characteristic analysis and pattern evolution on landscape ......characteristic analysis and pattern...

THEMATIC ISSUE

Characteristic analysis and pattern evolution on landscape typesin typical compound area of mine agriculture urban in ShanxiProvince, China

Yingui Cao1,2 • Zhongke Bai1,2 • Wei Zhou1,2 • Xiaoran Zhang1

Received: 1 September 2015 / Accepted: 16 January 2016 / Published online: 28 March 2016

� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

Abstract The compound area of mine agriculture urban

is a community of resource, economy and society. In this

study we took the compound area of mine agriculture urban

in Pinglu District, Shuozhou City, Shanxi Province, China

as the study object in order to discover the landscape type

changing characteristics and pattern and analyze the driv-

ing forces from 1986 to 2013. We found that: (1) although

farmland was the primary landscape type, construction land

had increased obviously and destruction land also

increased linearly; (2) cultivated land decreasing was

mainly impacted by de-farming, construction occupation

and mining destruction; (3) landscape changing types dif-

fered remarkably at different period, but generally

increased, mainly from bidirectional farmland conversion

to the coexistence of bidirectional farmland conversion,

farmland to construction land and farmland to destruction

land. Lastly, we proposed some management measures to

direct landscape type changes.

Keywords Landscape type � Pattern evolution � Landuse � Driving factor � Compound area of mine agriculture

urban

Introduction

Characteristic analysis and pattern evolution on landscape

types have become an important content of the studies on

global climate and environmental changes (Sterling et al.

2012; Mooney et al. 2013). During the landscape type

pattern change process, materials are recycled and energy

flows between human activities and ecological environ-

ments (Mooney et al. 2013). Landscape type characteristic

often reflects the state and quality of the landscape and

informs planners on how to manage and maintain the

landscape (Atik et al. 2015). The study contents of land-

scape type pattern have changed from spatiotemporal

characteristic to the underlying mechanism, eco-environ-

ment effects as well as process simulation (Cai 2001;

Kalnay and Cai 2003; Bakker et al. 2005; Turner et al.

2007; Parcerisas et al. 2012) and become more and more

systemic (Murgue et al. 2015), accurate (Chartin et al.

2013; Luo et al. 2014), quantitative (Liu et al. 2014a, b;

Cao et al. 2015a, b) and concise (Ma et al. 2013).

The previous studies on landscape type pattern changes

are mostly focused on its spatial patterns, changing char-

acteristics and ecological environment responses in typical

regions, especially ecological fragile area (Cao et al. 2011;

Yu et al. 2015), peri-urban area (Schneider 2012; Tavares

et al. 2012) and rural area (Ruskule et al. 2013; Chartin

et al. 2013). At present, landscape type pattern changes

have also become a hot topic in mine areas (Fan et al. 2012;

Kobayashi et al. 2014). Firstly, mine areas are at small

scale and severely disturbed by land destruction such as

excavation, occupancy and collapse, leading to remarkably

rapid landscape type pattern changes (Chen 2003; Laron-

delle and Haase 2012) with easily identified driving factors

(Zhang et al. 2013). Secondly, landscape type pattern

changes in mine areas are generally a spatiotemporal

This article is part of a Topical Collection in Environmental Earth

Sciences on ‘‘Environment and Health in China II’’, guest edited by

Tian-Xiang Yue, Cui Chen, Bing Xu and Olaf Kolditz.

& Yingui Cao

[email protected]

& Zhongke Bai

[email protected]

1 School of Land Science and Technology, China University of

Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China

2 Key Laboratory of Land Consolidation, Ministry of Land and

Resources of the PRC, Beijing 100035, China

123

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:585

DOI 10.1007/s12665-016-5383-1

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evolution driven by exploitation of resources and a com-

prehensive reflection for the effects of mining on ecologi-

cal environments (Bian and Zhang 2006). Post-mining

landscape type pattern often differ dramatically from pre-

mining landscape type pattern in terms of surface structure,

resource availability and settlement structure (Haase and

Rosenberg 2003). Thirdly, mine areas used to be farmland,

where landscape type pattern changes may also be affected

by other factors besides exploitation of mineral resources

in the mine areas, such as land use policies of local gov-

ernments, land reclamation works (Brown 2005; Wang

et al. 2011).

Studies on landscape type pattern changes in mine areas

are of great significance. Firstly, these studies can acquire

landscape distributions, spatiotemporal characteristics, and

changing processes, and develop landscape type pattern

simulation technology, and improve decision-making for

optimization of landscape type structures on the basis of

understanding the underlying driving mechanisms (Bao

et al. 2008; Chen and Zhang 2011; Bodlak et al. 2012),

which are in order to regulate the direction, process, and

effects of landscape type pattern changes, and manage

landscape type pattern changes and protect eco-environ-

ments scientifically (Liu et al. 2002; Menegaki and

Kaliampakos 2012; Gao et al. 2013). Secondly, these

studies can discover the spatiotemporal changing rules of

landscape complexity and structure stability and provide

references for land reclamation and ecological recon-

struction (Li et al. 2013). For large opencast mines, studies

on landscape type pattern changes can help us quickly and

accurately obtain the spatiotemporal structures of land-

scape from pre-mining to mining and from mining to post-

mining. In the same time, these studies can help us analyze

the situation and trends of landscape type pattern changes

during various periods of mining process (Hu and Xie

2005; Bi et al. 2007, 2008; Larondelle and Haase 2012).

These results can provide support for the construction of

man-made complex ecosystem and decision-making of

ecological reconstruction, and make the ecological

restoration plan workable, ecological and less disturbing

(Xie et al. 2007; Doley et al. 2012).

