wetCandRe.sourcesYellowstone Natt"olnaC Parkof

Charles R. Elliott and Mary M. TCektner

Copies may be obtained from :

U.S . Fish and Wildlife ServiceNational Wetlands InventoryDenver Federal CenterPO . Box 25486Denver, Colorado 80225

Coverphoto: Lamar Valley. Left: camas. Above: trumpeter swans. (All by Jennifer Whipple.)

National Park ServiceYellowstone National ParkYellowstone Center for ResourcesPO . Box 168Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming 82190

Suggested citation :Elliott, C. R., and M. M. Hektner. 2000 . Wetland Resources ofYellowstone National Park .Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. 32 pp .

k

etlands are a cornerstone of Yellowstone's majestic qualities . Riverways have always providedthe primary routes used by visitors to the region . Two centuries ago, John Colter, a memberof the Lewis and Clark expedition, was probably the first Luroamerican to explore what is

nowYellowstone National Park . He traveled upstream along the Yellowstone River, probably seeing hisfirst thermal features along the banks belowTower Falls.

Later exploratory parties kept better records and, fortunately, documented the park's wonders withphotographs and paintings to help disbelievers become believers. In 1869, David Folsom and two otherprivate citizens journeyed across the Yellowstone plateau. Near present-day Bridge Bay on YellowstoneLake, Folsom wrote:

"We came to a small grassy opening upon the opposite side ofwhich was a beautifullittle lake, separated from the main lake by only a sandbar, which the surf had thrown upacross the narrow neck which formerly connected them. . . . Large flocks of geese andducks were feeding near the shore or floating gracefully on its smooth surface. Beyondthe lake the timber was tall and straight and to appearances as thick as cane in a southernswamp. This was one of the beautiful places we had found fashioned by the practised[sic] hand of nature, that man had not desecrated" (Haines 1996).

The accounts of early explorers make clear that they were awed by the array ofwaters, geologicwonders, meadows, forests, and wildlife they found, all of which contributed to the United StatesCongress' decision to enact the world's first national park in 1872 . Due to its unique environment andearly protection, Yellowstone retains the almost unbelievable features and ambience found by its firstvisitors . Today, the park's sensational wetland resources continue to be identified by visitors as highlightsof their stay. If we do our job well, the Yellowstone experience will survive for future generations ofexplorers, young and old, to enjoy.

Michael V FinleySuperintendent, Yellowstone National Park

Left: Hayden Valleyfrom near Grizzly Overlook (Renee Evanoff. Above: Stevenson Island (Sue Consolo Murphy).

Bison at thermalpool on Geyser Hill. Top right: Dewdrop Lake.

introduction

Wetlands exist in bewildering variety,from thermal algae mats to cattail lakemargins to spray wash from towering

waterfalls, and they produce a magnificent show-case of natural resources. They are the mostproductive habitats on Earth. (Productivity ismeasured by the total weight of plant and animalmaterial produced per unit area .) Wetlands coveronly 6 .4 percent of the Earth's surface, yet theyaccount for 24 percent of total global productivity(Kesselheim et al 1995) . Neither forests, grass-lands, nor irrigated agricultural lands producemore plant and animal material than wetlands .

Wetlands serve as crucial habitats for a tremen-dous diversity of plants and animals. While only 5percent of the land area of the United States iswetland (Dahl 1990), 31 percent of all knownU.S. plants are wetland plants (P B. Reed,USFWS, pers . com.) . Countless birds, fish, andwildlife species use wetlands for food, shelter,spawning, breeding, nesting, migration, andwintering areas . One third of threatened andendangered plant and animal species in the UnitedStates are wetland-dependent . Wetlands also helpto control flooding, prevent coastal erosion, andprotect water quality by serving as importantnatural filters of contaminants, pollutants, andother toxic materials .

At the time of European settlement, about 10percent of what would later become the cotermi-nous United States was wetlands (Dahl 1990) . Bythe mid-1980s, more than half of the nation'swetlands had been drained, mostly for agriculture .As public understanding of the importance ofwetlands in maintaining water quality and wildlifehabitat increases, so does legal protection . In themeantime, however, the loss ofwetlands continues,especially on private lands.

National parks, on the other hand, stand as acommitment and testimony of the Americanpeople to preserve portions of our natural resources . Yellowstone encompasses 2,219,791 acres,considerably larger than the states of Rhode Islandand Delaware combined, and its wetlands total228,766 acres-a dynamic and productive 10 .3percent of the park .

Yellowstone is a place of extremes . The park'sgeologic history ranges from catastrophic volcaniceruptions 1,000 times greater than that of Mt. St .Helens to periods of glaciation that supported ice

fields more than 3,000 feet thick. Elevations in thepark range from 5,282 feet in the northwest,where the Gardner River drains, to 11,358 feet inthe southeast, at the summit of Eagle Peak . Pre-cipitation ranges from as low as 10 inches per yearin the north near Gardiner, Montana, to nearly 80

inches per year in the park's southwest corner.Temperatures ranging from -66°F to 103°F havebeen recorded . These volatile geologic and climaticfactors produce a dynamic setting for Yellowstone'swetlands .

Wetlands form through the combined charac-teristics of an area's soil, topography, hydrology,and climate . The primary influences on the nature,distribution, and extent ofYellowstone's wetlandsare the location and water-holding capacity oftheir associated soils . Wetlands emerge as lakes,rivers, ponds, marshes, bogs, streams, seeps, wetmeadows, thermal pools, and geysers found onhigh mountain slopes, in valleys, and along lower-elevation rivers . Lakes, rivers, and geysers are notalways considered wetlands; however, they must beconsidered in an ecological approach to the park'smanagement. Therefore, in this booklet the term"wetlands" is used generically to include bothwetlands and deepwater habitats .

Yellowstone's wetlands range in size, depth,and availability of water. Some are temporarilyflooded lands with seasonal water sources thatprovide an influx of water from snowmelt or rainin the spring only to shrink or dry up later in theseason . These wetlands can be several inches deepand less than 0 .1 acre in size . Other wetlands arepermanently flooded with perennial water sources,such as Yellowstone Lake, which is at least 400 feet

Shoshone Lakefrom the geyser basin .

Lower Falls ofthe Yellowstone River.

J . Whipple

Fen north ofBiscuit Basin.

