CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE, CONCEPTS, THEORETICALFRAMEWORK, AND RESEARCH MODEL

2.1 Review of Literature

Some research related to writing discourse using text-based approach has

been done by some students and researchers of language both in the forms of

thesis, journal and article. Among them are the first, Aria Septi Anggaira, in the

Journal entitled “Using a Genre-Based Approach to Improve the English Writing

Competence of VIIIA Students of SMPN 3 Metro Lampung in the Academic Year

2011/2012”. Anggaira’s research was an implementation of a genre-based

approach in learning writing. The implementation of the genre-based approach

was aimed to improve the writing competence of VIIIA students of SMPN 3

Metro, Lampung. That research was a collaborative classroom action research.

The result of the research showed that the improvement was achieved in every

cycle. The result of the improvement could be seen from the comparison of the

pretest result, each cycle result, and posttest result. The mean score of the students

pretest result was 55.05, the result of the first cycle was 70.08, and the second

cycle was 74.63, while the posttest result was 76.1. From those results, it could be

concluded that the genre-based approach could improve the students’ writing

competence.

The research done by Anggaira is different from this current research. The

essay is recount text. The theme is not about ecolinguistic and she used a

collaborative classroom action research method.

The second research was conducted by Siti Masitoh & Dasep Suprijadi in

2015, in the Journal entitled “Improving Students’ Ability in Writing Descriptive

Text using Genre Based Approach (GBA) at The Eighth Grade Students of SMP

Islam Terpadu Fitrah Insani”. The main objective of this study was to find out if

GBA could improve the students’ ability in writing descriptive text. Data analysis

showed that the observed value of t (9.474) was higher than the critical value of t

(2.07). GBA had a significant impact on improving students’ ability in writing

descriptive text. The difference of Masitoh and Suprijadi’s research from this

current research lies on the content of the descriptive essay which did not touch

the local cultural elements. They used quantitative research only. Their research is

also different with this current research in regard to the research method. They

used quantitative with one group pretest and posttest design while this research

used pretest-posttest control design.

Third, the research conducted in 2017 by Erni Yulianti and Reni in the

journal entitled “Utilizing Grammar in Teaching Writing Recount Text through

Genre Based Approach”. This study tried to describe GBA application in the

class, to identify how Grammar and GBA led to students’ writing recount text, and

to identify students’ perception in utilizing Grammar in GBA in writing recount

text. The finding revealed that students had positive perception in learning

writing recount text by utilizing Grammar through genre base approach. Students

understood the material explained while they were enjoying the learning process.

Getting better understanding on genre-base, students felt easier to produce recount

text.

The research conducted by Yulianti and Reni`s differs from this research in

which the text type was recount text, the content of the essay did not explain

specific description related to local wisdom or ecolinguistic but technology. Their

research used different method with this research. They used pre-experimental

design one group pretest-posttest while this research used pretest-posttest control

design.

Fourth, the research done in 2017 by Piyatida Changpueng, in a journal

entitled “The Implementation of The Genre-Based Approach in The Teaching of

Writing to Engineering Students”. The study aimed at examining the writing

achievement of Thai engineering students receiving writing instruction through

the explicit genre-based approach, or GBA (SFL genre), and their attitudes toward

this method of teaching. One lesson in teaching writing recounts was provided

during three sessions. The results of a T-test revealed clear improvement in the

students’ writing ability after attending the lesson. Regarding the attitudes of the

students, it was found that the students had a satisfactory attitude toward this

teaching method.

The difference of Changpueng`s research from this current research lies on

the subjects of the research who were the 28 fourth-year engineering students, the

text type was recount text, and the content of the essay did not explain specific

description related to local wisdom or ecolinguistic but technology.

Fifth, the research conducted in 2017 by Indah Afrianti, in her thesis

entitled “Environment-Based Learning in improving the skill in writing

descriptive text of English VII grade students of Islamic Junior High School Nurul

Ihsan, Bima.” In her research, she found that there was an increase in writing in

experimental group students. Among 17 students, 15 managed to reach KKM

(minimum criteria of mastery learning), while in the control group, from 17

students, only 3 were successful in achieving KKM. There were two factors that

influenced the success of learning, namely internal factors which included the

interest of students in writing their own essay with imagination developed after

they were given pictures about the environment around them and external factors

that included the use of the environment-based learning.

Indah's research differs from this research, especially in her research

method which used pre-experimental design in the form of intact group

comparison, the learning media used in the form of tourist spot images in Bima

city, and she did not use text based approach.

2.2. The Concepts

The concepts of applying text-based approach using ecotext to improve the

skill in writing descriptive text of the 7th grade students of SMP Kristen Payeti,

East Sumba done by the researcher were collected from the theories stated by the

experts and the researcher`s description of the ecotext with the theme of horse

`njara`. The concepts used in this research are elaborated and explained as

follows:

2.2.1 The Text-Based Approach in Language Learning

Text-based approach is an approach in communicative English language

teaching. It is one of the approaches implemented in the 2013 curriculum in

Indonesia. It focuses more on the outcomes or products of learning. As it has been

stated in the background, it is well known as a genre-based approach in

communicative competence that involves the mastery of different types of texts

used in a special sense to refer to structured sequences of language used in

specific contexts in specific ways.