With the development of remote sensing technology and

land information system, studies on landscape type pattern

changes in mine areas have achieved great progress. The

priority is using a series of quantitative models and meth-

ods to present the radical disturbance of landscape type

patterns (Haase and Haase 2002; Skalos and Kasparova

2012), particularly in areas with complex terrain. Mining

has led to reduced cultivated lands, severe landscape

fragmentation (Doley et al. 2012; Gao et al. 2013) and

decreased landscape quality and stability (Mwitwa et al.

2012; Qiu and Hou 2013). In plain areas, especially com-

pound areas of mine-agriculture, the landscape type pattern

changes rapidly and transforms frequently, which are pre-

sented as industrial and mining land increasing, surface

subsidence expanding, farmland reducing, and severely

impaired ecological system balance (Huttl and Gerwin

2005; Bian and Zhang 2006; Biemelt et al. 2011; Xu et al.

2013; Fan et al. 2012).

In opencast mine area, the prior landscape type pattern

has been severely damaged in the process of mining. The

landscape elements such as terrain, soil and vegetation

after mining form a new comprehensive landscape system

(Cao et al. 2015b, c). This system could not fit well with its

surrounding undamaged landscape system and looks

unnatural. This situation could accelerate landscape trans-

formation (Wei et al. 2012). Therefore, the landscape type

pattern of opencast mine areas should be acceptable and

sustainable in the process of restoration (Bridgewater et al.

2011; Bullock et al. 2011). Here we used Pingshuo open-

cast mine area in Shanxi province, China as an example.

Cao and Bai (2006) and Cao et al. (2007) revealed the

landscape type pattern changing process from 1990 to 2004

by total and annual change rate, highlighted the spa-

tiotemporal evolution among various landscape types, and

reflected the characteristics (rapid transformation and sev-

ere damage) of landscape type pattern changes in mine

area. Ye et al. (2008) demonstrated that the number of

landscape types in Pingshuo opencast mine area increased

from 4 in 1976 to 12 in 2006 and the landscape type pattern

was damaged seriously. Bi et al. (2008) shown that the

original geomorphology in Pingshuo mine area has

decreased generally by 1 km2 every year from 1990 to

2005, while the opencast area have remained steady at

7 km2, stripped area and reclaimed area was expending,

but the latter was faster than the former.

Most existing studies have focused on the landscape

type pattern changes in the cores of mine areas and

mainly analyzed landscape type pattern changes caused

by mining activities and land reclamation (Cao and Bai

2006; Bi et al. 2007; Ye et al. 2008; Dulias 2010; Skalos

and Kasparova 2012). Very few studies explored the

greater mine areas including surrounding regions, espe-

cially the compound area of mine agriculture urban. The

compound area of mine agriculture urban is a commu-

nity of resource, economy and society which exists

material circulation and energy flow in the process and

development, which refers to mineral resources

exploitation, processing and service with agricultural

production and biological resources utilization as the

primary industries (Cao et al. 2015b). In the compound

area of mine agriculture urban, materials and energy are

cycling and flowing using landscape type changes as the

carrier among resources mining, agricultural production,

and urban–rural construction. Despite lots of works and

efforts have been put into the compound area of mine

585 of 15 Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:585

123

agriculture urban, the mining activities in the compound

area of mine agriculture urban did not coordinate well

with sustainable development. Mining activities will

inevitably affect landscape type pattern, even disas-

trously in some cases (Worrall et al. 2009; Mwitwa et al.

2012).

From the perspective of integration development in

the compound area of mine agriculture urban, we ana-

lyzed the quantitative characteristics of landscape types,

spatial distribution and changing features of landscape

type pattern from 1986 to 2013, analyzed the underlying

causes of landscape type pattern changes, and put for-

ward some management measures to direct landscape

type changes.

Study area

The study area is located in Pinglu District Shuozhou City

of the northern Shanxi Province, China (Fig. 1). It is

characterized as an ecologically fragile area with limited

cultivated land and massive slope cultivated land. In recent

years, ecological policy of ‘‘grain for green’’ has been

implemented to reduce the cultivated land. As a result,

there are a lot of reforestation areas surrounding the mine

area. In addition, due to the mining of coal resources,

resources-dependent urban is rising around the core area.

Relocation of coal villages also has injected new vitality to

the construction of new rural area. Thus, the study area is a

typical compound area of mine agriculture urban, where

landscape types are the important carrier of the compre-

hensive development and its intuitive presentation. Overall,

it is significant to study landscape type pattern changes in

this area.

The study area involves six administrative towns,

including Jingping, Xiangyangbao, Baitang, Yuling, Tao-

cun, and Xiamiangao, three opencast mines, three under-

ground mines of the branch of Pingshuo Corporation China

Coal, and some other local underground mines (Fig. 1).

The mine area accounts for 70 % of the entire study area

(517 km2). As a part of semi-arid warm temperate conti-

nental monsoon climate zone, the study area has annual

average temperature of 4.8–7.8 �C, annual rainfall of

428.2–449.0 mm, terrain altitude of 1300–1400 m. It has a

grassland vegetation type and can be classified into the

loess hilly topography. The zonal soil is chestnut soil,

which is low soil organic content, poor structure, weak

resistance and severe erosion.

In 2013, the area had 4.20 9 104 hm2 farmland,

0.37 9 104 hm2 construction land and 0.60 9 104 hm2

destruction land, accounting for 81.33, 7.06 and 11.67 % of

the total area, respectively.

