaboursometimesbringsinasmuchas60%ofafamily’sincome(Romeroet al.,2006).

Forveryyounggirlsandboys,belowtheageof4or5andnotyetworkingillegallyinthefields,conditionsaredeplorableandlifeexpectancyisshort.Theirparentshavenowayoflookingafterthemandnotimetobewith

The welfare and education centres provide food, health, dietary and care services for children, and are run by ‘caregiver mothers’. Photo • Courtesy Ririki Social Intervention


them.Inthebestcasescenario,itfallstoanotherfamilymember–sometimesasiblingwhoisalsoundertheageof5–tolookafterthem.Ploughedfields,exposedtotheelements,becomenurseriesandplaygrounds;sun,wind,pesticidesandheavymachinerybecomechildren’sworstenemiesastheygrowup.generallyspeaking,their‘homes’arelargeroomswithnoelectricity,noventilationandnodrinkingwater,andwithwoefullyinadequatesanitaryarrangements.

Puttinganykindofcareandsupportinplaceforlabourers’childrenisahugechallenge,asmigrationinMexicoishinderedbyfourmajorfactors:1 Themigrantpopulationisinconstantmovementand

isalwayschanging.2 Thereisanenormousvarietyoftraditionsand

languages.3 Parentsandchildrenalikehavehugegapsintheir

education.4 Thereisaconstantimperativetoincreasethefamily

incometocovertheirbasicneeds.

Thesefactorshindertheprocessofobtaininginformationabouttheboysandgirls.Logistically,itisextremelydifficulttogetaccesstothemintheirhomecommunitiesorinthefarmcampstocollectdata.Evenwhenaccesscanbeobtained,labourersarereluctanttodescribetheirworksituationandscaredthattheywillbejudgedontheirabilitytocarefortheirchildren.Fearanddefensivenessperpetuatethehiddennatureoftheirsituation,sothecycleofmarginalisationandpovertyjustkeepsgoingon.

Public policy responses

TherehavebeenanumberofpublicpolicyresponsesdevelopedinMexicoforlabourers’children,mainlyfocusedoneducation,socialprotection,healthandhousing.Theissueofemploymentprotectionhasalsobeentackledoverthelastfewyears.However,muchremainstobedone.

Twopublicpolicyresponsesstandout:1 thePrograma para Contribuir al Ejercicio de los Derechos de

las Niñas y los Niños, Hijos de Familias Jornaleras Agrícolas

(Programmeforcontributingtotheexerciseoftherightsoffarmlabourers’children),whichstartedin2000withtheaimofcreatingthephysical,materialandenvironmentalconditionsforchildrenagedbetween0and6toexercisetheirrightstosurvival,developmentandprotection.Itinvolvesputtingflexibleandinclusivemethodsintopracticeinchildren’swelfareandeducationcentresandinplaygroups.

Thewelfareandeducationcentresprovidefood,health,dietaryandcareservicesforchildren,andarerunby‘caregivermothers’(IMSS,2005),workingwomenwhoarefamiliarwiththeproblemsfacingfemalelabourersandwho,becausetheyareappreciatedbytheircommunity,havethenecessaryconfidencetolookafterotherpeople’schildren.Intheplaygroups,playisregardedasthecentralconceptlinkinglearningandco-existencewiththeculturalexpressionofthevariousethnicgroupsandwithgapsineducation.

2 CoordinatedbythePrograma deAtención a Jornaleros Agrícolas Migrantes(PAJA)(theFarmWorkersAssistanceProgramme),whichisrunbytheSecretaría de Desarrollo Social(SEDESOL)(SocialDevelopmentDepartment),theMonarcaprogramme–aimedatchildrenagedbetween6and14–setsouttopreventchildlabouronfarms,motivatechildrentoattendschool,andensurethatchildrenarehealthyandeatwell.Theprogrammerunsduringthefarmingseasoninareasthatattractmigrantworkersandinvariousworkunits,suchashostels,nurseriesandcamps.Focusingonvulnerablegroups,itprovidesgrantsforfoodandsubsidiesforschooluniforms,supportshealthcareandmonitoringforfamilies,offersafoodbankandfoodsupplements,andalsosupportsculturalrecoveryprojectsinvolvingdances,songs,customs,storiesandplaygroups.

Thesepublicpolicyresponsesinparticularhavemadesignificantprogressinbuildingintegratedsupportfortheschool-agechildmigrantpopulation.However,childlabourhasnotdiminishedmuchbecausethelowlevelsofeconomicdevelopmentcontinuetoprovidestrongincentivesforfamiliestoputtheirchildrentowork.


Andtherearestillsignificantgapsinprovision,whichprivatesectorandcivilsocietygroupsareworkinginpartnershipwithgovernmenttotrytofill.

Private and civil society responses

Formorethanadecade,somefoodexportingcompanieshaveincludedsocialresponsibilityaspartoftheirbusinessstructure,ortheyhavesetupfoundationstohelpsafeguardthewelfareoffarmlabourersandtheirfamilies.Todothis,theyhavecoordinatedwithgovernmentinitiativestodirectsupportwhereitismostneeded,inimprovingandexpandingservicesrelatedtoeducation,healthcare,housinganddiet.Thisisthecaseofthe Pro-Familia de Jornalerosassociation2andtheSabritasFoundation3,bothofwhichearmarkresourcesforimprovingandsettingupnurseriesstaffedbylocalmothersandprovidingcareforbabiesandtoddlers.