2.2.2 Ecolinguistic Perspective

Learning about discourse in the form of text with the theme of njara is

very close to the concept of ecolinguistic because njara is a part of the socio-

cultural life of the East Sumba community in NTT. Mbete (2012: 11) argues that

the educational path of families, schools and communities are the infrastructures

that ensure the die-off of language in an ecolinguistic perspective, especially in

viewing language as something alive, and placing applied linguistics especially

ecolinguistic as life science and language life in man, society, and culture.

Rewriting the local natural and cultural potential as well as Indonesian and foreign

languages for the contextual and thematic reading and learning of language

materials are means of transmitting language and culture to young generation.

2.2.3 Ecotext

Ecotext stands for ecology text. It consists of two terms ecology and text.

Ecology is the study of the relationship between all living organism and their

environment, (https://quizlet.com). In line with that Lier (2004:3) states that

originally, ecology was the study and management of the environment (ecosphere,

or biosphere) or specific ecosystem, it is also the study of movement, process, and

action (p11), while text is the verbal record of a communicative act, (Brown and

Yule, 1983). Thus, ecotext is a text that consists of the verbal record of the

relationship in communicative act between the students and their environment

through language by movement, process, and action. The content of the text is

about East Sumbanese cultural lives, mainly about horse ‘njara’, an animal that is

regarded as the symbol of pride of East Sumba regency and Sumba Island as a

whole.

2.2.4 The discourse of njara in East Sumbanese culture

Njara is a cultural symbol of East Sumba society. Many sides of the

society living in Sumba Island including east Sumba intersect with horses ‘njara’.

The cultural realities that use njara in their specific names are described below.

1. Horses for customary marriage affairs of East Sumbanese are called njara huri.

They are used for belis ‘Traditional marriage ceremony’.2. Horses for affairs of death are called njara dangangu. They are used at the time

of burial ceremony.3. Horses for financial affairs are called njara padagangngu. They are used for

barter and freight system. 4. Horses for transportation means are called njara pakaliti. They are used when

making a living and while fighting or in a war. The horses used in

transportation for carrying things or food are called njara pakalatungu.5. Horses as means for hunting and shepherding are called njara patamangu.

6. Horses for recreational purposes, such as for horse racing are called njara

palangu and horses that can dance are called njara ma pingu parenja.7. Horses function as the symbol of majesty are called njara miting.8. Horses for self identity, for pictures on woven fabric, they are called rupa

njara, for miniature on gold jewelry, they are called ama kaha'la njara, and for

ornaments on the tombstone, they are called kaha'la njara.

2.2.5 Writing skills

Brown (2004: 218) said that in the field of second language teaching, the

experts were saying that writing was primarily a convention for recording speech

and for reinforcing grammatical and lexical features of language. Writing is a

unique skill that has its own characteristics and rules. Learning to write well in

any language is not easy, even writing in our native language. Yule (2010: 2012)

states that :

“ We can define writing as the symbolic representation of languagethrough the use of graphic signs. It is a system that is not simply acquired,but has to be learned through sustained conscious effort”.

2.2.6 Descriptive Text

In term of descriptive text, Tompkins (1994) and Stanley (1988) defined

descriptive text as painting pictures with words. By reading a descriptive text,

readers feel that they see the description just like they see pictures. Descriptive

text has the purpose to describe an object or a person that the writer is interested

in. Thus, in writing a descriptive text the writers should know well what they want

to describe. They describe their ideas and thought vividly based on what they see,

hear, taste, smell, or touch. Descriptive writing describes a person, place, or thing,

Valencia (2002:77). Thus, a descriptive text is text that aims to picture people,

objects, animals, and places or certain events with words in order the readers can

visualize the description just like they see pictures.

2.2.7 Descriptive Text Structure

A descriptive text has generic structure. It consists of two parts which

become its characteristics. Each part has its own function as explained below:

1) Identification

This section is used to introduce the subject to be described. The subjects

can be people, objects, animals, and places or certain events.

Example, There is a new teacher in my school. Her name is Ms. Nina. She teaches English.

2) Description

This section discusses the characteristics of the subject being described

(attributes of things). Such characteristics may include the physical appearance,

shape, color, quality, behavior, and traits possessed by the subject.

Example,

Ms. Nina is a pretty woman. She is about 28 years hold. She is whiteand slim. She has long curly blond hair. She has an oval face with big roundeyes. I think she is a nice teacher. She is very patient and smart. After all,she is a hardworking teacher.

(Aryanto, 2009:3-4)

2.3 Theoretical framework

Some theories used in this research are text-based approach theory in

language teaching and learning, the theory of language learning in ecolinguistic

perspective, and writing theory. This theoretical framework is used as the base for

analyzing the finding in this research.