Yellowstone's WetlandResources

deep and over 100 square miles in surface area .Shallow wetlands produce invertebrate life thatfeeds the smallest minnows, whereas YellowstoneLake supports the largest remaining native inlandcutthroat trout population in the world . Thewetlands that exist between these two extremesinclude an aquatic diversity perhaps unrivaledanywhere in the world .

NPS

J . Whipple

q40ards S ecies:1NetcanPcants

etland plants exhibit a variety of specialadaptations that allow them to exist inwaterlogged or saturated soils under

anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions that existfor several weeks during the growing season toyear-round. Plants that are able to survive andreproduce under these harsh conditions are com-monly referred to as hydrophytes. Morphologicaland physiological adaptations allow hydrophytesalternate metabolic pathways that contribute tosuccessful oxygen exchange and, therefore, toler-ance of otherwise toxic environments . Uplandplants simply cannot survive extended periods ofanaerobic conditions, so hydrophytes become thedominant species . Common wetland plantsinclude duckweed, bulrushes, cattails, sedges,willows, and cottonwoods, as well as showy flowerssuch as elephant's head, fringed gentians, andmarsh marigolds. Wetlands can be identifiedthrough the plants that occur on the site, as well asthrough the soils that result from specific hydro-logic conditions .

Approximately 38 percent of Yellowstone's1,200 plant species are associated with wetlands,and 11 percent (species such as water lilies, waterbuttercup, spikerush, and cattails) grow only inwetlands . Such species are called obligates because

they occur in wetlands99 percent of the time .

Yellowstone's wet-lands are home to manyunusual plants . Of the90 rare plant speciesknown to occur in thepark more than half areassociated with wetlands .

Elephant's head. Top right: water lily.

In Yellowstone, wetlands are subjected to a widerange of water temperatures, which leads to afascinating array of plant species. Within onewetland complex, there can be both cool and warmwater springs rising to the surface, allowing plantspecies that would otherwise be separated byhundreds or even thousands of miles to grow andreproduce adjacent to one another. Plant commu-nities that are not recorded anywhere else in theworld exist in Yellowstone's wetlands .

The heat generated in thermal areas also allowssome plant species to survive in areas far north oftheir typical distribution . Although its maindistribution is in the southwest United States,Cstilleja exilis, a red-flowered annual paintbrushthat blooms in early August, is known to occur intwo thermally influenced wetland areas at oppositeends of the park .

Two greater Yellowstonewetland endemics (plantspecies that grow nowhereelse in the world) are espe-cially interesting. Yellowspikerush (Eleocharisavescens) typically occurs in

tropical and subtropicalAmerica; outside ofYellow-stone, the closest populationis in Mississippi. A specialvariety of this species, warmspring spikerush (Eleocharisflavescens var.thermalis), has developed in Yellowstone. It growsprimarily as floating mats on warm thermal water,vanishing if the water temperature becomes toohot or too cold . Warm spring spikerush is totallydependent on warm water; it never occurs in waterthat is cold to touch.

Paintbrush .-1 . ~\ hippie

vtodertower.

Tweedy's rush (Juncus tweedyi) is also highlyrestricted in its distribution, occurring primarilywithin the park'sboundaries with justa few populationsbeyond. This wetlandplant is often associ-ated with thermalareas, especially inareas that are quiteacid in composition.Sometimes Tweedy'srush will be the onlyobvious plant inportions of a thermalarea .

Other Yellowstone wetland plants,as green keeled cotton-grass (Eriophorumvaridicarinatum), False uncinia sedge (Carexmicroglochin), mud sedge (Carex limosa), and lesserpanicled sedge (Carex diandra), are more typicallyfound in the boreal (northern) zone of Canada

Sundew.

Tweedy's rush.J . Whipple

species such

Bladderwort.

Yelfowstone's wetlandResources

J . Whipple

and Alaska . These plants are often found inwatlands-wetlands with large accumulations ofdead plant material (peat) that have formedaround cold-water springs. In Yellowstone, plantsfrom northern Canada and Alaska grow alongsideothers typical of the Rocky Mountains ofWyo-ming and Montana.

J . Whipple

Cottongrass near Norris.J . Whipple

Vt"taC q-Ca6itats :

wetCiands and1NiCd~i

Y llowstone offers visitors a rare opportu-nity to observe animals interacting in anatural setting, and much of the best

viewing is near wetlands . The quality of wetlandenvironments as habitat for birds, fish, and otherwildlife is one of their most visible and popularattributes . An estimated 80 percent of Wyoming'snative animals rely on wetlands, especially theareas along rivers and creeks (Consolo-Murphyand Murphy 1999) . Wetlands serve as both homeand "supermarket" for innumerable species, manyofwhich depend upon wetlands during some partof their daily, seasonal, or life cycles . Some species,such as beavers, tiger salamanders, andAmericandippers, are year-round wetland residents .

Yellowstone is home to a vast array of nativeanimals-more than 400 types of aquatic insects,at least 300 birds, 100 butterflies, 60 mammals, 12fishes, and 10 reptiles and amphibians . Themajority of these species have some associationwith wetlands during their lives, whether for food,water, shelter, breeding, nesting, spawning, migra-tion, wintering areas, or predatory opportunities.

Aquatic insects are a vital part of wetlands and,like reptiles and amphibians, are good indicators ofoverall ecosystem health . Each species requirescertain attributes in the system it inhabits, and if

Moose eating aquatic vegetation . Top right: chorus frog.

Mosquito.

NPS

that system is changed, the species will change inresponse . Aquatic insects are abundant both inspecies and total number, contributing to ecosys-tem biodiversity. They have important roles in thenutritive relationships within wetlands, serving as

) . Whippte

food for birds and fish . Their presence,kinds, and numbers can tell us aboutchances of fish and the kinds of fish we can expectin an area (Roemhild 1982) . Water fleas and otherfilter-feeding aquatic invertebrates also help tomaintain the water quality of lakes by removingalgae. Aquatic invertebrates may play an importantrole in wetland nutrient cycling. They can regener-ate as much as 35-60 percent of their own nutri-ent content each day, helping fuel algal growth andinfluencing algal competition by altering nutrient

ratios (Duffy 1999) . Aquaticinsects depend upon wetlandenvironments in all degrees-thelarvae of horse flies thrive in mud,mosquito eggs require a few daysin water to develop into adults,immature caddisflies and mayflieslive in water for a few months, andwater boatmen and backswimmersspend all of their lives in water.

absence,the survival

Common snipe.