Data and method

Data sources

We used six remote sense images in 1986, 1996, 2000,

2004, 2009 and 2013. The parameters of images are shown

in Table 1. The SPOT images are from Shibao Satellite

Imagery Corporation in Beijing. The TM images are from

US Landsat resource sharing platform.

Data processing

Referring to geographic map (the scale is 1:10,000) of the

mine area, the six images were rectified using ENVI 5.0

Software. During the high-precision rectification process,

12 ground control points were evenly selected, and the

quadratic polynomial and neighboring re-sampling meth-

ods were used (Zeng et al. 2012; Fan et al. 2012). At the

end, the rectified data were in UTM projection and WGS-

84 ellipsoid as reference.

The landscape type classification system was estab-

lished. The landscape types were classified based on the

landscape type characteristics or the landscape functions

(Chen and Zhang 2011). Since the mine area is a part of the

study area, the classification system should reflect the

functional characteristics of each landscape type (Han et al.

2012a, b) and land destruction features (Chen et al. 2004a,

b). Based on the ‘‘Current Land Use Classification’’ (SAC

2007) and the landscape type characteristics of opencast

mine area, landscape types were classified into three pri-

mary types including farmland, construction land and

destruction land, and ten subtypes, including cultivated

land, forest land, grassland, urban, rural settlement, open-

cast area, stripped area, dump site, industrial site and

transportation land. Among them, farmland includes cul-

tivated land, forest land and grassland, construction land

includes urban, rural settlement and transportation land,

and destruction land includes opencast area, stripped area,

dump site, and industrial site (Cao et al. 2006, 2014, 2015b;

Bi et al. 2008).

The texture features of each landscape type on the

images were used to establish the interpretation signs (Yu

2014). Interpretation signs of remote sensing images are

explained in Table 2. ENVI 5.0 Software was used to

classify landscape types with supervising method. Kappa

coefficient test was used to detect the accuracy of the

classification (Zheng et al. 2006). The Kappa coefficients

of landscape classification are higher than 0.90 in 1986,

1996 and 2000, and higher than 0.80 in 2004, 2009 and

2013. Gao et al. (2013) believed that the Kappa coefficient

above 0.75 can meet the accuracy requirements for clas-

sification. We sampled 60 points in the study area and

Environ Earth Sci (2016) 75:585 of 15 585

123

compared the landscape types between the field and the

maps. The accuracy rates are up to 90 %. We revised the

landscape types of maps when they were inconsistent with

the field.

Methods

We adopted the importance value to discover landscape

type pattern changing relationships and determine the

Fig. 1 Location of study area


123

quantitative characteristics. We can use the importance

value to determine the changing direction of landscape

types and select the main types of landscape changes. The

higher the importance value is, the more dominant the

landscape type changes will be. The formula is following

(Luo et al. 2014):

Ci ¼AiPni¼1 Ai

� 100 %

In the formula, Ci is the importance value of landscape type

changes of the i type, Ai is the changing (increasing and

decreasing) areas of the i type.

Results and analysis

Quantitative characteristics of landscape type

changes

The quantitative characteristics of landscape type changes

could objectively reflect the most direct and close rela-

tionship between mining activities and ecosystem system

in the mine area (Wang et al. 2007; Bodlak et al. 2012). At

the primary landscape type level, farmland is the primary

landscape type in the study area. Its area was

5.12 9 104 hm2 in 1986, accounting for 99.03 % of the

total area, then gradually reduced to 4.20 9 104 hm2 by the

end of 2013, accounting for 81.33 % of the total area. The

reduction rate was the largest and reached 6.13 % from

2009 to 2013. The reduction rates were relatively small and

were about 2 % from 1996 to 2000 and from 2000 to 2004.

The proportion of construction land and destruction land

were relatively small, but still showed a tendency of

increasing. The area of construction land was

0.05 9 104 hm2 in 1986, accounting for 1.06 % of the total

area, but increased by 0.32 9 104–0.37 9 104 hm2 in

2013, accounting for 7.06 % of the total area. The expan-

sion of construction land increased by two-fold from 1986

to 1996, which was the most obvious. The construction

land increased by 5.14 % from 1996 to 2000, and by

40.80 % from 2009 to 2013. Construction land had main-

tained a high increasing trend, especially in the later study

period, which indicated that human production activities

were more frequent, and the pace of urbanization and rural

construction had been accelerated (Han et al. 2012a, b).

The destruction land presented a linear growth from

1986 to 2013. Its area was zero in 1986, but increased to

0.13 9 104 hm2 in 1996, then gradually to 0.60 9 104 hm2

in 2013, accounting for 11.67 % of the total area. The

destruction rate of each study period was higher than 35 %.

Table 1 Parameters of remote

sensing images in study areaDates Sensors Wavelengths (lm) Resolutions (m)

1986-06-20 TM (Landsat5) 0.45-0.69 30

1996-06-25 TM (Landsat5) 0.45-0.69 30

2000-05-22 TM (Landsat5) 0.45-0.69 30

2004-05-16 HRG, HRS, VEGETATION (SPOT5) 0.49-0.89 10

2009-06-10 HRG, HRS, VEGETATION (SPOT5) 0.49-0.89 10

2013-04-03 Reference 3D (SPOT6) 0.45-0.89 6

Table 2 Interpretation signs of remote sensing images

Primary types Subtypes Interpretation signs

Shape Texture

Farmland Cultivated land Regular and large plot, centralized distribution Clear and exquisite

Forest land Irregular, graininess and large plot Unitary and coarse

Grassland Irregular plot and distribution along the gully Relatively unitary

Construction

land

Urban land Regular and large plot Relatively mixed

Rural settlement Scattered plot and centralization in small scale Relatively mixed

Transportation

land

Striation or belt distribution Relatively unitary

Destruction land Opencast area Regular and large plot, centralized distribution Unitary

Stripped area Irregular plot and centralized along the marginal of the opencast area Unitary

Industrial site Obvious and disc plot Unitary

Industrial site Schistose and centralized distribution Mixed and relatively complex


123

Antaibao opencast mine began construction in 1987,

Anjialing opencast mine began construction in 2000, and

Donglutian opencast mine began construction 2009.