2.3.1 The Text-Based Approach

Text-based approach is the approach that is used in the 2013 curriculum

for all language subjects at schools in Indonesia. Richards (2006:6, 27) said that

text-based approach is one of the approaches to achieve the goal of

communicative language teaching – to develop students’ communicative

competence which involves being able to use different kinds of spoken and

written texts in the specific contexts of their use. Communicative competence

includes the following aspects of language knowledge:

i. knowing how to use language for a range of different purposes and functions.ii. knowing how to vary our use of language according to the setting and the

participants (e.g., knowing when to use formal and informal speech or when to

use language appropriately for written as opposed to spoken communication) iii. knowing how to produce and understand different types of texts.iv. knowing how to maintain communication despite having limitations in one’s

language knowledge (e.g., through using different kinds of communication

strategies)

According to Feez and Joyce (1998) as cited by Richards (2006: 36), TBA

is thus based on an approach to teaching language which involves:

a) teaching explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and

written texts.b) linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use.c) designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation to whole

texts.

d) providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for

meaningful communication through whole texts.Further, Richards (2006:37), commented that according to this view,

students in different contexts have to master the use of the text types occurring

most frequently in specific contexts. These contexts might include studying in an

English-medium primary or secondary school. These are identified through need

analysis and through the analysis of language as it is used in different settings.

However, the syllabus also usually specifies other components of texts, such as

grammar, vocabulary, topics, and functions; hence, it is a type of mixed syllabus,

one which integrates reading, writing, and oral communication, and which teaches

grammar through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation. For the need of this research, especially in teaching writing descriptive

discourse, the researcher modifies and uses the idea of Feez and Joyce (1998: 28–

31) on how a text-based approach is implemented as follows: I. Phase 1: Building the Context (BC)

In this stage, students: a) Are introduced to the social context of an authentic model of the text type

being studied. b) Explore features of the general cultural context in which the text type is

used and the social purposes the text type achieves. c) Explore the immediate context of situation by investigating the register of

a model text which has been selected on the basis of the course objectives

and students need. An exploration of register involves: 1. Building knowledge of the topic of the model text and knowledge of

the social activity in which the text is used.2. Understanding the roles and relationships of the people using the text

and how these are established and maintained.Context-building activities include:

i. Presenting the context through pictures, audiovisual materials, realia,

excursions, field-trips, guest speakers, etc. ii. Establishing the social purpose through discussions or surveys, etc.

II. Phase 2: Modeling and Deconstructing the Text (MDT) In this stage, students:

a) Investigate the structural pattern and language features of the model b) Compare the model with other examples of the same text type.

Feez and Joyce (1998) comment that “modeling and deconstruction

are undertaken at both the whole text, clause, and expression levels. III. Phase 3: Joint Construction of the Text (JCoT)

In this stage: 1. Students begin to contribute to the construction of whole examples of the

text type. 2. The teacher gradually reduces the contribution to text construction, as the

students move closer to being able to control text type independently.

Joint-construction activities include:

a) Teacher questioning, discussing and editing whole class construction, then

scribing onto board or overhead transparency.b) Skeleton texts c) information-gap activities d) Small-group construction of text

IV. Phase 4: Independent Construction of the Text (ICoT) In this stage: 1. Students work independently with the text. 2. Student performances are used for achievement assessment. Independent

construction activities include: i. Writing tasks which demand that students draft and present whole texts.

In this forth phase, students will be trained to develop their own

competence in writing English descriptive text. Because this approach will be

used together with ecolinguistic approach, students will produce their own

descriptive text through experience with their environment both inside and outside

the classroom. Experiential learning is self-evident that experience gained through

life, education and work plays a central role in the process of learning and this

perspective on learning is called ‘experiential learning’ or ‘learning by doing’, Fry

(2012:14). Experiential language teaching (ELT) initially grew out of educational

and psychological theories proposing that a subject is learned best if students are

involved in concrete, hands-on experiences with the subject. The belief is that

students will learn better if they use the language as opposed to being passive

receptors of artificial language. It is also thought that students will be able to

analyze and discover their own information about the topic and language use as

they are involved with tasks or projects. In language teaching, ELT creates

situations in which students use their new language instead of just learning about

it, Norland & Pruett-Said (2006:25).

This approach is also based on constructivism theory of learning. Bada &

Olusegun (2015:66, 67) stated that Constructivism is an approach to teaching and

learning based on the premise that cognition (learning) is the result of "mental

construction." In other words, students learn by fitting new information together

with what they already know. It says that people construct their own

understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and

reflecting on those experiences.

Tam (2000) cited by Bada & Olusegun (2015:68) listed four basic

characteristics of Constructivist Learning Environments. Those are,

1) knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.

2) teachers and students will share authority.

3) the teacher’s role is one of a facilitator or guide.

4) learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Further Honebein (1996) cited by Bada & Olusegun (2015:68)

summarized seven pedagogical goals of Constructivist Learning Environments as:

1) to provide experience with the knowledge construction process (students

determine how they will learn).

2) to provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives (evaluation

of alternative solutions).

3) to embed learning in realistic contexts (authentic tasks).

4) to encourage ownership and a voice in the learning process (student centered

learning).

5) to embed learning in social experience (collaboration).

6) to encourage the use of multiple modes of representation, (video, audio text,

etc.)

7) to encourage awareness of the knowledge construction process (reflection,

metacognition).

Bhattacharjee (2015: 67) stated that constructivist theoretical framework

holds that learning always builds upon knowledge that a student already knows;

this prior knowledge is called a schema. Because all learning is filtered through

pre-existing schemata, constructivists suggest that learning is more effective when

a student is actively engaged in the learning process rather than attempting to

receive knowledge passively. Wilson & Cole (1991) quoted by Bhattacharjee

(2015: 67) stated the concepts that are considered central to the constructivist

instructional design are as follows.