Birds also occupy all of Yellowstone's wetlandenvironments . More than 50 percent of the park'sresident breeding bird species-including raretrumpeter swans and the nation's own baldeagles-are associated with wetlands, whichprovide them with ideal food and nesting habitat.A similar percentage of migratory bird species,such as yellow-headed blackbirds, stop in wetlandsalong flyways to rest, breed, and eat. Althoughdeep-water lakes and amphibious environments,such as shores, streambanks, and ephemeralmarshes, are home to a diversity of birdlife, theycannot compare with shallow water wetlands andmarshes for bird species richness and abundance.The complexity of these habitats offers a variety offood, nest sites, and shelter to birds of all sizes .

Butterfly diversity is correlated with plantdiversity, which makes wetlands the perfect habitatfor many of these winged species. Butterflies arecommonly found in Yellowstone's wet meadows.The Yellowstone checkerspot, for example, is aspecies that typically prefers wet sedge meadows

Beaver lodge anddam. NPS

Yellowstone's Wetland Resources

Grizzly on elk carcass.NPS

and will lay its eggs on a shrub called black twin-berry-but only if the shrub is in a wet meadow.Other moisture-loving species are the painted ladyand the western meadow fritillary, whose hostplants include willows, violets, and legumes(Debinski 1996) .

Large mammals are perhaps the most recog-nized wetland residents. In summer, moose movetranquilly through shoulder-deep water eatingaquatic plants, and beavers cut willows to eat andto build lodges . In spring, bears fish for spawningtrout in shallow streams . Winter visitors may seewolf tracks imprinted in the snow-covered frozenmarshes. River otter may be seen fishing andswimming in summer and sliding down snow-banks in winter . All mammal species visit wetlandsfor water, offering predators various feedingopportunities.

Eighteen fish species, 12 native and 6 intro-duced, inhabit Yellowstone's waters . This numberis small by most standards ; some river systems in

the Midwest have more than 200 species, andsome in South America have thousands (Varleyand Schullery 1998) . There are many reasons forYellowstone's small number of fish species. Untilrelatively recent geologic times the park wascovered by glaciers, so not much time has elapsedfor fish to arrive or evolve . The headwaters of fivemajor river systems are either in or just upstreamfrom the park, and more than 200 waterfalls formbarriers to the upstream movement of aquatic life .More than two-thirds ofYellowstone's lakes arenaturally fishless (Varley and Schullery 1998) .Many waters are not suitable for fish due toshallow depth or water chemistry and temperature,especially those receiving great quantities of heatand minerals from hydrothermal features . Whenfish stocking began in Yellowstone in 1890, fishwere planted in almost all lakes and ponds, withlittle knowledge as to whether the transplantscould survive. In many cases, they did not, duemainly to a lack of spawning habitat and towinterkill (Pierce 1987) . Some plantings didsucceed, changing the balance of life in many ofthe park's lakes and stream systems.

Nevertheless, Yellowstone is considered a sportfishing and fish-watching mecca, due largely toearly habitat preservation measures . The park washeavily over-fished in early years, but the habitatremained largely undisturbed from development.With recent changes in fishing regulations, such asmandated "catch-and-release fishing," fish popula-tions have rebounded and park waters have be-come world-renowned as examples of intensivelyused yet healthy fisheries. Today, Yellowstonecontains 91 percent of the remaining habitat for

Cutthroat troutjumping LeHardy Rapids.

10

NPS

Garter snake. J Whipple

the Yellowstone cutthroat trout population, mostofwhich is in Yellowstone Lake . A typical streamin Yellowstone may support as much as 40 poundsof fish per acre ofwater (Varley and Schullery1998) . Unfortunately, the park is not immunefrom introduced species, and lake trout, whirlingdisease, and New Zealand mud snails currentlythreaten to change aquatic systems.

Six reptile species and four amphibian speciesare known to occur in Yellowstone . Three of thereptile species (the wandering garter snake, sometimes called a "water snake" ; valley garter snake;and rubber boa) and all four amphibian species,(the blotched tiger salamander, boreal toad, borealchorus frog, and spotted frog) are associated withwetlands . They are often significant elements ofthe food chain. Many species consume largequantities of insects, other invertebrates, and bothaquatic and terrestrial vertebrates . For example,the wandering garter snake regularly catches andeats fish, and the valley garter snake dependsheavily on amphibians . Rubber boas often feed onsmall mammals that are commonly found in grassand shrub habitats along streams and wetlands(Koch and Peterson 1995) . Many reptile andamphibian species also provide food for predatorssuch as trout, sandhill cranes, great blue herons,red-tailed hawks, otters, and other mammals .

Although reptiles and amphibians seldomreceive as much attention as some of the park'smore popular and visible inhabitants, they arebelieved to be good indicators of an ecosystem'shealth . They are sensitive to pressures from landand water development by humans, and to the

effects of pollution. Amphibians have sensitive skinand two different stages in their life cycle-onelarval, aquatic stage and one terrestrial, adultstage-making them very vulnerable to environ-mental changes. Larvae may be exposed to water-borne contaminants such as acid rain . Whenadults prey on insects that harbor sublethalamounts of toxic pollutants, they accumulate thesepollutants in their tissues; this can eventuallyimpair normal development and reproduction oreven kill the creature . Eggshell thinning caused bysuch an accumulation of toxic pollutants in thetissues of predators nearly caused the extinction ofbald eagles and peregrine falcons .

Presently, many amphibian populations appearto be in decline throughout the world. Scientistsare not yet sure what to make of this ; it may bethat populations fluctuate naturally in response tonatural events such as drought, or human-influ-enced changes in global processes-warming of theearth, ozone depletion, increased ultravioletradiation, or acid precipitation . Other activitiesthat may harm amphibian populations include

Bison and elk along the Firehole River.

Yellowstone's WetlanalWesources

River otter eating cutthroat trout.

habitat alteration, such as draining or fillingwetlands, introduction of contaminants to an area,and introduction of exotic species .

In Yellowstone, amphibians may be in bettershape than in some other areas, but we lack thelong-term population data necessary to determinethe status of the park's populations. Unless wedetermine what is causing the world's amphibianpopulations to decline, amphibians in this regionmay encounter trouble in the future-if theyhaven't already.