Socialorganisationshavecomeupwithschemesinsupportofworkdonebythegovernment.TheEntornos Seguros(SafeEnvironments)project–undertheInfancia en Movimiento(ChildhoodinMovement)programmepromotedbytheRed por los Derechos de la Infancia(ChildhoodRightsnetwork)andtheBernardvanLeerFoundation–actsmainlyonbehalfofchildrenagedfrom0to6yearsold,inthecommunitieswheretheyaregrowingup.Theprojectaimstochangeeverydaypracticesinvolvingphysicalviolenceandtherisksfacingyoungchildrenfromnothavingadultsaround,aswellasbuildingpositiverelationshipsinwhichdiversityisrespected.Italsoseekstostrengthensocialprotectionnetworkstoensureasaferchildhood.

Bycreatingsafeandinclusivefamilyandcommunityenvironments,thisprojectusesplayschemestoexercisechildren’srighttorecreationandeducationwhileatthesametimefosteringpositiverelationshipsbetweenpeersandadults.Itpursuesthefollowingthreestrategies:1 Travellingplaygroup,El pollito caminante(‘Thewalking

chick’),aparticipativeplaygroupwhereboysandgirlsgetinformationandtraininginsubjectstheyenjoyandwheretheycanvoicetheiropinions,makesuggestionsandexpresstheirconcerns.Familiesareanintegralpartoftheplaygroup.

2 Seedprojects.Aimedatencouragingsocialorganisationstodevelopprojectsthatconcentrateonrightsissuesandworktowardsreducingearlychildhoodvulnerability.

3 Childhoodrightsseminarsandinterventionfromasocialriskmanagementperspective.Aimedatgivingprofessionaltrainingtopeopleworkingwithchildlabourersandespeciallywithveryyoungchildren,equippingthemwiththeskillstheyneedtocarryoutsocialandeducationalinterventionswiththeemphasisonchildren’srights.

Priorit ies for future work

Despitetheprogressmadebypublicpolicy,foodexportcompaniesandcivilsociety,inmanycasesthecycleof

The Safe Environments project seeks to strengthen social protection networks to ensure a safer childhood. Photo • Courtesy Ririki Social Intervention


marginalisationandpovertycontinues:childrenbornintofarmlabourerfamiliesneverlearntoreadandwrite,becausetheyhavetojointheworkforceatanearlyageratherthanattendingschool,whereanywaytheymightnothaveunderstoodthelanguageusedinclass;withapoordietandinadequateaccesstohealthcare,theirprospectsofabetterlifearefurtherlimited;andtheyarethefuturemothersandfathersoffamiliestornapartbytheneedtomigrate,losingmoreoftheirtraditionsandtheirsenseofcommunitywitheachmigration.

Fromourexperienceoftwodecadesofcaringforfarmlabourers’children,anykindofactiontakentobreakthecyclemustbefocusedonacreativeandinnovativeintegratedapproach,withservicesthattakechildren’smobility,interculturalnatureandrightsintoaccount.

understandingtheneedforfarmlabourerstobemobilemeansidentifyingacommunity’sconditions,demandsandtimeconstraintsintermsoftheirwork.Itmeansbeingabletoseehowthefamilyunitisfragmentedwhenjustonechildgoeswiththeirfather,witharelativeorwithpeoplefromtheircommunity.Butitalsomeansbeingabletofindawayforapersontorebuildtheirlifebyjoiningthefarmingworkforceinordertosurviveandchangetheirlivingconditions.So,tacklingmobilityisfindingawaytoreachouttothepopulationwiththeirspecificneeds,whichrequirecommunicationandacoordinatedresponsefromtheinstitutionsinvolved,atsetpointsbetweentheplacesoforigin,transitanddestination.

Children’snaturalcuriosityiswhatmakesthemturntootherpeoplesothattheycanunderstandtheirnewsurroundings.Thisiswhyinterculturality,characterisedbyethnic,linguisticandculturaldiversity,istransformedintoabodyofknowledgeandteachingsaimedatbringingaboutsocialchange,broadeningthenotionofrespectfordifference,andbuildingincreasinglyfairandnon-discriminatorysocieties.Childrenoffarmlabourershavethepotentialtogrowupintomulticulturalcitizens,intocitizensoftheworld,withouthavingtotravelaroundit.

Theunequalexerciseofhumanrightsinthemigrantfarmlabourerpopulationneedsurgentattention,butthecaseofyoungchildrenisevenmoreurgent.Theirvulnerabilityrevealsthevulnerabilityoftheirfamiliesaswellasthatofthecurrenteconomicandsocialmodelthatcontinuallyinfringestheirhumanrightsandtheirrighttodecentlivingconditions.

ReferencesInstituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (IMSS). (2005). Reglas de carácter general para

la subrogación de los Servicios de Guardería con patrones y organizaciones de trabajadores eventuales de campo. Mexico, IMSS.

Muñoz Ríos, P. (2013). ‘Más de 900 mil niños son jornaleros agrícolas’, La Jornada, 28 August.

Romero, S.J.R, Nava, D.P. and Samperio, D.V. (2006). Diagnóstico sobre la Condición Social de las Niñas y Niños Migrantes Internos, Hijos de Jornaleros Agrícolas. Mexico, UNICEF. Available at: http://www.unicef.org/mexico/spanish/mx_resources_diagnostico_ninos_jornaleros.pdf (accessed September 2013).

Secretaria de Desarrollo Social (SEDESOL). (2009). Encuesta Nacional de Jornaleros Agrícolas 2009. Mexico, SEDESOL. Available at: http://www.cipet.gob.mx/jornaleros/ (accessed September 2013).

Notes1 For more information about Ririki, visit: www.ririki.org.mx2 Organisation set up in early 2000 by the Asociación de Agricultores de Rio Culiacán

(AARC).3 This foundation runs the Care and Development Programme for female

labourers working on potato farms.