1. Learning is embedded in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;

2. Authentic versus academic contexts for learning are provided;

3. Provisions for students control are incorporated;

4. Errors are used as a mechanism to provide feedback on students‟

understanding; and

5. Learning is embedded in social experience.

The 2013 curriculum that emphasizes the importance of the balance of

competence of attitudes, knowledge, and skills, and English proficiency are

shaped through continuous learning: beginning by increasing the knowledge

competence of the types, rules, and context of a text and then followed by the

performance of a well-written and orally both planned or spontaneous with proper

pronunciation and intonation, and leading to the formation of a politeness-based

attitude.

In accordance with the approach used in the Curriculum 2013, students are

invited to be courageous to find other learning resources available and stretched

around. Teachers can enrich it with creations in a variety of other proper and

relevant activities which are sourced from the social and natural environment. In

this study, the environment that will be used as a learning resource for writing

descriptive English discourse is the cultural life environment of students who are

mostly Sumbanese tribe and domicile in Waingapu town, the capital city of East

Sumba regency, NTT.

2.3.2 Theory of language learning in Ecolinguistic perspective

Language ecology may be defined as the study of interactions between any

given language and its environment (Haugen, 1972:323). Ecolinguistic is the

study of language according to the environment it is used in. The term emerged in

the 1990’s as a new paradigm of language study that speculates not only the intra-

relations, the inter-relations, and the extra- relations of language and environment,

but also combinations of these relations, (Derni, 2008:22). Lier (2004: 4-8)

presents 10 characteristics of language learning in the following ecolinguistic

perspectives. For the need of this research, the researcher takes 6 of those 10

characteristics below by the reason that these six characteristics are regarded

suitable with the implementation of text based approach using ecotext to improve

the skill in writing descriptive text of the 7th grade students of SMP Kristen Payeti.

1) Relations

Ecological linguistics (EL) focuses on language as relations between

people and the world‚ and on language learning as ways of relating more

effectively to people and the world. The crucial concept is that of

affordance‚ which means a relationship between an organism (a student‚ in our

case) and the environment‚ that signals an opportunity for or inhibition of action.

The environment includes all physical‚ social and symbolic affordances that

provide grounds for activity. While the relation is meant in language learning is

the relationship between language, learning, activity, and curriculum.

2) Context

EL regards context as not just something that surrounds language‚ but that

in fact defines language‚ while at the same time being defined by it. A common

piece of advice in research is “to take the context into account.” Such advice

raises questions like how‚ how much‚ what aspects of the context‚ and so on. It

also suggests that contextual information is added on to whatever is

investigated‚ in a supplementary sort of way. But in ecology‚ context is the heart

of the matter

3) Emergence

EL regards language learning not as gradual‚ linear acquisition‚ but as

emergence. Emergence happens when relatively simple elements combine

together to form a higher-order system. The whole is not only more than the sum

of its parts‚ it is of a different nature than the parts. The new system is on a

different scale‚ and has different meanings and patterns of functioning than the

simpler ingredients had from which it emerged. In language‚ grammar emerges

from lexis (Bates & Goodman‚ 1999)‚ symbols emerge from tools

(Vygotsky‚ 1978)‚ learning emerges from participation (Lave & Wenger‚ 1991).

Language proficiency emerges from all these transformations.

4) Quality

EL makes the notion of quality a central construct to be investigated. The

quality of educational experience is seen to be crucially different from educational

standards‚ though a valid ecological aim of education is to harmonize quality and

standards‚ by investigating both how they are different and how they are related.

Arne Naess pointed out long ago that quality of life is not the same as standard of

living. Our standard of living may be so high that we have three shiny cars parked

in front of the house. If everybody’s standard of living is this high‚ our quality of

life may be reduced because the air is polluted‚ the noise level increases‚ and we

can’t walk around the neighborhood any more. The same may be true (in different

ways‚ of course) in education: there may be so much focus on higher standards

that there are tougher and tougher tests all the time‚ and there is no more time for

music‚ field trips‚ art‚ and just exploring knowledge and broadening one’s mind.

5) Variability

A teacher might proudly announce: “I treat them all the same.” But

children – students of all ages for that matter – are all different‚ so that equal

treatment is surely a doubtful pedagogical practice. There are many differences

among students that are relevant to their educational opportunities in general‚ and

their classroom learning opportunities in particular. A good teacher understands

the students‚ and this means taking the differences into account. However‚ there is

also variability at a much more macro level: educational systems‚ far from being

the equalizers that policy makers suggest they are‚ actually manufacture

inequalities across regional and socio–economic fault lines. Not all schools are

created equal in any country‚ so that school systems both homogenize and select

at the same time‚ however paradoxical this may seem.