\Pti

%lisunderstoodLancCscapes:1Netlands anc~ Peo,ple

Up until the 1970s, wetlands wereconsidered useless, unhealthywastelands. Laws and policies encour-

aged their draining and dredging . Farmers werepaid to turn wetlands into croplands, and sprawl-ing cities dredged and filled wetlands to accommo-date new roads, factories, and housing develop-ments . It's estimated that by the mid-1980s, morethan half of the original wetlands in the lower 48states had been lost due to human activities (Dahl1990) .

Fortunately, due to Yellowstone's designation asa national park, Yellowstone's wetlands have beenspared many impacts . Less than 2 percent ofparkland has been developed, yet those roads anddevelopments that do exist were historically placedin or near the more easily traveled and most scenicplaces-wetlands. Riparian corridors were alwaysthe easiest travel routes for early explorers andmappers. Today, when possible, the park is movingsuch developments out of wetlands and attemptingto restore them to more natural conditions . Wet-land areas that have the potential to be affected bynew projects are now mapped and inventoried sothat the projects can be designed to avoid orminimize adverse impacts.

Developments are not the only influence onYellowstone's wetland resources. Exotic organisms,such as New Zealand mud snails and whirlingdisease, are recent accidental introductions, prob-ably brought in on fishermen's footwear andequipment. These exotic species have the potentialto change the composition of the community-theexisting array of native aquatic insects and mol-lusks-and quite possibly cause declines in fishpopulations. The degree to which these uninvited

Warm spring spikerushgrowing over the road in GibbonCanyon .

arrivals will affect the park's aquatic systems iscurrently unknown.

Undoubtedly an intentional illegal introduc-tion, non-native lake trout were discoverYellowstone Lake in 1994. A much larger andvoracious fish than the cutthroat trout, lake troutpose a great threat to the future of the lake's nativefish, and the effects ripple . Scientists estimate thatthe fates of at least 42 species of birds and mam-mals are to some extent tied to the Yellowstonecutthroat (Varley and Schullery 1995) . These

in

Photographing elephant's head.

include the osprey, bald eagle, black bear, grizzlybear, river otter, mink, marten, short- and longtailweasel, pelican, merganser, California gull, loon,kingfisher, and dozens more . Some of these specieseat fish only occasionally, while others-bothscavengers and predators-depend on themheavily. Unless lake trout numbers are controlled,they will severely reduce cutthroat trout numbers,affecting the entire food chain .

While wetlands have been bad-mouthed in thepast (think of such expressions as bogged down indetails or swamped with work), scientists and theAmerican public are beginning to appreciate howwetlands help to maintain a healthy environment.Scientists now know that wetlands are vital naturalfilters of contaminants, pollutants, and other toxicmaterials . Wetland soils and vegetation impede theincoming flow of water, act as natural carbonfilters, and send on the outgoing water in a muchcleaner condition . Wetlands also trap metals fromnatural sources. In Yellowstone's wetland sedi-ments, researchers have found high levels ofmetals, such as arsenic, uranium, mercury, zinc,and other toxic and nutrient trace metals, that arenatural components of hydrothermal waters(Otton 1997) . Without the natural filteringwetlands provide, rivers such as the Firehole andGibbon, which receive large infusions of runofffrom hot springs and geysers, would probably bechemically unsuited to support the high productiv-ity of life found there today.

Wetlands have also been called a window onthe Earth's past . Wetlands evolve through time,

Yellowstone's Wetlana'Resources

and scientists learn how they have changed bylooking at wetland soil cores and studying thesediments, pollen, diatoms, and other elementsfound in them . Such evidence provides informa-tion about past climates and environments . Forexample, researchers working to reconstruct thepark's past fire frequency and its vegetationalhistory use wetland core pollen records that spanthe last 14,000 years. Scientists can also obtaininformation necessary for predicting future climatechange by studying the carbon cycle in wetlands,which store carbon as peat and release it as carbondioxide and methane.

Today, wetlands are also recognized for thenumerous and incredible recreational opportuni-ties they provide . Visitors to Yellowstone enjoysightseeing, bird and wildlife watching, fishing,canoeing, and motor boating. Without wetlands,Yellowstone's landscape simply would not be thepark Americans know and cherish.

West Thumb Geyser Basin.NPS

1 3

Very STeciaC PCaces:9~_IhermaC'Wetciancs

Yellowstone National Park has the largest,most undisturbed, and most famousconcentration of geothermal features in

the world. More than 300 major geysers-includ-ing such often predictable giants as Grand, Castle,Daisy, and, of course, Old Faithful-and some10,000 brilliantly colored hot springs, bubblingmud pots, and steaming fumaroles combine tomake Yellowstone a place unlike any other in theworld.

What might, at first glance, seem to be anuninhabitable place is actually teeming with life .The temperatures of the hot springs vary tremendously, from cool springs with only a little thermalinfluence to effervescent superheated springs thatare actually a few degrees hotter than the boilingpoint, about 199°F at the park's average elevationof 7,500 feet above sea level . Even at this tempera-ture, far above the upper temperature limit forphotosynthesis, there are hardy heat-loving micro-organisms known as thermophiles, visible onlywith microscopes.

The ability of thermophiles to reproduce inboiling water was discovered in 1967, whenmicrobiologist Thomas Brock determined that

Abyss Pool. Top right: monkeyflowersgrowing near a hot spring.

14

there were organisms in almost all of the hotsprings. This discovery of life forms, known as"extremophiles," that live in such conditions hasled to industrial and medical applications reachingfar beyond the park . Subsequent research hasidentified and cloned an enzyme from one thermo-phile, Thermus aquaticus, first isolated from a hotspring in Yellowstone. This enzyme has madepossible the process of DNA fingerprinting, whichis applied to investigations of crime scenes, identi-fication of birth defects, and biotechnical research .The search for other thermophiles is not confinedto planet Earth. Scientists have used the Yellow-stone hot springs as a model for predicting life onother planets, and speculate that life could bepresent even in the extreme environment thatexists on the planet Mars .

Most hot springs owe their color to the bacte-ria and algae growing in the water, though miner-als color some unusual hot springs. If a feature isextremely hot, well over 180 °F, only microscopicthermophiles are present and the water will appearblue, just like any other body of water. (Waterabsorbs most colors except for blues and blue-greens, which are reflected back. If any othermaterial is present in the water, its tint is added tothe blue.) As the water cools to below 167°F,thermophilic cyanobacteria (commonly referred toas blue-greenalgae, though itis a photosyn-thetic bacteriaand not a plantat all) will beginto appear, firstbright yellow andthen brilliant

Cy'zfrobacte °ia. J . Whipple

Brineflies .

orange . Dark browns and true greens appear whenthe water temperature drops to 120-130°F-stillmuch hotter than it is safe for humans to touch.(The water temperature in a hot tub is usuallyaround 100°F, and in a bathtub around 90°F) Truealgae can survive in areas with acid runoff, appear-ing bright green . Other runoffs support a mixtureof cyanobacteria and algae, producing yet a differ-ent color scheme altogether.

