chapter one: the science of psychology. ways to acquire knowledge tenacity tenacity refers to the...

Chapter One: The Science of Psychology

Ways to Acquire Knowledge

Tenacity Refers to the continued presentation of a particular bit of

information. When we hear a statement repeated a sufficient number of times, we have a tendency to accept it as being true.


Authority Acceptance of knowledge from an authority; taking someone’s

word for it; also depends on the credibility of the person presenting the information.

Psychological Detective

What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge through tenacity and authority?

You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is true.

The inability or unwillingness of tenacity and authority to change in the face of contradictory evidence.


Experience Experiencing something firsthand or directly. Is all experience perfectly accurate?


Reason and Logic Based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a

situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This process is frequently called a logical syllogism.

An example of a logical syllogism is the assumption that “beautiful people are good.”


Science The key elements of the scientific approach are:

Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration.

The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals.

Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning. Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted

factors.

Ways to Acquire Knowledge (recap)

Tenacity Authority Experience Reason and Logic Science

Psychological Detective

Review the methods for acquiring knowledge that we presented. How does the scientific method avoid the problems associated with tenacity, authority, experience, and reason and logic?

Components of the Scientific Method

Objectivity

A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible. Psychologists select research participants in such a manner

as to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex). Researchers frequently make their measurements with

instruments in order to be as objective as possible. We describe such measurements as being empirical because they are based on objectively quantifiable observations.


Confirmation of Findings Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we

should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results. Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of research.

Psychologists use the term replication to refer to a research study that is conducted in exactly the same manner as a previous study. A replication with extension generates new information at the same time it confirms previous findings.


Self-correction Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent

should lead to a change in the conclusions we reach. If experimental evidence fails to support the predicted

relations between our independent and dependent variables, we change our view about how nature operates.


Control Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.

An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.

Control of unwanted factors Potentially influential and undesirable factors (other than

the factor of major interest) are not allowed to change.

Components of the Scientific Method (recap)

Objectivity Confirmation of findings Self-correction Control

The Psychological Experiment

Experiment An attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relations

that exist in nature. Researchers are interested in determining those factors

that result in or cause predictable events.


In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors:

The independent variable The dependent variable Extraneous variables


Independent Variable (IV) The factor that is the major focus of the research and that the

researcher directly manipulates. Manipulation of the IV corresponds to one use of the term

control.


The IV is: Independent

Can be directly manipulated by the investigator. Variable

Is able to assume two or more values (levels). The causal part of the relation we seek to establish.


Dependent Variable (DV) Consists of the the recorded information or results of the

experiment. Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are

examining. Changes in DV scores will depend on the manipulation of the

IV.


Extraneous Variables Are there factors, other than the independent variable,

that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment?

When an extraneous variable is present, we have no way of knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the effect we observe.

Attention to extraneous variables represents another use of the term control.


Establishing Cause-and-Effect Relations Only when we manipulate an independent variable and control

potential extraneous variables are we able to infer a cause-and-effect relation.

The Psychological Experiment (recap)

Independent variable Dependent variable Extraneous variables Establishing cause-and-effect relations

The Research Process

Finding a Problem Each research project begins as a problem or a question

for which we are seeking an answer.


Reviewing the Literature Finding out what research studies already exist in an

area.


Theoretical Considerations A theory is a formal statement of the relation among

the relevant variables in a particular research area. All good theories:

Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data. Point the way to new research.

The Research Process The Hypothesis

Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory.

The research or experimental hypothesis is the predicted outcome of a research project.

The research hypothesis states a testable prediction about the relations between the independent and dependent variables in your experiment.


Research Design A general plan for conducting your research. Your research design specifies:

How you will select your participants and assign them to groups.

The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use. How you will gather your data.


Conducting the Experiment The next step is to actually conduct the experiment (gather the

data).


Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed. Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide

whether manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV.

If manipulation of the IV had a statistically significant effect on the DV, and if the experiment was well-designed, we can infer that the IV manipulation was the cause of the DV effect we recorded.

The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory

Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory.

Was our experimental hypothesis supported? Do our results agree with past research? How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure

in this research area? If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be

made in our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them?

Does lack of support for our hypothesis disconfirm the theory?

The Research Process Preparing the Research Report

A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific community.

A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA).

APA format allows researchers to know exactly what to include in their papers and readers to know exactly where to look for specific experimental details, procedures, and results.


Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication The two most popular ways to share results are:

Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention, and/or

Publish an article in a professional journal.


Finding a New Problem The more deeply you immerse yourself in a research

area, the more questions and problems you will find to research.

Why is the Research Methods Course Important?

It Assists You in Other Classes The more completely you understand research methodology,

the better you will be able to master the material in your other classes.

Conducting an Original Research Project The research methods course often includes or is followed by

conducting an original project. This provides an excellent opportunity to present or publish your findings.

Conducting a Research Project After Graduation You might have to conduct research as a condition of future

employment (even if you’re not particularly interested in research at this point in time).

Why is the Research Methods Course Important?

Getting into Graduate School Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in

research methods or experimental psychology very positively. Having presented or published a report is also rated very

highly by graduate school admissions committees. Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research

If you understand the research on which a variety of claims are based, then you are in a position to make a more educated decision concerning such knowledge claims.

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