6) Activity

Ecological linguistics studies language and language learning as areas of

activity. Gone is the picture of a classroom with rows of empty heads passively

soaking up knowledge issuing forth (in the form of pedagogical discourse) from

the talking head at the front of the room. Instead‚ we visualize a community of

practice in which students go about the business of learning by carrying out

activities of various kinds‚ working together‚ side by side‚ or on their own. In this

ecosystem‚ students are autonomous‚ i.e.‚ they are allowed to define the meaning

of their own acts within their social context (Shotter 1984‚ p. 147‚ cited in

Oyama‚ 2000‚ p. 189). Autonomy in an ecological approach does not mean

independence or individualism‚ however. It means having the authorship of one’s

actions‚ having the voice that speaks one’s words‚ and being emotionally

connected to one’s actions and speech (Damasio‚ 2003)‚ within one’s community

of practice (Wenger‚ 1998). This type of autonomy is dialogical in Bakhtin’s sense

(1981): socially produced‚ but appropriated and made one’s own.

Mbete (2013) suggests that language of the ecology is wide. It is not only

limited to lexicon. The discourse about environment is also the research object in

the sense of language ecology. Ecological language is a verbal form that contains

the meaning of the environment. The ecological language is a product of culture, a

product of human and society. The community knowledge (perception) about

environmental contents, both visible and invisible are verbally recorded in various

lexicon (lexicalized forms). The treasury of the lexicon lives and inherits from

generation to generation. New lexicon forms that are used grammatically and

creatively are facts of the cultural process result in material and non-material

(ideological) cultures. The ecological language is a corpus of language which

content describes the environment, both macro and human environment (with the

culture) as micro. Linguistically, the ecological language has lexicons, sentences,

poetical texts, song lyrics, discourse as products of social practice and social

discourse.

Furthermore Mbete said that in relation to critical ecolinguistic, ethnic

heritage in the form of local wisdom of ancestral heritage in verbal texts needs to

be explored and empowered for environmental sustainability. Preservation and

sustainability of the natural environment with its diversity, ensuring the

sustainability of people and cultures with their diversity or variation.

2.3.3 The Theory of Writing

Rosenblatt (1988:7) stated that writing, we know, is always an event in

time occurring at a particular moment in the writer`s biography, in particular

circumstances, under particular pressures, external as well as internal. In short, the

writer is always transacting with a personal, social, and cultural environment. (We

shall see that the writer transacts also with the very text being produced). Thus the

writing process must be seen as always embodying both personal and social, or

individual and environmental factors. According to Flower and Hayes (1981) in

Hurd and Lewis (2008:104), writing is a complex cognitive process involving the

writer’s long-term memory where knowledge of the topic, audience and writing

plans are stored; the task environment, including the rhetorical problem and the

text produced so far and writing sub processes such as idea-generation, goal-

setting, organizing, reviewing, evaluating and revising. Thus, Writing intertwines

communicative purposes, cultural and social perspectives, and linguistic features.

There are several theories related to writing used to analyze the findings in

this study, including types of writing performance, topics and genres, theory of

paragraph, syntax theory in descriptive text, writing process, and rating model of

writing. They are explained in detail as follows:

2.3.3.1 Types of Writing Performance

Brown (2004: 220) suggests four categories of written performance that

capture the range of written production as follows: A. Imitative. To produce written language, students must attain skills in the

fundamental, basic task of writing letters, words, punctuation and very brief

sentences. This category includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive

phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling system. It is a

level in which students are trying to master the mechanic system of writing.

At this stage, form is the primary if not exclusive focus, while context and

meaning are in second concern. B. Intensive (controlled). Beyond the fundamentals of imitative writing are skills

in producing appropriate vocabulary within context, collocations and idioms

and correct grammatical features up to the length of a sentence. Meanings and

contexts are of some importance in determining correctness and

appropriateness, but most assessment tasks are more concerned with the focus

on form and are rather strictly controlled by the test design.C. Responsive. Here assessment task require students to perform at a limited

discourse level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically

connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. Task responds to pedagogical

directives, list of criteria, outlines, and other guidelines. Genres of writing

include brief narratives and descriptions, short reports, lab reports,

summaries, brief responses to reading, and interpretation of charts and graphs.

Under specified condition, the writer begins to exercise some freedom of

choice among alternative forms of expression of ideas. The writer have to

master the fundamentals of sentence-level grammar and to be more focused

on the discourse conventions that will achieve the objective of the written

text. Form-focused attention is mostly at the discourse level with the strong

emphasis on context and meaning. D. Extensive. Extensive writing implies successful management of all the

processes and strategies of writing for all purposes up to the length of an

essay, a term paper, a major research project report, or even a thesis. The

writer focuses on achieving a purpose, organizing, and developing ideas

logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas, demonstrating syntactic

and lexical variety, and in many cases engaging in the process of multiple

drafts to achieve a final product. Focus on grammatical form is limited to

occasional editing or proofreading of a draft.

2.3.3.2 Topics and Genres

Harmer (2001: 252-253) argues that if students are interested in the topics

we are asking them to write about, they are unlikely to invest their language

production with the same amount of effort as they would if they were excited by

the subject matter. If they are completely unfamiliar with the genre we are asking

them to write in, for example, they may find it difficult to engage with the task we

have given them.

To be successful in writing, it helps if we know what we are going to write

about. However the variety in a general English classroom sometimes means that

students are asked to write about a topic they have little knowledge of.