Further readingCedillo Torres, S., Lara García, H. , Márquez Noxpango, A., Pérez Farelas, E., Reyes

Hernández, S. and Sanchezllanes Santacruz, P. (2002). Educación intercultural, una propuesta para población infantil migrante. Paper presented at Invisibilidad y Conciencia: Migración interna de niñas y niños jornaleros agrícolas en México, 26–27 September, Mexico. Available at: http://www.uam.mx/cdi/pdf/eventos/invisibilidad/conafe.pdf (accessed September 2013).

Ramírez, N. (2008). Apuntes Metodológicos para el Desarrollo de Intervenciones Socioeducativas. Mexico: Indesol/Ririki Intervención Social.

Ririki. (2008). Estudio Diagnóstico de Acciones Dirigidas a la Población Infantil Jornalera Impulsadas por la Sedesol: Operación de Guarderías y Población Infantil Atendida por Trimestre en 2007. Mexico: Ririki.

Rojas Rangel, T. (2009). La crisis del sector rural y el coste migratorio en México (Crisis and rural migration cost in Mexico). Iberofórum: Revista de Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad Iberoamericana. IV(8): 40–81. Available at: http://www.uia.mx/actividades/publicaciones/iberoforum/8/pdf/NOTAS%20PARA%20EL%20DEBATE/2.%20TERESA%20ROJAS%20IBEROFORUM%20NO%208.pdf (accessed October 2013).

Rojas Rangel, T. de J. (2011). La investigación educativa con población infantil jornalera. Revista Académica de Investigación y Postgrado 2(2): 135–49. Available at: http://postgrado.upnfm.edu.hn/r2011/12.pdf (accessed October 2013).

‘Any kind of act ion taken to break the cycle must be focused on a creat ive and innovat ive integrated approach, wi th serv ices that take chi ldren’s mobi l i t y, intercul tura l nature and r ights into account.’


An inter v iew wi th Dora Isabe l Ochoa Agui lar

‘Famil ies must be suppor ted’: a view f rom the pr ivate sec tor

Dora Isabel Ochoa Aguilar is the Human Resources Manager at Agrícola BelHer1, a company that grows tomatoes in the Mexican state of Sinaloa. In this interview, she talks to Early Childhood Matters about her company’s efforts over the past two decades to improve living conditions for the children of the seasonal migrant workers it employs.

Tell us about the seasonal migrant workers Agrícola BelHer employs. How many are there, where do they come from, and for how long do they stay?Lastseasonweemployedoverathousandseasonalmigrants,withhundredsofchildren.Someareyoungcoupleswithoneortwochildren,otherfamiliesarebigenoughtooccupytwoadjacentlivingunitsinourhostelcomplexes,whichhavealmost500individualhomes.Wehaveapolicyofpreferringtoemployworkerswithfamilies,aswebelieveitgeneratesmorestability,both

forthecompanyandforthefamily,thanemployingsinglepeople.Wetreatfamilieswell,andtheycomebackyearafteryeartoworkforus.

OurmigrantworkerscomefromvariouspartsofMexico,makingjourneysof800–1900km.Andtheymaystayforupto10months,althoughitusednottobethatway.WhenIstartedworkingforBelHerin1990,typicallyworkerscameinOctoberandleftinApril.nowthattechnologyhasenabledustoexpandthegrowingseason,workersmayarriveinAugustandnotleaveuntilthefollowingJune.Andthisisagoodthingfortheeducationoftheirchildren,becauseinmostcasesitenablesthemtocompletetheschoolyear.

So the children of the seasonal migrant workers get an education?Weare100%committedtothechildrenofourmigrantworkershavinganeducation:frompreschoolto

‘We also send migrant women to be trained by the relevant authorities as caregivers for our nurseries – madres cuidadoras.’ – Dora Isabel Ochoa Aguilar. Photo • Courtesy Agrícola BelHer


elementary,throughtomiddle,highand/orvocational.WeworkwithalocalngOtomonitoryoungchildrenandmakesurethoseatriskofdevelopmentaldelaysarereferredinatimelyfashion–andatthecompany’sexpense–toprivatesectorspecialistssuchasneurologists,orthopaedistsorophthalmologists.Sometimesnewfamiliescometoworkforuswithyoungteenagerswhohaveneverhadanyeducation,andwemakesuretheygetadulteducationatanappropriatelevel.

Ihavetosaythat,inthebeginning,itwasastruggle.Parentswereusedtotakingtheirchildrentothefields,andwhenwefirsthiredateacher,parentsfounditdifficulttovaluethat.However,wepersevered.In1999,weopenedakindergarteninourhostelcomplex,hiringteacherstoworktherewhentheywereoff-shiftintheafternoons.In2003,westartedenrollingchildreninregularprimaryschools.

SothechildrenofourseasonalmigrantsarelearningSpanishandEnglishaswellastheirmothertongues,learningtousecomputersandtheinternet,andhavingworkshopsindanceanddramaandmusic,insteadofstayinginthefields.Infact,wenowhaveourfirsttwograduatesamongchildrenofourmigrantworkers–botharchitects–withotherscurrentlystudyingsubjectssuchassocialwork,nursingandbusinessadministration.

We know it is often hard for children of seasonal migrants to access public services such as education when they are living temporarily away from their home. Is this a problem for you?Itisaproblembecauseschoolsneedtomakeprojectionsabouthowmanychildrentheywillhavetoserve,andwhenmigrantpopulationsareunpredictablethatisdifficult.notallpeoplearriveatthesametimeandleaveatthesametime.Forexample,yesterdaytwobuseswithagriculturalworkersandtheirchildrenarrived.Ispoketotheschools,andtheyarefull–theycan’ttakeonemorechild.WhatIcando?