Opencast mining has three periods including infrastructure

construction period, transition period and outputting per-

iod. The land destruction is mainly land occupancy at the

infrastructure construction period, land stripping and

occupancy at the beginning of transition period. The land

destruction gradually decreased due to outer dump site

transferring to inner dump site at the later of transition

period (Bi et al. 2007; Bao et al. 2008). In 2013, Antaibao

opencast mine and Anjialing opencast mine were at the

period of outputting, and there was 0.42 9 104 hm2 land

destructed totally in these two mines. Meanwhile, Dong-

lutian opencast mine was at transition period, and there was

0.18 9 104 hm2 land destructed. Thus, land destruction

was severe.

Spatial characteristics of landscape type changes

The spatial characteristics of landscape type changes are

based on the second level of landscape type. As shown in

Fig. 3, cultivated land in the study area was the largest

patch type, which is consistent with a previous study (Han

et al. 2012a, b). Cultivated land widely distributed espe-

cially in the northwest and southwest of the study area,

where the terrain was mainly gullies and plains (Bao et al.

2008). From the aspect of administrative division, culti-

vated land was mainly situated in Xiangyangbao, Jingping

and Baitang, and contiguous to each other, especially

before 2004. Since 2004, cultivated land had been frag-

mented, especially in 2013. The results were consistent

with a previous study (Han et al. 2012a, b). Although this

phenomenon was mainly caused by the development of

mineral resources, it was also affected by other factors such

as rural settlement construction and urban expansion, par-

ticularly rural settlement was mosaic in the cultivated land.

Forest land presented a spatial tendency of ‘‘from cen-

tralization to diffuse’’ from the northeast–southwest area to

the entire study area (Fig. 3). From 2001 to 2005, forest

and shrub lands were mainly distributed in the mountains

of the northern study area, open forest land was mainly in

the gullies of mountainous areas, and artificial forest land

was in the southwestern plains (Bao et al. 2008). From the

aspect of administrative divisions, forest land was mainly

in Baitang, Jingping, Yuling and Xiangyangbao before

2009. The grassland was mainly focused in hilly areas in

the eastern study area (Fig. 2), such as Yuling, Taocun and

Xiamiangao before 2009 and gradually diffused widely in

2013.

Urban land was mainly situated in Jingping (Fig. 3),

which is the administrative center of Pinglu District,

Shuozhou City. From 1986 to 2013, urban land expanded

obviously, especially after 2000. In 2013, urban land cov-

ered near the reclamation area of Antaibao mine dump site.

The rural settlement were along the road and showed a

spatial tendency of ‘‘scattered before concentrated’’

(Fig. 3). The contiguous extent of rural settlement had

gradually improved since 2004, and they gradually showed

a trend of ‘‘stars in the sky’’ with rural settlement

increasing. Before 2000, the contiguous degree of rural

settlement was relatively high in Xiangyangbao, Baitang

and Xiamiangao. The contiguous extent of rural settlement

gradually increased in Taocun after 2000.

Transportation land was in the eastern and western study

area (Fig. 3), including the main traffic arteries, such as

Pingshuo line and Dongyuan line, as well as some other

low-level rural roads.

Comparison among urban land, rural settlement and

transportation land indicated that they all increased steadily

by about two-fold from 1986 to 2000, and rural settlement

increased the most by more than three-fold, urban land

expanded obviously by 1.91-fold from 2000 to 2013, and

transportation land was relatively stable, which was about

0.05 9 104 hm2 after 1996.

Opencast area, stripped area, dump site and industrial

site are mainly in the opencast mine area (Fig. 3). In 1996,

the opencast mining scale was relatively small, only

Antaibao opencast mine area was in production, and the

stripped area, dump site and industrial site were quite

small. Accordingly, the reclamation area of dump site was

also small. After 2000, Anjialing opencast mine began in

construction. With two mines mining simultaneously, the

size of opencast area had gradually enlarged. The area of

stripped area, dump site and industrial site had increased as

well. Hence, the reclamation area of dump site was

increasing. The concentrated characteristics of mining

production became more remarkable (Han et al. 2012a, b).

From 1996 to 2013, Antaibao and Anjialing opencast mine

areas advanced gradually eastward. In 2013, the Donglu-

tian opencast mine area showed a certain scale, and the

opencast area, stripped area and industrial site expanded

significantly, and gradually westward compared with those

in 2009.