When students with language limitation are asked to work with topics that

do not interest them, perhaps in unfamiliar genres, and without the necessary

information, then language production activities suffer. We need to have ways of

avoiding such a scenario as explained below:

a. Choose interesting topics

It is important to try a form of task (topic) that can involve students in the

classroom. We can find out students` favorite topics through interviews,

questionnaires, and observations.

b. Create interest in the topic

Because we want students to be involved in a given task, we should create

an interest in the topic to be written by talking about the topic and

communicating enthusiasm. We can ask students to discuss the topic in `buzz

groups` (divide them into some small groups) to get them involved in it, or we

can ask the group if anyone knows anything about the topic and can ,therefore,

tell the others about it. We can ask students to think about what they might

write and give them opportunities to come up with opinions about the topic

before the activities start.

c. Activate schema

Although students have been interested in the topic, they may find it

difficult to take part in any enthusiasm if they are unfamiliar with the genre of

the assigned task. For this reason, we must show the same typical writing

examples as the assigned tasks.

d. Provide necessary information

When we plan a writing task, we need to ask the students much-needed

information to do the task. Provide necessary information before they start

writing. We cannot ask them to write descriptive texts if they do not have the

necessary information to describe something, a person, an object, or an animal.

2.3.3.3 Theory of Paragraph

In addition, Keraf (2004: 69-70) states that paragraph is nothing other than

a unity of mind, a unity higher or wider than a sentence. It is the set of related

sentences in a series to form an idea. Through paragraphs we can distinguish

where a theme starts and ends. In line with this, Hogue (2008:4) said that a

paragraph is a group of related sentences about a single topic. Simpen (2008: 22-

23) said that paragraph is a unity of mind that is wider than the sentence. A

paragraph contains one main thought or one idea supported by several explanatory

sentences. All sentences in a paragraph should be centered on the basic sentence.

Hogue continued that the topic of a paragraph is one, and only one, idea. A

paragraph has three main parts.

1. Topic sentence The first sentence in a paragraph is a sentence that names the topic and

tells what the paragraph will explain about the topic. This sentence is called the

topic sentence.

2. Supporting sentences

The middle sentences in a paragraph are called the supporting sentences.

Supporting sentences give examples or other details about the topic.

3. Concluding sentence

The last sentence in a paragraph is called the concluding sentence. A

concluding sentence often repeats the topic sentence in different words or

summarizes the main points.

Furthermore, Keraf says that the formation of a paragraph at least has a

purpose:

a) to facilitate understanding and comprehending by divorcing a theme with

another theme. Therefore, every paragraph, can only contain one theme. For

the writer, the paragraph aims to focus the main idea in one unity (Simpen:

2008: 25)b) to separate and confirm the stops fairly and formally, to enable us to stop

longer than the stop at the end of the sentence.

There are some kinds of paragraph in writing. Keraf (2004:71-83) devided

the paragraph into:

1. Opening paragraph

Each type of essay will have a paragraph that opens or delivers the subject

in the passage. The short opening paragraph is much better, because long

paragraphs will only cause the boredom of the readers.

2. Connecting Paragraph

Connecting paragraphs will be all paragraphs between the opening and

closing paragraphs. The essence of the matter which the writer will present is in

these paragraphs.

3. Closing paragraph

The closing paragraph is a paragraph which is intended to end the essay or

part of the essay. In other words, this paragraph contains the conclusions of what

has been described in the connecting paragraphs. In good writing, there are four

ways to place a topic sentence or the main sentence. Those are,

a) at the beginning of the paragraph

The initial sense of this paragraph may be in the first sentence or the

second sentence. First, put forward the main subject which are then followed by

the detailed descriptions.

b) at the end of the paragraph

The topic sentence can also be placed at the end of the paragraph. In this

case, the paragraph is inductive. Such paragraphs should be arranged in such a

way that they can reach the climax in the main sentence at the end of the

paragraph.

c) in the beginning and end of paragraph

The topic sentence can also be placed at the beginning and end of the

paragraph. In this case, the last sentence often repeats the idea in the first sentence

with little pressure or variation.

d) throughout the paragraph

The topic or main sentence can also be contained throughout the

paragraph. In this case there is no special sentence that becomes the subject line.

Such a paragraph is mainly found in descriptive or narrative descriptions.

2.3.3.4 Writing process

Brandvik & McKnight (2013: 118-119) argue that writing activities, as a

process, requires repetition with many steps as follows.

I. Prewriting (activities before writing). This is the preparation time before

starting to write the first draft. This step helps the authors generate and

explore ideas for the topic of writing and is essential for achieving success in

the overall writing process. The pre-writing stage is generally defined by idea

generation, shaping, refining, and organization (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992) in

Hurd and Lewis (2008:108). II. Drafting (drafting). A finished result will usually go through several drafts. In

the first draft, students write ideas quickly in rough drafts without worrying

about neatness or improvement. Not all drafts are taken in the whole writing

process. These drafts will go through further revisions and improvements in

subsequent draft writing. A first draft is not the final version of your writing.