Vascular plants are able to grow and reproducein thermal areas when the temperature dropsbelow 113 °F (Brock 1994). One of the showiestplants found near thermal areas, yellow monkeyflower (Mimulus guttatus), has been found bloom-ing as early as February, when the adjacent groundis still in winter's grip . The heat allows the plantsto grow through the winter on thermally warmedground and along snow-free hot spring channels .During winter, the stems are short and leaves growclose to the warm ground. As soon as the weatherwarms, the stems grow quickly and the plantbegins to bloom.

Although the upper temperature limit foranimal life is also about 113°F, there are large areaswhere the thermal waters have cooled enough thatanimals can live . The most common hot spring

Overleaf looking downstream,from the bridge at Castle Geyser (J. Whipple).

wtiippie

Hot spring at the Chocolate Pots .

Yellowstones Wetland Resources

animals are brine flies and their larvae that feed onthe cyanobacteria mats. These flies, in turn, arefood for larger predators, such as dragonflies,spiders, tiger beetles, wasps, and mites . Thesepredators often attract even larger animals likemountain bluebirds, killdeer, and insect-eatingrodents.

Geothermal areas in the winter are some of thebest places to view concentrations ofwildlife .When winter buries the park in snow and ice,bison and elk congregate near thermal areas wheresnow is not as deep, feeding and resting on thegeothermally warmed ground . The warm influxfrom thermal features also keeps rivers like theFirehole and Madison from freezing, providinghabitat for ducks, geese, and swans. The thermalinfluence in the Firehole River has also alteredrainbow trout spawning time from spring to fall, asfish eggs would otherwise cook in the high tem-peratures-60°F to 80°F-found in spring andsummer.

J. Whipple

1 5

(T'he NationaCWetCandslinventory in YeClowstone

Yellowstone's wetlands have been mapped aspart of the U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service'sNational Wetland Inventory, a Congres-

sionally mandated program to identify, classify,and map all wetlands in the United Statesinformation that has never been available before .The wetland maps are available to park managersfor use in the development of resource manage-ment strategies, environmental impact assessments,natural resource inventories, habitat surveys, andsite-specific project planning .

National Wetland Inventory (NWI) mapsconsist ofwetland boundaries added to a black andwhite version of a 1 :24,000-scale, 7.5-minute U.S .Geological Survey topographic base map (Figure1) . Wetlands are identified and classified accordingto guidelines found in "Classification ofWetlandsand Deepwater Habitats of the United States"(Cowardin et al . 1979), which defines wetlands as :

". . . lands transitional between terrestrialand aquatic systems where the water table isusually at or near the surface or the land iscovered by shallow water. For purposes ofthis classification wetlands must have oneor more of the following three attributes :(1) at least periodically, the land supportspredominantly hydrophytes [wetlandplants], (2) the substrate is predominantlyundrained hydric soil, and (3) the substrateis nonsoil [does not support vegetation]and is saturated with water or covered byshallow water at some time during thegrowing season of each year."

The Cowardin classification system and theNWI maps include deepwater habitats-perma-

nently flooded lands where the water depth in thedeepest part of the basin exceeds 6.6 feet at lowwater. Throughout this booklet, the term "wet-lands" is used generically to include both wetlandsand deepwater habitats .

The procedures used to map the wetlandresources ofYellowstone National Park were thesame procedures used throughout the country.This process ensured that Yellowstone's wetlanddata are consistent with and comparable to wet-land data collected elsewhere . The production ofaccurate wetland maps is dependent upon theavailability of good aerial photography (Figure 1),field reconnaissance, photointerpretation, reviewof draft maps, production of final maps, produc-tion of a digital data base, and many quality-control steps.

Wetland identification and classification wereproduced through stereoscopic interpretation of1 :58,000-scale color infrared photography takenprimarily in August and September of 1982, 1983,and 1984 . Field reconnaissance was performedprior to photo interpretation to correlate photo-graphic signatures with different landscape featuresand habitats on the ground. Technicians identifiedwetland habitats by vegetation and soil types usinginput from park personnel . Collateral information,including topographic maps, SCS soil surveys, andUSGS water resources data, was also used toensure accurate delineation. The wetland classifica-tions are shown as a series of number and lettercodes that are identified in a legend at the bottomof the map (Figure 2) .

The USFWS produced draft maps, thenconducted a second field review to correct errors,such as wetland omissions, upland inclusions, andincorrect classifications, made during initial

A. Undelineated photo.

B . Delineated photo.

Yellowstone's Wetland-Resources

C. National Wetlands Inventory final map.

Figure 1 . Color infrared aerial photography before (A) and after (B) photointerpretation, and theresulting National Wetlands Inventory final map (C).

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-wr -

=; s. .̀ FEM PABGb PFOA

Figure 2. National Wetlands Inventory map legend used for Yellowstone National Park.

20

SYSTEM SUBSYSTEM CLASS

WATER REGIMES SPECIAL MODIFIERS

A. Temporarily flooded G. Intermittently exposed b. BeaverB. Saturated H . Permanently flooded d. Partially drainedC. Seasonally flooded J. Intermittently flooded h . Diked/ImpoundedE Semipermanently flooded K. Artificially flooded x. Excavated

Rock bottomUnconsolidated bottom

LOWER PERENNIAL Aquatic bedRocky shore

Unconsolidated shore

RIVERINE Rock bottomUnconsolidated bottom

UPPER PERENNIAL Aquatic bedRocky shore

Unconsolidated shore

INTERMITTENT Streambed

Rock bottomLIMNETIC Unconsolidated bottom

Aquatic bed

LACUSTRINE Rock bottomUnconsolidated bottom

Aquatic bedLITTORAL Rocky shore

Unconsolidated shoreEmergent

Rock bottomUnconsolidated bottom

Aquatic bedUnconsolidated shore

PALUSTRINE Moss-lichenEmergent

Scrub-shrubForested

photointerpretation . The corrected final papermaps were completed in 1997 . Maps were digi-tized to transfer the data into an electronic data-base . The information was then placed in geo-graphic information systems (GIS) for computer-ized data analysis, such as the calculation ofstatistics on wetland types and acreages (seeAppendix), and production of a variety of ancillaryproducts such as color-coded maps.