Dominant characteristics of landscape type changes

We adopted the importance value to determine the domi-

nant characteristics of landscape type changes. We con-

sidered the importance value bigger than 1 % as a major

changing relationship, otherwise as other changing rela-

tionship (Table 3). There were 10 major and 35 other

changing relationships from 1986 to 1996, with cumulative

importance value of 93.19 and 6.81 %, respectively, 12

major and 58 other changing relationships from 1996 to

2000, with cumulative importance value of 90.20 and


123

9.80 %, respectively, 12 major and 67 other changing

relationships from 2000 to 2004, with cumulative impor-

tance value of 87.43 and 12.57 %, respectively, 11 major

and 66 other changing relationships from 2004 to 2009,

with cumulative importance value of 85.67 and 14.33 %,

respectively, 14 major and 73 other changing relationships

from 2009 to 2013, with cumulative importance value of

86.82 and 13.18 %, respectively, and 17 major changing

relationships from 1986 to 2013, with cumulative impor-

tance value of 94.58 %. The results indicated that the

number of major changing types increased with time and

the importance value of each type decreased. In addition,

landscape type changes transformed from bidirectional

farmland conversion at earlier time to coexistence of

bidirection farmland conversion, from farmland to con-

struction land, and farmland to destruction land.

0.00

1.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

5.00

6.00

1986 1996 2000 2004 2009 2013 Year

Are

a (1

04 hm2 )

0.00

0.10

0.20

0.300.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

Are

a (1

04 hm2 )

Farmland Construction land Destruction land

Fig. 2 Changes of landscape

type in study area

Fig. 3 Landscape type pattern in study area


123

The dominant changes were from dump site toward

forest land during 2000–2004, and from opencast area to

dump site during 2004–2009 and 2009–2013. The results

indicated that the dominant landscape type changes were

affected by the combined effects of de-farming, urban

expansion, coal mining, new rural construction and land

reclamation, especially the de-farming. During 1986–1996,

1996–2000 and 2004–2009, the importance values of

landscape type changes from cultivated land to grass land

were more than 30 %.

Based on the dominant characteristics of the landscape

type changes, we analyzed the spatial distribution charac-

teristics of the major landscape type changes and found that

they were different at each period, as shown in Fig. 4.

During 1986–1996, the change of cultivated land to forest

land was mainly in Jingping, which was the outer dump site

of Antaibao opencast mine, including the south dump site

and the west dump site. The change of cultivated land to

grass land was mainly in Yulin, Taocun, and Xiamiangao.

The changes of cultivated land to urban land or rural

settlement were mostly in Jingping and Xiangyangbao. The

change of cultivated land to dump site illustrated the further

expanding of the south dump site and the west dump site.

The change of forest land to grassland was mainly in Jing-

ping, Xiangyangbao and Baitang. During 1996–2000, the

bidirectional changes between cultivated land and grassland

were obvious, mainly in Yulin, Xiamiangao and Taocun.

The bidirectional changes between forest land and grassland

were mainly in Jingping and Baitang. The changes of cul-

tivated land or grassland to stripped area were in Jingping

and mainly in Antaibao opencast mine area, respectively.

During 2000–2004, the dominant change was grassland to

cultivated land, mostly in Yulin and Xiamiangao. The

change of cultivated land to rural settlement gradually

became remarkable, but relatively dispersed, primarily in

Baitang, Taocun and Xiamiangao. Large areas of stripped

area, opencast area and reclaimed area emerged. During

2004–2009, the dominant change was also grassland to

cultivated land, mostly in Yuling and Xiamiangao. And the

changes of cultivated land to urban land or rural settlement

Table 3 Importance value of landscape type changes at different periods (%)

Number Landscape type transformation relationship 1986–1996 1996–2000 2000–2004 2004–2009 2009–2013 1986–2013

1 Cultivated land–forest land 4.11 5.63 4.12 8.45 16.21 22.27

2 Cultivated land–grassland 30.77 37.42 14.37 38.09 10.25 11.82

3 Cultivated land–urban land 2.08 1.02 1.13 2.75

4 Cultivated land–rural settlement 2.31 1.48 2.84 3.25 4.15 5.34

5 Cultivated land–opencast area 2.06

6 Cultivated land–stripped area 1.39 1.62 3.47 2.13 3.18

7 Cultivated land–dump site 2.02 3.60

8 Cultivated land–industrial site 3.53

9 Cultivated land–industrial site 1.36 2.15 1.13

10 Forest land–cultivated land 11.47 3.00 6.87 4.87 6.43 7.46

11 Forest land-grassland 10.73 3.90 3.96 4.12 3.39 3.92

12 Forest land–dump site 1.82

13 Grass land–cultivated land 25.83 22.72 39.59 12.03 20.96 12.83

14 Grassland–forest land 2.51 7.47 7.46 5.20 13.24 9.27

15 Grassland–rural settlement 1.01

16 Grassland–stripped area 2.13 1.95 1.32

17 Grassland–dump site 1.24

18 Grassland–industrial site 1.24

19 Rural settlement–cultivated land 1.91 1.43 1.65 1.91

20 Opencast area–dump site 1.95 1.05

21 Stripped area–opencast area 1.66 1.75

22 Dump site–forest land 1.23

23 Transportation land-cultivated land 1.00 2.28

The major cumulative changing relationship 10 12 12 11 14 17

The cumulative importance value 93.19 90.20 87.43 85.67 86.82 94.58

The other cumulative changing relationship 35 58 67 66 73 22

The other cumulative importance value 6.81 9.80 12.57 14.33 13.18 5.42


123

once again became dominant, mainly in Xiangyangbao,

Jingping and Baitang. With Anjialing opencast mine area

putting into production, the stripped area expanded and

became concentrated and contiguous, and inner dump site

began to form in the opencast area. During 2009–2013, the

changes of cultivated land to grassland or forest land, and

grassland to cultivated land or forest land became obvious,

especially in Yulin, Taocun and Xiamiangao. The change of

cultivated land to rural settlement significantly increased,

and the concentrated and contiguous characteristics were

more obvious, especially in Xiangyangbao, Jingping and

Baitang. In other towns, the change of cultivated land to

rural settlement was relatively fragmented. The tendency of

urban land expanding became obvious in Jingping, mainly

by occupying cultivated land. Stripped area, opencast area

and dump site gradually expanded eastward to Taocun.