I’mgoingtofindspaceinourcomplexandasktheauthoritiestosendateacher,butthisisnotwhatI

wanttohappen.Mostcompaniesprefertohaveclassesonsite,becauseitmeanstheydon’thavetopayfortransporttotakethechildrentoschool.ButIthinkitisimportantthatmigrantworkers’childrensocialisewithotherchildrenbeyondtheirownmicro-universe,childrenfromothercultures,sothatwecanbuildmutualrespect.Ibelieveitisimportantforthechildtohaveexperiencesoutsidethehostelcomplexwheretheylive.AsthechildrenofourmigrantworkerscomefromdifferentpartsofMexico,whentheygotolocalschoolsitleadstoaculturalexchangethatisbeneficialforallparties.

Wehavehadotherproblems,suchasmigrantchildrennotgettingtextbookswhenpoliciesorthepeopleinchargechanged,orreportcardsissuedinoneschoolnotbeingrecognisedinanotherschool.Butithasalways

‘We deliver a standard monitoring tool with data on nutritional and attendance levels.’ – Dora Isabel Ochoa Aguilar. Photo • Courtesy Agrícola BelHer


beenpossibleforagriculturalcompaniestoworkwiththeschoolsandtheauthoritiestosorttheseproblemsout.

In general, how is your relationship with public services and institutions?Itisverygood,inpartbecausethecompany’sCEOiscommittedtosocialresponsibilityandverysupportiveofthecommunityintermsofsport,culturalactivitiesandsoon.Sowhenweconstructedanewhostelcomplex3yearsago,forexample,wewereabletoworkwiththemunicipalityonprovidinginfrastructurefordrinkingwater.

Wetakeadvantageofthevariousformsofsupportfromstateauthoritiesthatareavailabletoagriculturalcompanies,sometimesinconjunctionwithngOs.Forexample,monthlyfoodpackagesforeachchildattendingschool,andhotmealsforchildreninkindergartens–wehavetodeliverastandardmonitoringtoolwithdataonnutritionalandattendancelevels.Thedoctorswhorunthehealthclinicinthehostelcomplex,inaspacewemakeavailable,arepaidbytherelevantauthorities,notprivatelybyus.

Wealsosendmigrantwomentobetrainedbytherelevantauthoritiesascaregiversforournurseries–madres cuidadoras.Ourpolicyisthatcaregivershavetobefromchildren’sowncommunities,becauseyoucan’trunanearlystimulationprogrammeinSpanishiftheyoungchildrendonotunderstandSpanish.

You started working with migrant agricultural workers in 1990. How have the challenges they face changed in that time? IhavebeenworkingforBelHersince1990,butactuallyitwasin1988thatIfirststartedstudyingthelivingconditionsofseasonalfarmworkers,formydegreeinsocialwork.Then,childrenwerewiththeirparentsinthefield.Childrenfrom6yearsoldwerenotinschool–theywereworking,mainly,intransplantingandcuttingvegetables.

Therewerechallengeswithregardtodiscrimination.We’vehadtoworkhardtoachieveinclusionandrespectbetweenlocalsandmigrantgroups.Wepromotesports

andotheractivitiesthathelpmigrantworkerstomaintaintheircustomsandculturaltraditions.

Livingconditionsusedtobemuchworse,withsheltersmadeofgalvanisedsheets.Andtherewerehealthchallenges.Inchildrenunder5therewasaproblemwithmalnutrition,withsomequiteseverecasesofrespiratoryandgastrointestinaldiseases.Weworkhardtopreventthisbyprovidinghealthservices,monitoringchildren’sweightandheight,supplyingfoodsupplementsandinstructingmothersonnutrition.Wemakesurechildrenhaveaccesstomilkandfreshfruit.

Alcoholismhasbeenaproblem,amongbothmenandwomen.Alcoholanddrugscanbecomeahiddenproblembecauseourhostelcomplexesareprivateproperty,notpublicplaceswherethepolicecanpatrol,andwedonotbelieveinemployingprivateguardstowatchpeople–webelievetheythemselvesshouldtakeresponsibility.Weorganisecampaignsanddialoguesonalcoholanddrugs,andwehaveobservedovertheyearsthattheproblemisbeingmitigatedbychildrengoingtoschool.Icantellyouaboutfamiliesinwhichthefatherusedtousedrugs,butwithhischildreninhighschool,hehasstopped.Childrenhavebecomeanexampleforadults.

You mentioned child labour: how can child labour be eliminated?Ourexperienceisthatfamiliesmustbesupported.I’vefoundthatitisamyththatparentsputtheirchildrentoworkbecausetheydon’twanttheirchildrentogotoschool.Itissimplybecausetheywantenoughmoneytobuyfood.Iftheyearnalivingwageandiftheirchildrenhaveaccesstoeducation–inasafeplace,withtransportandfoodprovided–thentheparentshavenoobjectiontotheirchildrengoingtoschool.

‘ I ’ve found that i t is a myth that parents put the i r chi ldren to work because they don’ t want the i r chi ldren to go to school.’


Theminimumageatwhichwehireis16,andtherearerestrictionsonwhattasksaworkercandountiltheageof18.Since2010wehavebeenofficiallycertifiedbytheMinistryofLabourandSocialSecurityasacompanyfreefromchildlabour.Wewerethatalready,evenbeforethen–wedidn’thavetochangeanyofourpracticestogetthecertificate,weonlyhadtoshowtherequestedevidence.

The Bernard van Leer Foundation’s work with young children of migrant workers focuses primarily on improving their living conditions. Tell us how young children live in the hostel complex.Ourcompanypolicyisthatwewillnotgrowanadditionalacreifwecannotfirstensurethatthepeopleneededtoworkonitwillhavedecenthousingandsocialsecurity,withtreatedwater,electricity,gasforcooking,sanitation,healthclinics,educationservicesandplaygrounds.