In fact, you will revise your first draft several times and will make changes in

both content and wording (Valencia, 2002:80).III. Revising and Editing (revision and editing). The revision is to review the

writing. Making early changes might put ideas and circuits appropriately. The

subsequent drafts will take into account the rearrangement, re-establishment,

and unify the parts that exist into a unity. The latter revision requires

proofreading (making a few changes better than ever), polishing (polishing /

refining work) and editing (editing). Revising requires several readings of the

first draft. You must first consider each sentence in relation to the paragraph

and to the writing as a whole (Valencia, 2002:80). Further, Hurd and Lewis

(2008:111-113) said that revising strategies may be used at any point during

the writing process. IV. Presenting and Publishing (presentation and publishing). This is a stage often

deleted in school writing activities. The students only write for the teacher.

Today we will encourage them to write and deliver the results in front of

various audiences. These activities include reading aloud in front of the class,

in groups, or in public forums. Present the paper to someone outside the

classroom, show it off, or submit it for publication purposes.

2.3.4 The Descriptive Text

Semi (1990: 42), affirms that the descriptive text aims to give details about

an object so that it can affect the imagination of the readers or listeners as if they

hear, see, feel or experience the object directly. Objects can be people, things,

animals, and something that are described. Tompkins (1994) and Stanley (1988)

defined descriptive text as painting pictures with words. By reading a descriptive

text, readers feel that they see the description just like they see pictures.

Descriptive text has the purpose to describe an object or a person that the writer is

interested in. They describe their ideas and thought vividly based on what they

see, hear, taste, smell, or touch. Descriptive writing describes a person, place, or

thing, Valencia (2002:77). Aryanto (2009: 4) suggests the characteristics of the

language of descriptive text that distinguishes it from the other types of texts as

follows:

1. Using the simple present tense to explain the characteristics of the subjects

discussed, for example, She is my English teacher.2. Using certain nouns: My English teacher, My house, My cat, and Our school.3. Using detailed noun phrases to provide information about the subject, for

example, a sweet young lady, a comfortable small house, a rare plant, a sandy

beach and a very kind-hearted old man.4. Using a variety of adjectives for describing, numbering, and classifying, such

as two strong horns, four sharp claws, and two big round eyes.5. Using related verbs to provide information about the subject, eg: it is white in

color, it has a beautiful voice, it is really kind, the park is near the traditional

market, and Bandung is south of Jakarta.6. Using thinking verbs or feeling verbs to express personal views of the author

on the subject, for example, I think he is the best teacher in my school, I think

my house is a nice person to live, and feel he is a nice person.7. Using analogy or figurative language, such as she is as sweet as candy, Paul is

white as chalk, and the room is as cold as in the polar.8. Using action verbs to explain the subject's behavior or habits, for example, she

never comes late, it always sings every morning, and my father goes to work

early in the morning.

2.3.5 ESL Composition Profile

To evaluate the level of achievement of students in writing descriptive

essay, then the teacher must assess the students` descriptive writing using the

predefined standards. The table of scale for rating composition tasks follows the

ESL Composition Profile by Jacobs et al (1981:236-237). It consists of scoring the

content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics. It can be seen

clearly in the table below.

Table 2.1 ESL Composition Profile (Jacobs et al, 1981: 236-237)

Analysis Level CriteriaContent 30-27 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: #knowledgeable #substantive

development of thesis #relevant to assigned topic.26-22 GOOD TO AVERAGE: #sure knowledge of subject

#adequate range #limited development of thesis #mostlyrelevant to topic but lacks detail

21-17 FAIR TO POOR: #limited knowledge of subject #littlesubstance #inadequate development of topic.

16-13 VERY POOR: #does not show knowledge of subject #non-substantive #not pertinent #OR not enough to evaluate.

Organization 20-18 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: fluent expression #ideasclearly stated/supported #succinct #well-organized #logicalsequencing #cohesive

17-14 GOOD TO AVERAGE: somewhat choppy #loosely organizedbut main idea stand out #limited support #logical butincomplete sequencing.

13-10 FAIR TO POOR: non-fluent #ideas confused or disconnected#lacks logical sequencing and development.

9-7 VERY POOR: does not communicate #no organization #ORnot enough to evaluate.

Vocabulary 20-18 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: sophisticated range#effective word/idiom choice and usage #word form mastery#appropriate register.

17-14 GOOD TO AVERAGE: adequate range #occasional errors ofword/idiom form, choice, usage but meaning not obscured.

13-10 FAIR TO POOR: limited range #frequent errors ofword/idiom form choice, usage #meaning confused orobscured.

9-7 VERY POOR: essentially translation #little knowledge ofEnglish vocabulary, idiom, word form #OR not enough toevaluate.

Language

Use

25-22 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: effective, complexconstructions #few errors of agreement, tense, number, wordorder/function, articles, pronouns, preposition.

21-18 GOOD TO AVERAGE: effective but simple construction,minor problems in complex construction #several error of

agreement, tense, number, word order/ function, articles,pronouns, prepositions, but meaning seldom obscured.

17-11 FAIR TO POOR: major problems in simple/complexconstruction #frequent errors of negation, agreement, tense,number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositionsand/or fragments, run-ons, deletions #meaning confused orobscured.

10-5 VERY POOR: virtually no mastering of sentence contructionrules #dominated by errors #does not communicate, OR or notenough to evaluate.

Mechanic 5 EXCELENT TO VERY GOOD: demonstrate mastery ofconventions #few errors of spelling, punctuation,capitalization, paragraphing.

