CHAPTER ONECHAPTER ONE Studying Adult Development and Aging

Gerontology – The study of aging from maturity through old age•AGEISM: a form of discrimination against older adults based on their age.

• Let’s review the results of our class Ageism Survey…

Perspectives on Adult Development and Aging

The Life Span Perspective (LSP)

• LSP views life from conception to death • LSP divides human development into two phases:

1. Early (infancy, childhood, and adolescence)2. Later (young adulthood, middle age, and old age)

• Paul Baltes (1987) identified FOUR key features:1. Multidirectionality: development involves both growth and decline2. Plasticity: one’s capabilities & potential are not fixed

The Life Span Perspective

3. Historical context: development occurs within a certain set of historical circumstances

Cohort: a group of people who share historical influences of a particular time

4. Multiple causation: development is influenced by biological, psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces.

The Life Span Perspective

• Forces of development– Biological forces: genetic and health-related factors– Psychological forces: internal perceptual,

cognitive, emotional, and personality factors– Sociocultural forces: interpersonal, societal,

cultural, and ethnic factors– Life-cycle forces: provide a context in which all the

other forces may combine and interact

Biopsychosocial framework

The Demographics of AgingPopulation Trends in the United States

• July 1, 2000

The Demographics of AgingPopulation Trends in the United States

• Projected to July 1, 2025

The Demographics of AgingPopulation Trends in the United States

• Projected to July 1, 2050

The Demographics of AgingPopulation Trends in the United States

• Projected to July 1, 2100

• Normative age-graded influences: occur to most people at the same age

Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences

• Normative history-graded influences: events that most people in a specific culture experience at the same time.

Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences

• Non-normative influences: random/rare events that happen to an individual

Interrelations between the Forces: Developmental Influences

• Primary aging: normal and disease-free development during adulthood• Secondary aging: developmental changes that are related to disease, lifestyle, and environmentally induced changes that are not inevitable• Tertiary aging: rapid losses that occur shortly before death (cognition changes, etc.)

There are at least 3 distinct aging processes:

Definitions of Age

• Chronological age: age in years since birth• Perceived age: the age you think of yourself

as• Biological age: where one is in relation to

possible life span• Psychological age: Involves functioning

levels• Sociocultural age: refers to expected roles

one has in relation to others

• The nature-nurture issue: Do genetics or environment shape the individual?

• The stability-change issue: Do people remain the same over time?

• The continuity-discontinuity controversy: Is development smooth or does it occur in abrupt shifts?– Plasticity: capacity is not fixed and can be changed

• The universal versus context-specific development controversy: Is development the same for everyone all over the world?

Core Issues in Development

Research Methods

• Research often starts with a hunch about a phenomenon.

• In order to conduct research, one must form a hypothesis, a testable statement that predicts an outcome.

• Do you think that computer games can increase ones cognitive abilities?– Hypothesis: Using Lumosity for at least 20 minutes per

day will increase cognitive abilities

Research Methods:Systematic Observation

Researchers carefully and systematically observe and record behavior without interfering with behaviorNaturalistic observationPurpose is to observe how people or animals behave in their natural environments.Laboratory (Structured) observationPurpose is to observe how people or animals behave in a more controlled setting.

Research Methods:Case study

A detailed description of a particular individual being studied or treated, which may be used to formulate broader research hypotheses

Research Methods:Self Reports/Surveys

Questionnaires and interviews ask people about experiences, attitudes, or opinions

Social desirability: the tendency of participants to respond in a way they think is socially acceptable or desirable rather than how they truly feel or think

Correlational Research DesignA correlational study looks for a consistent relationship between two phenomena

Correlation: A statistical measure of how strongly two variables are related to one another.

Correlation coefficients can range from -1.0 to +1.0.

Direction of correlationsPositive correlationsAn association between increases in one variable and increases in another, or decreases in one variable and decreases in the other.

Negative correlationsAn association between increases in one variable and decreases in another.

Explaining correlationsCorrelations show patterns, not causes.•Third variable effect or confounding variable: an alternative explanation for the cause of a behavior or event other than the expected cause•Correlational analysis can not rule out confounding variables.

Experimental Research Design Allows psychologists to determine

the cause of a behavior by controlling for confounding variables

Experiment: a controlled test of a hypothesis in which the researcher manipulates one variable to discover its effect on another

Variables of interest

Independent variables Variables the experimenter manipulates

Dependent variables Variables the experimenter predicts will be affected by manipulations of the independent variable(s)

Representative sample

• A subgroup that accurately reflects the population about which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions

Research groups• Experimental Group: exposed to the variable of

interest (treatment)

• Control Group: a comparison condition in which subjects are treated like the experimental group except for the variable of interest

• Hypothesis: A testable statement that predicts an outcome.– Example: Using Lumosity for at least

20 minutes per day will increase

cognitive abilities

• Minimize risks to research participants.• Describe the research to potential participants.• Avoid deception.• Results should be anonymous or confidential.

Conducting Research Ethically

• Reliability: Consistency in findings

• Validity: Does research measure the phenomenon of interest?

Research Methods

Designs for Studying Development

• Cross-sectional designs: test or observe people of different ages at the same time

• Longitudinal designs: test or observe the same individuals repeatedly at different points in their lives

• Sequential designs: represent different combinations of cross-sectional or longitudinal studies

• Meta-analysis: Integrates findings from different studies– Powerful tool– Determines whether a finding generalizes across many studies that

used different methods