Whenfamiliesreturntotheirvillagesattheendoftheseason,ormovenorthtolookformorework,wenotonlysupportthemwithtransportiftheycommittoreturnnextyear,wealsokeeptheirindividuallivingunitlockedforthem.nooneopensituntiltheyreturn,becauseit’stheirhome.Thisgivesavaluablesenseofsecurity,especiallyforchildren.

Weworkhardtoprotectworkersandtheiryoungchildrenfromharmfulagriculturalchemicals.Everyyearthoseofourworkerswhodealwithagrochemicalshaveabloodtesttoensuretheirexposurelevelsarenotexcessive.Wemakesureourworkersknowtowearenclosedshoesandclothesthatcovertheirbodies,andthatwhentheyfinishwork,theirworkclothesgointothewashingmachinesandtheygobackhomewithcleanclothes.

Andlastbutnotleast,wealsoworkwithanngOtomakesurechildrengetthechancetoplaysports.Theyparticipateincompetitionswithotherteamsfromagriculturalcompanies,andwelayontruckstotakemumsanddadstoawaygamestosupportthem.Ifeelveryproudtotellyouthatbothourboys’andgirls’footballteamsarethechampions.

NoteMore information about Agrícola Belher is available on their website, at: http://www.agricolabelher.com/

‘We take advantage of the var ious forms of suppor t f rom state author i t ies that are avai lable to agr icul tura l companies, somet imes in conjunct ion wi th NGOs.’


Chi ldren of seasonal agr icul tural migrant workers: an Afr ican perspect ive Moussa Harouna Sambo, Af r ican Movement of Work ing Ch i ldren and Youth, Dakar, Senegal

The Mouvement Africain des Enfants et Jeunes Travailleurs (MjEjT) (the African Movement of Working Children and Youth) has member organisations in 22 African countries and almost 20 years of experience in areas such as migration, protection, education and children’s rights. This article provides an African perspective on the effects on children of seasonal migration.

Overtheyears,throughvariousformsofresearch,theMJEJThavemadecontactwithmanychildrenwhohavedifferingexperiencesofmobility.Forexample,thiscouldbeduetofostering,fleeingacrisis,voluntarilymigratingalone,migratingwiththefamily,migratingforeducation,employmentortraining,andsoon.Therighttobeabletochoosetoremaininone’svillage,

ratherthanhavingtojoinanexodusinsearchofeconomicopportunitieselsewhere,isoneof12rightsthatwerehighlightedatourveryfirstregionalassemblyofchildandyouthworkers.

WhentheBernardvanLeerFoundationaskedustocontributeanAfricanperspectiveontheissueofchildrenwhomigrateseasonallywiththeirfamilies,researchintoourarchivesshowedthatthisisnotanoccurrencewehaveencounteredfrequently.Themajorityofseasonalmigrantworkersmaketheirjourneysalone,leavingtheirfamiliesathome.Whenchildrenandadolescentsmigrateseasonallyforwork,theymorecommonlydosoaloneoringroupsoffriends.Theyoftenhaveaspecificgoalinmind,suchassupportingtheirfamilyorpayingfortheireducation

MJEJT discussed directly with representatives from their member organisations how seasonal migration of parents affects children. Image • Courtesy Mouvement Africain des Enfants et Jeunes Travailleurs (MJEJT)


forthefollowingyear–inAgbangnizou,Benin,forexample,migrantworkersarecalledtheHouefifovior‘end-of-termkids’.

Manychildrenandyoungpeoplewhohavemigratedinsearchofworkexperiencedangersanddifficulties,suchasemployerswithholdingwages.Ourmemberorganisationsarrangeforums,directinterventions,andinformationcampaignsconcerningsuchrisks,aswellastraininginhowtodefendoneself.Theydevelopsolidarityamongchildrensothattheyhelpandprotecteachotherandarebetterequippedtothinkofsolutions.

Seasonal migration of parents

Wediscusseddirectlywithrepresentativesfromourmemberorganisationshowseasonalmigrationofparentsaffectschildren.Ingeneral,asnotedabove,theirexperienceisthatparentstendtoleavetheirchildrenbehind.Typically,theparentsofyoungchildrenaredrivenintoseasonalworkwhentheyfindtheyareunabletosupporttheirextradependents.Beingeitheryoungadultsorstillyouthsthemselves,themajorityhavenevermigratedbefore.Manyleaveafterharvestandreturnbeforetherainyseason.

Theexperienceofthechildrenoftheseseasonalmigrantsdependsheavilyontheirmigratingparents’relationshipwiththeirextendedfamilyinthevillage,whoareleftinchargeofthechildren.Iftheparentisnegligentorhasapoorrelationshipwiththeextendedfamilyorneighbours,thechildreceiveslesssupervisionduringtheparent’sabsence,withsignificantdetrimentaleffectsontheireducationandwell-being.

Ontheotherhand,ifthemigrantiswellrespectedinthevillageandreceivessupportfromtheextendedfamilyinlookingafterthechildren,theseeffectswill

begreatlylessened–especiallyifthemotherremainswiththechildrenandiswellintegratedintheextendedfamily.Childrencanevenbenefit,ifparents’migrationexposesthemtonewideasabouttreatingchildrenwithmoreconsiderationandabouttheimportanceofeducation.

Ratherthanreturningeveryyear,sometimesahusbandwilldecidetomovearoundfor2or3yearsinanattempttofindbettereconomicopportunities.Ifthingsworkouthemaydecidetosendforhiswifeandchildren.However,someendupneverbeingheardfromagain.Inthesecases,childrenareoftenneglected,asextendedfamiliescometoregardthemasaburdentheyarenolongerobligedtobear.Thechildrenmaybeabandonedentirelyiftheirmotherdecidestodivorcethefatherandbuildanewlifebyremarrying.