The National Wetland Inventory classifies allwetlands in the United States into five majorsystems. Three of these are found in Yellowstone:lacustrine (lakes, reservoirs, and large or deepponds), riverine (rivers and streams), andpalustrine (wet meadows, swamps, marshes,potholes, fens, bogs, and small shallow ponds)(Figure 3) . Each system is divided into subsystemsand then into classes that describe the generalappearance of the wetland in terms of hydrologiccharacteristics, dominant vegetative form, andcomposition of the substrate . It is these descriptiveclassifications that are found on the NWI maps.

Riverine 4.1

Lacustrine 44.1

Figure 3 . Yellowstone's wetlands are identified aslacustrine, riverine, or palustrine .

Because of scale limitations on NWI maps,individual plant names and dominance types arenot used . For example, one cannot tell from anNWI map what species of shrubs are present inthe scrub-shrub dominated wetland. That type ofinformation must be obtained elsewhere, such asfrom descriptions or maps of the park's vegetation(Despain 1990) .

The National Wetland Inventory identified 57categories ofwetlands occupying over 228,766acres or 357 square miles (10.3 percent) ofYellowstone (see Appendix) . Yellowstone's lacustrine

wetlands, lakes and ponds (defined as being greaterthan 20 acres in size or having a water depthexceeding 6 .6 feet at lowwater), occupy 100,888acres or 4 .5 percent of the park, and constitute44 .1 percent of the park's wetlands . Lacustrinewetlands are classified as either littoral or limneticbased on the water depth (Figure 4) . In generalterms, the littoral zone is that part of the lake orpond that is less than 6 .6 feet deep, and thelimnetic zone is that part that is more than 6.6 feetdeep. The littoral zone is often the most produc-tive area of the aquatic system because it includesthe area of maximum light penetration and there-fore supports the greatest amount of aquatic life .

Limnetic 95.2%(water depth greaterthan 2 meters)

Figure 4. Nearly all of the park's lacustrine wetlands arelimnetic . Yellowstone Lake is 90% of the total acreage.

Riverine wetlands (Figure 5) occupy 9,350 acresor 4.1 percent of the park's wetlands . Streams inthe riverine system may be intermittent, flowingpart of the year and leaving a dry creek bed atother times of the year. Other streams are peren-nial and have continuous water in channels classi-fied as lower perennial, which are meandering andslow moving, or upper perennial, which are rapidlyflowing and display cascading whitewater condi-tions. Eighty-eight percent of Yellowstone's streamsare upper perennial . While all upper perennialstreams do not display whitewater conditions, they

Yellowstone's WetlandResources

Figure 5 . Yellowstone's river systems (upper andlower perennial and intermittent) form an intricatepattern of water movement throughout the park .

Littoral 4.8%(water depth lessthan 2 meters)

2 1

still maintain characteristics such as being highlyoxygenated and maintaining high velocity, and arecharacterized by either gravel or rocky substrates .

The third category of wetlands found inYellowstone is palustrine wetlands. While mostvegetated wetlands are included in the palustrinesystem, lacustrine and riverine systems can also bevegetated, with the most dominant life form beingthe nonpersistent "emergents," the herbaceousgrasses and forbes (Figure 6) . Palustrine wetlandsare described by either the dominant life form(trees, shrubs, emergents, mosses and lichens, oraquatic plants) where vegetation covers 30 percentor more of the substrate; or the physiography andcomposition of the substrate (rock bottom, uncon-solidated bottom, or unconsolidated shore) wherethere is less than 30 percent vegetative cover.Palustrine wetlands occupy 118,528 acres of thepark, 51 .8 percent of the park's wetlands .

The NWI maps further describe wetlands bythe water regimes present (Figure 7) . Water re-gimes range from saturated soils, with little or nostanding water, to flooded soil conditions lasting afew weeks during the growing season, to waterbodies that contain open water throughout eachyear. Water depth may be a few inches located in asmall catchment basin to several hundred feet, in

22

120

100

80

60

40

20

Acres (in thousands)

A B CTemporarily Saturated Seasonally

flooded

flooded

Scrub-Shrub 4.7%

Emergent 68.2%

Aquatic Bed 5 .5%

Figure 6 . Vegetated wetlands are distributed throughoutthe park, with the emergent class the most dominant .

the case of Yellowstone Lake . The water regimeoften determines the type of aquatic vegetationthat dominates a specific site . Due to the variety ofits water regimes, Yellowstone supports an array ofaquatic vegetative species ranging from dwarfspikerushes and sedges to towering cattails andbulrushes . Wetlands with greater water depthsupport rooted and floating pondweeds andbeautiful expanses of lily pads .

Paper copies ofYellowstone's wetland mapsmay be acquired by contacting the Regional MapDistribution Center in Brookings, South Dakota,at (605) 688-5890 . Digital data can be down-loaded through the NWI home page on theInternet at http://www.nwi.fws.gov.

F G H JIntermittentlySemipermanently Intermittently Permanently

flooded exposed flooded flooded

Figure 7 . Water regimes in Yellowstone range from temporarily flooded to permanently flooded .

Right: waterfall in backcountry thermal area (J. Whipple) .

ellowstone National Park exists today in perhaps as pristine a state as any area can be in twenty-first century society. The Yellowstone and other powerful rivers still flow undammed throughgrasslands and towering forests . Yellowstone Lake remains a formidable body of water, dominat

ing the landscape and influencing the ecology of the entire ecosystem . Yellowstone's wetlands-in alltheir diversity and complexity, in all their grandeur and wonder-still support waterfowl, fish, amphib-ians, and plant communities that nineteenth-century explorers would recognize.

Yellowstone's wetlands are essential to the survival of hundreds of magnificent creatures . Whileextinction may be a fact of evolution, the accelerated rate of species decline in today's world is contraryto evolutionary processes. Any endangered species may say to us, "Be careful of me my friend, for if youdrive me to extinction, another heaven and earth must pass before you see me again."

Yellowstone National Park is a sanctuary for many plants and animals and their habitats, largelybecause of the variety ofwetland resources it preserves. Here, humans find the opportunity to see andenjoy a landscape and associated species that have thrived for thousands of years . May it always be so .