Furthermore, because of mining of Donglutian opencast

mine area, the stripped area in Taocun gradually expanded

westward.

For the entire study period from 1986 to 2013, the

landscape type changes showed significant regional

distribution characteristics. In the northern, northwestern,

western and southwest study area, cultivated land was

mainly occupied by construction land, concentrated in

Xiangyangbao, Jingping and Baitang. In the southeast

Jingping, northwest Taocun and middle Yuling, cultivated

land was occupied by destruction land, including opencast

area, stripped area, dump site and industrial site. The

bidirectional conversion among cultivated land, forest land

and grassland was mainly concentrated in the eastern,

southeastern, and southern study area, including Yuling,

Xiamiangao and Taocun.

Discussion and conclusion

Discussions

1. Reasons for farmland changes.

Overall, the ratio of cultivated land to farmland gen-

erally was more than 50 %, while that to the study area

was about 40 %. In study area cultivated land

Fig. 4 Distribution of dominant landscape type changes at different periods


123

reduction was dominant. Although the area of culti-

vated land was still more than 2 9 104 hm2 and its

ratio was still high, its total area showed a significantly

decreasing tendency due to the impacts of the de-

farming policy, destruction of coal mining, and urban

or rural construction occupation (Fig. 5).

Firstly, the policy of ‘‘small area restoration, large scale

protection’’ was implemented. The slope cultivated land

in study area distributed widely. To expand forest land

and grassland, study area began de-farming policy for

ecological restoration (Han et al. 2012a, b) and imple-

mented the policy of ‘‘small area restoration, large scale

protection’’ for prevention of existing forest land and

grassland from transformation (Chen et al. 2011). From

1986 to 2013, a total 1.01 9 104 hm2 of cultivated land

changed into forest land and grassland, especially lots of

cultivated land de-farmed after 2004 (Han et al. 2012a, b).

Secondly, some cultivated land turned naturally into

grassland without sowing. Previous study estimated that

nearly 0.05 9 104 hm2 cultivated land turned into

grassland without sowing from 2001 to 2005 (Bao et al.

2008). The abandoned cultivated land was not counted in

the later.

Thirdly, cultivated land was occupied by urban con-

struction and rural construction. From1986 to 2013, there

was 0.08 9 104 hm2 cultivated land occupied by urban

construction, accounting for 70 % of the total urban area,

and 0.16 9 104 hm2 cultivated land was occupied by

rural settlement, accounting for 79 % of the total rural

settlement area. It is clear that the cultivated land made a

significant contribution to urban–rural development.

Thus the compound area of mine agriculture urban, often

with low altitude and low slope, rapidly developed,where

the cultivated land was widely distributed. Thus it is

inevitable for urban–rural construction to occupy culti-

vated land (Xue and Cai 2011; Cao et al. 2013).

Fourthly, the study area is located in Pingshuo opencast

mine area. Opencast mining induces greater surface dis-

turbance. With the consecutive operation of the three

opencast mine areas, the damaged land area including

cultivated land increased year by year (Bi et al. 2008).

From1986 to2013, the damagedcultivated landwasup to

0.37 9 104 hm2, accounting for 61 % of the total

destruction land, among which, 0.06 9 104 hm2 culti-

vated land was occupied by opencast area,

0.09 9 104 hm2 by stripped area, 0.11 9 104 hm2 by

dump site, and 0.10 9 104 hm2 by the industrial site.

However, the cultivated land in the study area also

increased at some periods, especially after 2000. This is

mainly influenced by both land consolidation and land

reclamation in study area. Xue and Cai (2011) showed

that land reclamation ratio in study area was nearly 90 %

since 2000. On one hand, the company and the person

should reclaim the damaged land, which has been regu-

lated in Land Administration Law of the People’s

Republic of China since 1998. On the other hand, the

branch of PingshuoCorporationChinaCoal has paid high

attention to land reclamation (Bai and Yun 2008). By the

end of 2009, 0.03 9 104 hm2 of dump site was reclaimed

and 0.02 9 104 hm2 would be reclaimed to cultivated

land (He et al. 2012). Furthermore, with the implemen-

tation of the interlink project of urban land increase and

rural settlement decrease after 2009, some abandoned

rural settlementwere renovated and could be transformed

to cultivated land because they were located at the loess

hilly region (Han et al. 2010). From 2009 to 2013,

0.05 9 104 hm2 of these kind of rural settlement were

changed into cultivated land.

During 1986 to 2013, forest land and grassland changed

symmetrically. The forest land showed a trend of ‘‘in-

crease before decrease’’, which is consistent with a pre-

vious report showing that forest land gradually decreased

from 1985 to 2005 and then increased after 2005 (Qiao

et al. 2009). Grassland also presented a tendency of

‘‘decrease before increase’’. There were about

2 9 104 hm2 forest land and grassland in total. The rea-

sons that the area of forest land and grassland was rela-

tively stable because on one hand forest land or grassland

were the major landscape types at the early time of land

reclamation (Xue and Cai 2011), on the other hand there

was a policy of de-farming for eco-restoration (Han et al.

2012a, b).