4 GOOD TO AVERAGE: occasional errors of spelling,punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, but meaning notobscured.

3 FAIR TO POOR: frequent errors of spelling, punctuation,capitalization, paragraphing #poor hand writing, meaningconfused/obscured.

2 VERY POOR: no mastery of conventions #dominated byerrors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing#handwriting illegible #OR not enough to evaluate.

2.3.6 Research model

To teach English as a foreign language in Junior High School level in East

Sumba is not easy, especially related to writing. The teachers are required to be

creative in order that the achievement of the curriculum can reach the target. One

form of learning that can be done to improve students' interest in learning English

is to include local wisdom/social and cultural environment of students such as

descriptive text themed njara using text based approach.

The design used in this research was experimental design. Dornyei

(2007:116) asserts that the answer to a cause-effect dilemma has been provided by

a simple but ingenious methodological idea that has been labelled `experimental

design`: first, take a group of learners and do something special with/to them,

while measuring their progress. Then compare their results with data obtained

from another group that is similar in every aspect to the first group except for the

fact that it did not receive the special treatment. If there is any discrepancy in the

result of the two groups, this can be attributed to the only difference between

them, the treatment variable. A typical experimental design would be an

intervention study which contains at least two groups: the `treatment` or

`experimental group`, which receives the treatment or which is exposed to some

special conditions, and the `control group`, whose role is to provide a baseline for

a comparison.

In this study, the researcher used true experimental design model in the

form of pretest-posttest control design. In this design there were two groups

chosen randomly. One group became experimental group and the other acted as

control group. Both groups were given a pretest to know their competence and

performance in writing descriptive text, then experimental group was treated by

applying text based approach using ecotext to improve the skill in writing

descriptive text, and after that, they were given a posttest to know their

improvement in writing descriptive text. The design in the experimental method

of this model can be described as follows:

R O1 (X) O2O3 (-X) O4

Description:

R = Random

O1= Experiment group pretest

O2= Experiment group posttest

O3= Control group pretest

O4= Control group posttest

X = Treatment.

Table 2.2 Planning paradigm of Pretest-Posttest Control Design.

Group Pretest Treatment PosttestExperimentgroup

O1 Applying Text-Based Approach Using Ecotextwith the theme njara

O2

Controlgroup

O3 Conventional Approach without Ecotext O4

The effectiveness or the influence of independent variable to dependent

variable can be seen from the difference of pretest scores (O1) and Posttest (O2).

If there is a difference between the pretest and posttest scores in which the posttest

score is significantly higher than the pretest score, it can be concluded that the

treatment provided has an effect or effective on the changes occurring on the

dependent variable.

The research design with true experimental design model is pretest-posttestcontrol design as follows.

Applying Text-Based Approach using Ecotext to improve DescriptiveWriting Skill of the 7th Graders of SMP Kristen Payeti, East Sumba

1. How is the result of descriptive writing skill of the 7thgraders of SMP Kristen Payeti before the implementation oftext-based approach using ecotext with the theme horse

2. How is the strategy to apply text-based approach usingecotext with the theme of horse `njara` in improving descriptivewriting skill of the 7th graders of SMP Kristen Payeti?

3. How is the improvement of the descriptive writing skill of the 7thgraders of SMP Kristen Payeti after the implementation of text-based approach using ecotext with the theme horse `njara`?

Pretest-Posttest control design

Pretest

Control classExperiment class

Ecolinguistics theory

Text-based approach Conventional approach

Writing theory

Posttest

Thesis

The findings

Based on this design, there were some steps implemented in order to

obtain the data for this thesis. The steps were to answer the problems in this

research. The first step began with the stage before the treatment, the next steps

dealt with the process during the treatment and the last step included the activities

after the treatment. The detail steps are described below.

1. Observing the teaching and learning process in the classrooms, interviewing

the English teacher, choosing and demining the experiment and control class

randomly, and distributing questionnaires to students which were intended to

get qualitative data about the process of teaching and learning descriptive text.

The pretest was given to the students in order to answer the formulation of the

first problem quantitatively and qualitatively, that is about how the result of the

skill in writing descriptive text of the 7th grade students of SMP Kristen Payeti

before the implementation of text-based approach using ecotext with the theme

horse `njara` was. The data obtained on both qualitative and quantitative were

analyzed using the theory of text-based approach, ecolinguistic perspective,

and theory of writing.2. Doing treatment to both experiment and control classs. The experimental class

were treated using ecotext with the theme horse `njara` mainly Sumba racing

horse `njara palapangu`, phases in text-based approach, ecolinguistic

perspective, and theory of writing involving topics and genre, paragraph

theory, syntax theory in descriptive writing, and the process of writing, while

the control class was treated using the descriptive text about animals outside

Sumba, the conventional approach including conventional theory, strategy, and

method without ecotext. The second stage was to answer the second problem

qualitatively.3. Performing posttest after the treatment to experimental class by writing ecotext

`njara palapangu` in English and to control class in the form of writing

English descriptive essay with the same theme and then analyzing it using the

theory of writing mainly the ESL `Composition Profile by Jacobs et al` and the

ecolinguistic perspective according to Lier. The third stage was used to answer

the formulation of the third problem quantitatively and qualitatively.