Thesoutheast arm of Yellowstone Lake. Top right: caterpillar on willow. Right:glacier lily. (All byJ. Whipple) .

Yellowstone's Wetland Resources

Ap endix: YeCCowstone'ionaCPark's Wet-Cand

C~ass~cattons andAcreages

Left: iris ( .. Whipple) .

he National Wetlands Inventory identi-fies wetlands by a coding system that is aseries of letters and numbers. These codes

are technically referred to as alphanumerics orattributes . For example, Yellowstone Lake isclassified as an L 1UBH where (L) lacustrine, (1)limnetic, (UB) unconsolidated bottom, and (H)permanently flooded, specifically identify deeplake habitat. Each of these four terms, i. e., lacus-trine, limnetic, unconsolidated bottom, andpermanently flooded, is identified in the Cowardinet al. (1979) wetland classification system . Inaddition, these terms are identified on everywetland inventory map.

For a more detailed explanation of the NWImap codes, consult the U.S . Fish and WildlifeService's 1993 publication "NWI Maps MadeEasy : A User's Guide to National Wetlands Inven-tory Maps of the Mountain-Prairie Region ."

Wetlands are delineated cartographically onevery map as one of three features : (1) polygon,(2) linear, or (3) point. A polygon is a wetland

Pelicans on Yellowstone Lake.

large enough that a photointerpreter can delineatean entire boundary around the wetland. A linearfeature is a wetland so narrow that a single dashedline is used to delineate it . A point is a wetland sosmall that a single dot delineates it .

For area measurement, polygon wetlands aremeasured during the digitizing process. Linear andpoint wetlands are measured on the assumptionthat linear wetlands average 10 feet wide, andpoints average 0.1 of an acre .

"Frequency," as used in this appendix, does notidentify individual basins, rather it identifies thenumber of times that a particular wetland classification is used . For example, a single wetland basinmay consist of a deep central zone classified asPABF (palustrine, aquatic bed, semipermanentlyflooded) with a shallower periphery of PEMC(palustrine, emergent, seasonally flooded) and aneven shallower periphery of PEMA (palustrine,emergent, temporarily flooded) . In this example,there is only one wetland basin, but three wetlandclassifications and, therefore, three frequencies .

NPS

27

YeCCowstone rationalParkWetCandAcrea0e Statistics

Attribute Feature F~en Acres

LACUSTRINE

LIABH Polygon 2 12 .1LIUBH Polygon 134 96,015 .4L2ABF Linear (0.10 miles) 1 0 .1L2ABF Polygon 4 44.7L2ABG Linear (16.13 miles) 95 19 .6L2ABG Polygon 135 3,927.3L2ABGb Polygon 1 25 .9L2ABH Polygon 1 40.1L2UBF Polygon 18 8.5L2UBG Linear (113.06 miles) 221 137.0L2UBG Polygon 3 551 .9L2UBH Linear (0.99 miles) 4 1 .2L2USA Polygon 1 0.5L2USC Polygon 14 103 .9Subtotal 634 100,888 .2 acres

PALUSTRINEPABF Linear (7.06 miles) 87 8.6PABF Point 14 1 .4PABF Polygon 3,077 2,048.0PABFh Polygon 6 4.6PABG Polygon 59 330.9PABGb Polygon 81 35.3PABKx Polygon 12 16.1PEMA Linear (7.11 miles) 27 8.6PEMA Point 1 0 .1PEMA Polygon 454 1,559 .2PEMAx Polygon 1 0.5PEMB Linear (3.43 miles) 56 4.2PEMB Point 12 1 .2PEMB Polygon 5,153 20,592.6PEMBb Polygon 5 47.3PEMC Linear (759.38 miles) 4,304 920.5PEMC Point 50 5.0PEMC Polygon 15,854 54,347 .3PEMCh Polygon 2 1 .3PEMCx Linear (0.49 miles) 6 0.6PEMF Linear (4.56 miles) 32 5.5PEMF Polygon 109 320.8PEMH Linear (3.45 miles) 32 4.2PEMJ Linear (1 .06 miles) 6 1 .3

TOTAL 52,618

228,766.39 acres

29

Yelhwstone's WetlandResources

PEMJ Point 1 0.1PEMJ Polygon 417 3,563.3PFOA Linear (27.79 miles) 141 33.7PFOA Polygon 2,584 10,953 .0PFOB Linear (0 .12 miles) 1 0.2PFOB Polygon 2,111 14,598 .0PFOC Polygon 7 56.0PFOJ Polygon 20 53.1PMLB Polygon 1 2.8PSSA Linear (5.63 miles) 28 6.8PSSA Polygon 53 72.6PSSB Linear (0.08 miles) 2 0.1PSSB Polygon 99 277.8PSSBb Polygon 2 3.0PSSC Linear (1 .54 miles) 12 1 .7PSSC Polygon 616 5,303.7PSSCx Linear (0.22 miles) 1 0.3PUBFx Polygon 2 0.4PUBH Point 2 0 .2PUBH Polygon 298 88 .1PUBKx Polygon 1 2 .7PUSA Polygon 30 31.8PUSC Point 3 0.3PUSC Polygon 85 63.8PUSCx Polygon 1 0.1PUSJ Linear (0 .50 miles) 5 0.6PUSJ Polygon 1,096 3,149.0Subtotal 37,059 118,528 .3 acres

RNERINER2UBH Linear (2.53 miles) 33 3.1R2UBH Polygon 5 6.9R2USC Linear (0.25 miles) 2 0.3R2USC Polygon 5 25.0R3ABH Linear (0.87 miles) 8 1 .1R3ABH Polygon 20 101 .3R3RBH Linear (4.27 miles) 27 5 .2R3RBH Polygon 10 157.8R3UBF Linear (505 .89 miles) 1,915 613 .2R3UBF Polygon 4 10.0R3UBG Linear (143 .98 miles) 630 174.5R3UBH Linear (972.61 miles) 9,464 1,178.8R3UBH Polygon 93 3,955.5R3UBHx Linear (0.19 miles) 1 0.2R3USA Linear (2.13 miles) 18 2.6R3USA Polygon 452 564.1R3USC Linear (10 .69 miles) 124 13.0R3USC Polygon 647 1,468.0R4SBA Linear (182.97 miles) 212 221 .8R4SBC Linear (635.83 miles) 1,240 770.7R4SBC Polygon 6 75.8R4SBCx Linear (0.41 miles) 4 0.5R4SBF Linear (0.42 miles) 5- 0 .5Subtotal 14,925 9,349.9 acres

Literature Cited

Brock, T. D. 1994 . Life at high temperatures . Yellowstone Association for Natural Science, History, andEducation, Inc., Yellowstone National Park, Wyo. 31 pp.