‘General ly, in Af r ica, the major i t y of seasonal migrant workers make the i r journeys a lone, leaving the i r fami l ies at home.’

Image • Courtesy Mouvement Africain des Enfants et Jeunes Travailleurs (MJEJT)


Cash t ransfers, informat ion, and seasonal migrat ionParenta l behavioura l change and ear ly cogni t ive deve lopment in rura l N icaragua

Karen Macours, Associa te Professor, Par is School of Economics and researcher, Ins t i tu t Nat iona l de la RechercheAgronomique ( INRA), Par is , France

Other articles in this issue of Early Childhood Matters, pointing to the difficult living conditions of children who migrate seasonally with their parents, raise the question: would those children be better off staying behind with extended family members? This article describes a study which examines this question, along with further efforts to explore the implications of its findings.

Inmanydevelopingcountries,youngchildrensufferfromprofounddelaysinearlycognitivedevelopment.Thiscanseriouslyimpairtheirsuccessasadults,inpartbecauseinvestmentsinschoolingandotherdimensionsofhumancapitalwillhavelowreturnsifchildrendonothaveadequatelevelsofcognitiveandsocialskillsbeforetheyenterschool.understandingthecausesforthesedelaysandidentifyinginterventionsthataddressthesedeficits,inthecontextofdevelopingcountries,arehenceimportantprioritiesforresearch.

Potentialreasonsfordelayedcognitivedevelopmentmightbechildren’sinadequateaccesstonutritiousfoods,earlystimulationorhealthcare,orthehomeenvironment.Theseriskfactorscaninturnresultfromthemanychallengespoorhouseholdsfaceinprovidinganurturingenvironmentfortheiryoungchildren,includingthelackofinformation,financialorhumanresources.

Whathappenswhenayoungchild’sparentsmigrateseasonallyinsearchofwork,leavingthechildbehindinthecareofextendedfamilymembers?Ontheonehand,theabsenceofoneoftheparents,andinparticularofthemother,mightbeconsideredasanextremecaseofpotentiallackofcarethatwouldimpairearlycognitivedevelopment.Ontheotherhand,theextramoneyearnedbytheparentsmightimproveearlycognitivedevelopmentbyenablingthefamilytoaffordmorenutritiousfood,healthcare,earlystimulationmaterials,andsoforth.

Ourresearchinruralnicaragua,wheremigrationiscommon,lookedatwhichofthesetwoeffectswasbigger.Somewhatsurprisingly,wefoundthatin

particularthemother’sseasonalmigrationforworkhasapositiveeffectonearlycognitivedevelopment.Wepostulatethattheincreasedincomeinthehandsofmothersduetoseasonalmigration,andconsequentadditionalempowermentwithinthehousehold,mightberesponsibleforoffsettingthepotentialnegativeconsequencesofherabsenceforyoungchildren’scognitiondevelopment(MacoursandVakis,2010).

The potential of cash transfers

giventheseresults,itseemedlogicaltowonderifitmightbepossibletogetthebestofbothworlds:whatifadditionalresourcescouldbeputinthehandsofmothers,butwithouttheneedforthemotherstomigrateaway?

ManyLatinAmericancountrieshaveexperimentedwithconditionalcashtransfer(CCT)programmes,withavarietyofspecificconditionsandformsofsocialmarketingtotargetbehaviouralchanges.Theseprogrammesaimtoincreasehouseholds’investmentintheirchildren,bygivingsizeablecashtransfersinreturnforthefamilyagreeingtoincreaseinvestmentsinnutrition,educationandhealth.Weconductedtwoevaluationsinruralnicaraguatoshedlightonwhethersuchprogrammescouldleadtosustainablegainsinearlychildhoodcognitivedevelopment.

Afirstpieceofevidencecomesfromtheevaluationofthelong-termimpactsofa3-yearcashtransferprogrammeinnicaragua,theRed de Protección Social (‘SocialProtectionnetwork’)(Barhamet al.,2013).Theprogrammeofferedmothers3yearsofregularcashpaymentsonconditionthattheyparticipateinhealthandnutritioneducationsessions,theirchildrenreceiveregularpreventivehealthcare,andtheirelementaryschool-agechildrenattendschool.Theprogrammewasrandomlyofferedtohalfofthecommunitiesinthefirst3yearsandtheotherhalfduringthesecond3years;thedifferencesbetweenthetwogroupswereevaluated,10yearsaftertheprogrammestarted.

Householdsthatreceivedthegrantsconsumedsignificantlymorefruitsandvegetables,meat,andfats.Improvednutritionandhealthcareduetothe


programmeduringachild’sfirst1000daysoflife(fromthebeginningofthemother’spregnancytotheageof2)hadalastingpositiveimpactoncognitivedevelopment,asmeasuredbyabatteryofstandardisedcognitivetests.Andthecognitivedevelopmentofchildrenwhoreceivedtheprogrammeatlaterageswasnotabletocatchupentirely.Theextraresourcesandthebehaviouralchangewerehenceparticularlycrucialveryearlyinachild’slife.

Thesecondpieceofevidencecomesfromashort-termcashtransferpilotinadifferentareaofnicaragua(Macourset al.,2012b).TheAtención a Crisis(‘AttentiontoCrisis’)programmecombinedatraditionalCCT,aimingtoimprovehouseholdhealth,educationandnutrition,withtwoadditionalinterventionsthataimedatincomediversification.Thepilotprogramme,whichendedinDecember2006,consistedofa1-yearinterventionforapproximately3000householdsthathadexperiencedaseveredroughttheprecedingyear.Thewomeninthehouseholdweretheprimaryparticipantsintheprogramme:theyreceivedthecashtransfersandweretoldthattheywereintendedtoimprovethediversityandnutrientcontentofchildren’sdietsandtobuyschoolmaterial.