2. Reasons for construction land changes.

At the macroscopic level, the growth of construction

land is demanded by the economic development and

population growth (Bao et al. 2008). In study area,

rural settlement was the dominated type of construc-

tion land. The rural settlement showed a gradual

increase trend during 1986–2013, accounting for more

than 45 % of the total construction land after 2004, and

reached 0.20 9 104 hm2 in 2013. The reasons for the

continuous increase of rural settlement are mainly the

followings (Fig. 5).

Firstly, Shuozhou City government actively imple-

mented the ‘‘new rural construction’’ policy, priori-

tized the urgent land use to farmers’ production and

living, and comprehensively arranged land use for

rural residential program, industrial program, infras-

tructure program and social service program. The rural

settlement construction lacked of planning, thus, its

land use intensive degree was not high and the

reclamation and utilization of abandoned rural settle-

ment had lagged behind, which resulted in rural

settlement increasing (Han et al. 2012a, b).

Secondly, owing to the opencast mining, rural settle-

ment needed to be relocated out of the mining region.


123

Farmers were financially compensated and resettled.

Relying on coal mining, farmers engaged in related

production and business activities around mining area

and the family income increased, which promoted the

new rural housing and improve their living conditions

(Zhou et al. 2006).

Thirdly, the expansion of mining area increased the

country land acquisition or lease. To get more

compensation, farmers began to build new houses

which was illegal, as a result, rural settlement

increased quickly (Han et al. 2012a, b).

In study area, Jingping was the important urban area in

the development of Shuozhou City. Urban land

expanded around the center of the economic develop-

ment with consideration to protect urban development

and spatial expansion (Yang 2011). The proportion of

urban land in total construction land was relatively

stable, which was about 35 %, but the proportion also

gradually increased and the urban land was up to

0.12 9 104 hm2 by 2013. The growth of urban land

was mainly influenced by the demographic and social-

economic development. From the perspective of

Fig. 5 Reasons for farmland, construction land and destruction land changes


123

sustainable development of mine city, Cui et al. (2011)

have evaluated the sustainable urban land of Pinglu

District from 1995 to 2005, indicating that urban land

was in a state of sustainable development, with an

upward trend, and specifically affected by population,

resource, social-economic development.

3. Reasons for destruction land changes.

From 1986 to 2013, the destruction land, including

opencast area, stripped area and dump site, showed a

tendency of alternating spiral growth. The reasons for

destruction land changes have been explained in

Fig. 5. From 1986 to 2004, the opencast area increased

0.09 9 104 hm2, accounting for 30.07 % of the total

destruction land. Before 2004, Antaibao opencast mine

area was the dominant mining area and its opencast

area remained at a relatively stable level around

0.07 9 104 hm2 from 1990 to 2005 (Bi et al. 2008).

From 2000 to 2005 the opencast area increased slightly

because the coal production of Pingshuo mine area

increased gradually towards 100 million tons (He et al.

2012). During 2004–2013, the opencast area showed a

tendency of ‘‘decrease before increase’’ and reached

0.10 9 104 hm2 by 2013. The predicted accumulative

destruction land in Anjialing opencast mine area is

0.12 9 104 hm2 till 2019, among which, 60 % would

be cultivated land (Zhang et al. 2006). The proportion

of destruction land dropped to 16.44 % during

2004–2013, because the opencast areas of Anjialing

opencast mine area and Antaibao opencast mine area

were occupied by the inner dump sites. Thus, the

opencast area showed a trend of decrease. Then

opencast area increased caused by coal production

increase and mining of Donglutian opencast mine area.

During 1986–2004, the stripped area showed a ten-

dency of ‘‘increase before decrease’’ and ‘‘general

increase’’, which is consistent with a previous study

(Bi et al. 2008). The stripped area reached its

maximum 0.08 9 104 hm2 by 2000, accounting for

38.84 % of total destruction land. During 2004–2013,

the stripped area continuously grew, reaching

0.15 9 104 hm2 by 2013, which accounted for

24.22 % of the total destruction land.

During 1986–2004, dump site showed an increasing

trend and the proportion in total destruction land

reached its maximum of 45.87 % by 1996. Taking

Antaibao opencast mine as an example, there were

only southern dump site and western dump site and the

reclaimed land was 0.02 9 104 hm2 distributed in the

south dump site in 1993. During 1993–2000, the dump

site increased to 0.09 9 104 hm2, including the new

inner dump site and the enlarged western dump site,

and the reclaimed land increased to 0.04 9 104 hm2

(Ye et al. 2008). The dump site of Antaibao opencast

mine area was 0.12 9 104 hm2 in 2005 (Bi et al.

2007). During 2004–2013, the dump site continuously

grew, reaching 0.16 9 104 hm2 by 2009, which

accounted for 36.53 % of the total destruction land,

and 0.20 9 104 hm2 by 2013, which accounted for

32.82 % of the total destruction land. Overall, the

proportion of dump site reached its maximum in 2009

and 2013.

During 1986–2013, the industrial site showed a gradual

increasing trend and reached 0.16 hm2 9 104 by 2013,

accounting for 26.51 % of the total destruction land.

On the concept of landscape type, opencast area,

stripped area and dump site all belong to the destruc-

tion yet un-reclaimed land. Xue and Cai (2011)

showed that these landscape types had contributed to

the greatest changes in the mine area in 2005.