Bryan, T. S . 1995 . The geysers ofYellowstone. 3rd ed . University Press of Colorado, Niwot, Colo . 463 pp.Consolo-Murphy, S., and K. Murphy. 1999. Wildlife at Yellowstone : The story behind the scenery. K.C.

Publications, Inc., Las Vegas, Nev. 64 pp.Cowardin, M. L., V Carter, E C. Golet, and E. T. LaRoe. 1979 . Classification ofwetlands and deepwater

habitats of the United States . FWS/OBS-79/31 . U.S . Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C .131 pp.

Dahl, T. E. 1990 . Wetlands losses in the United States : 1780s to 1980s. U.S . Department of the Interior,Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 13 pp .

Debinski, D. 1996. Using satellite data to support fieldwork . Yellowstone Science 4(3) :2-5 .Despain, D . G . 1990. Yellowstone vegetation . Roberts Rinehart, Inc., Boulder, Colo . 239 pp.Duffy, W. G. 1999. Wetlands of Grand Teton and Yellowstone national parks: Aquatic invertebrate

diversity and community structure . Pp. 733-756 in Invertebrates in freshwater wetlands ofNorthAmerica: Ecology and management, edited by D. P Batzer, R. B. Rader, and S . A. Wissinger. JohnWiley and Sons, Inc., New York, New York .

Haines, A. L. 1996 . The Yellowstone story: A history of our first national park . Rev. ed . Vol . 1 . UniversityPress of Colorado, Niwot, Colo . 385 pp.

Kesselheim, A. S., B . E. Slattery, S. H. Higgins, and M. R. Schilling. 1995. WOW! The wonders ofwetlands . Environmental Concern Inc., St . Michaels, Maryland, and The Watercourse, Bozeman,Mont. 330 pp.

Koch, E. D . and C. R. Peterson . 1995 . Amphibians and reptiles ofYellowstone and Grand Teton nationalparks. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City. 188 pp.

Otton, J . K. 1997 . Thermal wetlands field trip Old Faithful to Mammoth. Pages 32-57 in Hektner, M.M., D. T. Patten, J. J. Whipple, D. G. Despain, and T. Weaver. 1997 . A field-trip guide to the wet-lands of the greater Yellowstone ecosystem . Prepared for the 18th annual meeting of the Society ofWetland Scientists, June 1-6, 1997, Bozeman, Mont . Unpublished report, on file at YellowstoneNational Park, Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyo. 59 pp .

Pierce, S. 1987. The lakes ofYellowstone. The Mountaineers, Seattle, Wash . 199 pp.Roemhild, G . 1982 . Fresh water insects of Yellowstone. Course book photocopy. Biology Department,

Montana State University, Bozeman, Mont. 73 pp .U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993 . NWI maps made easy : A user's guide to National Wetlands Inven-

tory maps of the Mountain-Prairie Region . Denver, Colo .Varley, J. D., and P Schullery, eds . 1995 . The Yellowstone Lake crisis : Confronting a lake trout invasion .

National Park Service, Yellowstone Center for Resources, Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyo. 36 pp .Varley, J. D. and P Schullery. 1998 . Yellowstone fishes : Ecology, history, and angling in the park .

Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, Penn . 154 pp .

Additional SourcesOfinformation

Berry, C., R. Berry, Jr., and D. G. Buechler. 1993 . Wetlands in the northern Great Plains : A guide tovalues and management. South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Brookings, South Dakota.13 pp .

Brichta, P H. 1987 . Environmental relationships among wetland community types of the northernrange, Yellowstone National Park. Master's thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont . 73 pp.

Chadde, S. W., P L. Hansen, and R. D . Pfister. 1988 . Wetland plant communities of the northernrange, Yellowstone National Park. School of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont.Contract report for National Park Service on file at Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyo. 81 pp.

Hektner, M. M., D . T. Patten, J. J. Whipple, D. G . Despain, and T. Weaver. 1997 . A field-trip guide tothe wetlands of the greater Yellowstone ecosystem . Prepared for the 18t' annual meeting of theSociety ofWetland Scientists, June 1-6, 1997, Bozeman, Mont. Unpublished report, on file atYellowstone National Park . 31 pp .

Mattson, D. J. 1984 . Classification and environmental relationships of wetland vegetation in centralYellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Boise, Idaho. 409 pp.

McEneaney, T. 1988 . Birds of Yellowstone. Roberts Rinehart, Inc., Boulder, Colo . 171 pp.Reed, P B., Jr . 1988. National list of plant species that occur in wetlands-national summary. Washing-

ton D.C., U.S . Fish and Wildlife Service: Biological Report 88(24) . 244 pp.Rodman, A., H. E Shovic, and D. Thoma. 1996 . Soils ofYellowstone National Park. YCR-NRSR-96-

2. Yellowstone Center for Resources, Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyo. 324 pp.U. S . Geological Survey. 1996 . National water summary on wetland resources. Water-Supply Paper

2425 . U.S . Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia . 431 pp.

Mt. Ash tributary. Top left: thermalspider. Top right: dipper.

Yellowstone's Wetland Resources

J. Whipple

3 1

Acknowledgments

We are indebted to many people who provided information and photographs found in thisdocument, especially Jennifer Whipple, who was a wealth of information and insight on thepark's plants and the source of many of the beautiful photographs. We thankTerry

McEneaney, Jim Otton, and Doug Owen for their assistance on birds and wetland functions.Special recognition is extended to Lynn Wilson for her skill and expertise in completing the initial

photointerpretation including the delineation and classification of all wetlands for the National Wet-lands Inventory within the park . Jaymee Foitik provided quality control for photointerpretation, andKevin Bon conducted draft map review. Kurt Snider provided wetland acreage statistics that was thebasis for data analysis .

Thanks are extended to Mary Ann Franke and Sue Consolo Murphy for their critical review andeditorial comments . We are especially indebted to Tami Blackford for her patience, encouragement,editing skill, and publication design expertise .

Top:pond near Lewis Lake. Midpage: arrowheadand horsetail. Right: dragonfly on cattail. (All by .j Whipple.)