Theprogrammehadabuilt-inexperimentalstructurethatrandomlyselectedhouseholdssothatone-thirdofthefamiliesreceivedonlythecashtransfer,one-thirdreceivedboththecashtransferandvocationaltrainingforayounghouseholdmember(usually15–25yearsold),andone-thirdreceivedboththecashtransferandalump-sumgrantforproductiveinvestmentsinlivestockornon-agriculturalbusinessactivities.Thegoalforbothoftheadditionalactivitieswastoprovidetheskillsoropportunitiesneededforincomediversification.Threeroundsofdatawerecollected(before,duringandaftertheintervention)containingcomprehensiveinformation

onhouseholdsocio-economicstatus,includingdetailedexpendituremodules,extensiveinformationonchildhealthandnutrition,andanextensivesetofteststomeasureofthecognitivedevelopmentofthechildren.

Wefoundthattheprogrammehadpositiveeffectsonindividualchildhealthanddevelopmentinbeneficiaryhouseholds.Inparticular,theresultsforlanguage,short-termmemory,andsocial–personalskillswerestronginbothfollow-upsurveys,conductedin2006(9monthsafterthehouseholdsbeganreceivingpayments)and2008(2yearsafterhouseholdshadstoppedreceivingbenefits).Themagnitudeoftheimpactissimilarin2006and2008,showingthattherewasnofade-outofprogrammeeffects2yearsaftertheprogrammeended.

Cash or information?

In2008,thehouseholdsthatreceivedthelump-sumgrantcontinuedtohavehigherpercapitaexpendituresthanthoseinthecontrolgroup.Thisallowedustoanalysewhetherthislonger-termhigherexpenditureresultedinmoreimprovementsinchildhoodoutcomes.Wefoundthatitdidnot:despitetheincreasedincome,nodifferencesindevelopmentaloutcomesoccurredbetweenthegroups.Theresultsfurtherdemonstratedthatthelumpsumtreatmentdidnothaveanyobviousnegativeeffectsontheamountorqualityofthetimethatmothersspentwiththeirchildren.Theseresultssuggestthatsomethingotherthan,orinadditionto,thedirectcashtransfermusthavecontributedtothechangesinearlychildhoodoutcomes.

Indeed,theresultsshowthattheAtención a Crisisprogrammedidhaveasubstantialeffectontheuseofvariousinputsintochilddevelopment.In2006,householdsrandomlyassignedtotheprogrammechangedthecompositionoftheirfoodexpenditure,spendingalowerfractiononstaples,andhigherfractionsonanimalproteins,fruitsandvegetables;householdsintheinterventiongrouphadsubstantialincreasesinvariousmeasuresofchildstimulation–theyweremorelikelytotellstories,singto,orreadtotheirchildren,andtohavepen,paperandtoysforchildreninthehouse;theirchildrenwerealsomorelikelyto

‘What i f addi t ional resources could be put in the hands of mothers, but wi thout the need for the mothers to migrate away? ’


havebeenweighed,giveniron,vitaminsordewormingmedicine,andtohavespentfewerdaysinbed.

Furthermore,in2008thehouseholdsassignedtoreceiveonlythebasictreatmentdidnothavehigherexpendituresthanthoseinthecontrolgroup,yetthesehouseholdscontinuedtoshowsignificantdifferencesintheseearlychildhoodinvestments.Theseeffectscannoteasilybeexplainedbytheearliercashtransfers.Rather,theysuggestthattheAtención a Crisisprogrammehadaneffectonbehavioureven2yearsaftertheprogrammehadbeendiscontinued.

This,inturn,canhelpexplainwhyprogrammeimpactsweresustained2yearsaftertheprogrammeended.Thelackoffade-outstandsincontrastwithevaluationsofanumberofinterventionsinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries.Indeed,manyotherinterventions,whethernutritionalsupplementsorcentre-basedinterventions,onlytargetthechilddirectly.Thefactthatfade-outofimpactsappearstooccurformanyearlychildhoodprogrammes,butnotforAtención a Crisis,suggeststhatthebehaviouralchangesmadebyparentsmightbeimportantinobtaininglastinggainsinchildhooddevelopment.

Can information alone work?

IfchangesinparentalinvestmentbehaviourthroughinformationdirectedtowardsmotherswereimportanttounderstandtheimpactoftheCCTs,whatthenisthepotentialofintensiveinterventionsprovidinginformationonly,andnotcash?Anddoestheimpactofsuchinformationinterventionsdifferdependingonwhethertheytargetmothersorfathersinthehouseholds?Wesetouttoinvestigatethesequestionsinacontextwhereseasonalmigrationconstitutesanimportantpartofthelivelihoodofpoorhouseholds.

Thequestionaboutfathersisespeciallypertinent,asearlychildhoodinterventionstypicallytargetmothers,butinpoorruralhouseholdsindevelopingcountriesitmightoftenbethefatherswhomanagemostfinancialresourcesandmakedecisionsonpossibleinvestmentsinearlychildhood.Andwhilemothersmightpossibly

spendmoretimewiththeirchildren,importantgainscouldbeobtainedfromincreasingfathers’involvementandinteractions.Thismightbeparticularlyrelevantinthecontextwestudyinnicaragua,wherefathers–andtoalesserextentmothers–frequentlymigrateforwork.Thismaybringintheneededfinancialresources,butatthesametimeitcausesfatherstobeabsentfromthedailylivesoftheiryoungchildrenforlongstretchesoftime.Doesincreasingawarenessofgoodearlychildhoodpracticesinsuchacontextincreasetheirinvestmentintheiryoungchildren?