4. Management measures of landscape type changes.

It is important to adopt the proper management

measures to direct landscape type changes. Firstly,

the government in study area should combine five

plannings into one planning. Five plannings include

economic and social development planning, urban

planning, land use planning, industry planning and

ecological conservation planning. In these plannings

there existed the problems of goal conflict of plan-

nings, lack of coordination, content overlap, manage-

ment confusion and other issues under the current

planning system, which will impact the landscape type

changes (Hrelja 2015; Saunders et al. 2015). The

government in study area formally proposed the policy

of ‘‘combining five plannings into one planning’’ in

September 2013, which would optimize the allocation

and layout of various resources and advance social-

economic development (Shuozhou News 2013). In fact

the implementation of this policy is slow because of

the planning goal. In study area, Combining five

plannings into one planning should use the planning as

the guidance and take coal mining, coal power, coal

chemical as the dominant industries, while greatly

developing eco-friendly industries and introducing

ecological environment-friendly development projects,

including tourism, wind power generation, eco-agri-

culture and new materials.

Secondly, it is necessary to control the growth of

construction land. Urban land per capita and rural

settlement per capita exceeded the national standards

in 2013 (Cao 2015). To control the growth of urban

land, any planning should (1) strictly control urban

land quota standards and insist on intensive land use in

the urban boundary in order to avoid expanding

quickly along the urban boundary in Jingping Town,

and regulate land use approval and promote the

coordinated development of land urbanization and


123

population urbanization; (2) delimit of the urban

expansion boundary around the present urban bound-

ary and permit urban land expansion towards the

northeast of the urban land, and ensure the economical

and intensive use of urban land; (3) implement the

interlink project of urban land increase and rural

settlement decrease and land reclamation in mine areas

in order to increase the pressure of urban land

expansion (Long 2014; Liu et al. 2014a, b). Taocun

Township and Yuling Township are the dominant

opencast mining areas in the future and there are

numerous rural settlements distributed in these two

townships. These rural settlements which are damaged

by opencast mining are reclaimed to cultivated land,

which can increase the cultivated land and relief the

pressure of cultivated land occupied by urban expan-

sion. To control the growth of rural settlement, any

planning should (1) obey the standard of rural settle-

ment per capital to develop the new rural settlement,

improve the scattered and chaotic conditions of rural

settlement, and advance the intensive degree of rural

settlement, especially in Taocun Township and Yuling

Township, which has the dominance of opencast

mining areas; (2) combine the new rural settlement

construction with village relocation considering min-

ing schedule and mining disturbance scope in order to

promote the suitability of relocation and resettlement,

especially in Baitang Township and Xiamiangao

Township, which has the dominance of underground

mining areas; (3) investigate and evaluate the recla-

mation potentiality of waste rural settlement according

to the ‘‘Land Reclamation Quality Control Standards’’

of the Ministry of Land and Resources, China,

promoting the reclamation of waste urban settlement

and reducing rural construction land.

Thirdly, it is important to promote industrial transfor-

mation and upgrading. To promote industrial transfor-

mation and upgrading should establish a development

model fully reflecting the three entities of mine,

agriculture and urban, transform and extend related

industries, and ensure resource sharing and advantage

complementing among the three entities. In mine area

it is feasible to promote the formation of two types of

core circular economic industrial chains relying on the

advantages of resources, lands, technologies and funds

in the flourishing period of the mine area. The two

types of core circular economic industrial chains are

one is the black industry chain of coal mining, coal

gangue, coal power, silica–alumina and construction

materials, the other is the green industrial chain of

agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, pharmacy,

agricultural product processing, eco-tourism. Both

‘‘black chain’’ and ‘‘green chain’’ drive mining area

sustainable development (He et al. 2012). In agricul-

ture area it is important to develop new industries on

the basis of regional reality, make efforts to develop

new energy and environmental industries, including

wind power generation, facility agriculture, eco-

tourism and other industries, link industrial chains

between agriculture area and mine area in order to

promote rural land circulation and develop collective

rural economy, achieve economy growth in rural

areas. In urban area it is necessary to make efforts to

develop transportation industry and service industry,

enhance the level of transportation industry and

service industry and create a classic brand; (1) rely

on ‘‘Mensheng’’ culture to develop cultural tourism

industry.

Conclusions

1. Farmland was the major landscape type in the study

area, construction land increased significantly because

of urbanization and rural construction, and destruction

land increased linearly. Cultivated land still occupied a

high proportion, and it was severely fragmented and

significantly decreased. Urban land and rural settle-

ment dramatically expanded and obviously distributed

along the main roads. The opencast area, stripped area,

and dump site showed an alternative and spiral growth

tendency.

2. In general, the types of landscape changes showed an

increase in trend and changed from bidirectional

farmland conversion to the coexistence of bidirectional

farmland conversion, farmland to construction land

and farmland to destruction land. In addition, the types

of landscape transformation also showed significant

geographical distribution characteristics.

3. The reduced farmland was mainly because of the

reduction in cultivated land due to the policy of de-

farming, construction occupation and mining destruc-

tion. In some periods, cultivated land also increased

due to reclamation of the mine area as well as

consolidation of abandoned rural settlement. The

growth of urban land was mainly driven by urban

economic development and urbanization, and the

growth of rural settlement was mainly driven by new

rural construction and farmers’ living condition

improvement. The increase of destruction land was

based on the acceleration of coal mining scale.

4. The key to direct landscape type changes is to adopt

the proper management measures. Such as combining

five plannings into one planning, strictly controlling

the growth of construction land, vigorously promoting

industrial transformation and upgrading.


123

Acknowledgments The study was supported by the National Nat-

ural Science Foundation of China (41571508), the Basic Scientific

Research Foundation for Outstanding Teachers (2-9-2015-173), and

the Humanities and Social Science Project of the Ministry of Edu-

cation (15YJC630005).

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