Twopilotinterventionsweredesignedtoanalysethesequestions.Thefirstinterventionreliedonhomevisitsbytrainededucators,whovisitedyoungchildren’shomesonaregularbasistoteachparentsaboutgoodparentingpractices,focusingonplay,praiseandacaringhomeenvironment,andincludingmessagesonnutritionandhygiene(Macourset al.,2012a).Inarandomsubsetofvillagestheyworkedonlywithmothersandtheirchildren,whileintheotherrandomlyselectedsubset,theytriedtoactivelyengagethefathers.

Engagingthefathers,notsurprisingly,waschallenging,giventheirfrequentabsencesfromthehome.nevertheless,theresultsshowthatinterventionsthatincludedthefathersweremoreeffectiveinincreasingearlychildhoodcognitiveandsocio-emotionalskills,andthiswasespeciallystrongforboys.Theevidencealsoshowsthattheinterventionchangedknowledgeandattitudesregardingearlychildhoodpractices,motivatedparentsandchildrentoengageinmorejointactivities,ledtolessphysicalpunishmentandmorepraise,andimprovednutritionpractices.Intermsofmagnitude,theimpactoncognitiveandsocio-emotionalskillsofthisinformationinterventionachievedimpactssimilartothoseoftheCCTprogramme.

Asecondpilotintervention,currentlyintheplanningphase,willinvestigatewhetherprovidinginformationaboutparentingpracticestomothersandfathersofyoungchildrencanalsobeeffectivewhensentthroughdailytextmessages.Thetextmessageapproachhasthe


potentialadvantageofreachingmothersandfathersonadailybasis,includingwhentheyareawayfromhomeduetoseasonalmigration,andisobviouslysubstantiallycheaperthanhomevisitingbyeducators.Ontheotherhand,itmightbehardertoobtainbehaviouralchangewithoutthedirecthumancontactoftheeducatorsintheearlierintervention.

Wearethereforeplanningtosetuparandomisedevaluationtoanalysethesequestionscarefully,inwhichwewillrandomlytargetmothers,fathers,orboth,andwillalsovarythetypeofmessagesthatwillbesent.Theinterventionwilltakeplaceinpartinthesamepopulationasthepreviousones,sothatwecananalysetowhatextentthetextmessagesworkbetterwhentheyserveasremindersforbehaviouralmessagestowhichhouseholdshavebeenexposedearlier,orwhethertheycanalsobeeffectiveinabsenceofpreviousinterventions.Thisthenwillhelptestwhetherinformationtechnologycanbeeffectiveinshiftingparentalinvestments.

Importantly,itwillalsohelpunderstandwhethersuchaninterventioncanhelpreachmigrantparents,whomightnotoftenbeathome,butwhoseinvestmentdecisionsmightpossiblybeequallyimportantforthedevelopmentoftheiryoungchildren.Thereisalsoobviouspotentialforfurtherpilotstudiestobedesigned,inthelightofourfindings,whichaddressseasonalmigrantswhotaketheirchildrenwiththem.Overall,wehopetocontributetoanincreasedunderstandingofthemosteffectivepolicyoptionstosafeguardtheearlycognitivedevelopmentofyoungchildrenwhoseparentsfaceeconomicpressuretomigrateseasonallyinsearchofwork.

ReferencesBarham, T., Macours, K. and Maluccio, J. (2013). Boys’ cognitive skill formation and

physical growth: long-term experimental evidence on critical ages for early childhood interventions. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings 103(3): 467–71.

Macours, K., Premand, P., Schady, N. and Vakis, R. (2012a). Experimental evidence from an early childhood parenting intervention in Nicaragua. Conference presentation at Promises for Preschoolers: Early Childhood Development and Human Capital Accumulation, 25–26 June, University College London.

Macours, K., Schady, N. and Vakis, R. (2012b). Cash transfers, behavioral changes, and cognitive development in early childhood: evidence from a randomized experiment. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4(2): 247–73.

Macours, K. and Vakis, R. (2010). Seasonal migration and early childhood development. World Development 38(6): 857–69.

‘ Resul ts show that inter vent ions that included the fathers were more ef fec t ive in increasing ear ly chi ldhood cogni t ive and socio-emotional ski l ls, and th is was especia l ly strong for boys.’

Bernard van Leer Foundat ion

Inves t ing in the development of young chi ldren

ear lych i ldhoodmagazine.org bernardvan lee r.o rg

The Bernard van Leer Foundation funds and shares knowledge about work in early childhood development. The Foundation was established in 1949 and is based in the Netherlands. Our income is derived from the sale of Royal Packaging Industries van Leer N.V., bequeathed to the Foundation by Dutch industrialist and philanthropist Bernard van Leer (1883 to 1958).

Our mission is to improve opportunities for children up to age 8 who are growing up in socially and economically difficult circumstances. We see this both as a valuable end in itself and as a long-term means of promoting more cohesive, considerate and creative societies with equal opportunities and rights for all. We work primarily by supporting programmes implemented by local partners. These include public, private and community-based organisations. Working through partnerships is intended to build local capacity, promote innovation and flexibility, and help to ensure that the work we fund is culturally and contextually appropriate.

We also aim to leverage our impact by working with influential allies to advocate for young children. Our free publications share lessons we have learned from our own grantmaking activities and feature agenda-setting contributions from outside experts. Through our publications and advocacy, we aim to inform and influence policy and practice not only in the countries where we operate but globally.

In our current strategic plan, we are pursuing three programme goals: reducing violence in young children’s lives, taking quality early education to scale, and improving young children’s physical environments. We are pursuing these goals in eight countries – Peru, India, the Netherlands, Israel, Uganda, Turkey, Brazil and Tanzania – as well as undertaking a regional approach within the European Union.

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