39

Chapter II

Review of Literature

Introduction:

Review of literature is a survey and discussion of the literature in a given area

of the study. It is concise overview of what has been studied, argued, and established

about the topic, and it is usually organized chronologically or thematically, in review

of literature , the surveys, scholarly articles, books and others sources relevant to a

particular issue, area of research, or the theory, providing a description, summary and

critical evaluation of each work are reviewed. It is not a summary of the study: rather

it evaluates previews and current research with regard to how relevant it is and how it

relates to one’s own research. It usually has an organizational pattern and combines

both summery and synthesis to give a new interpretation of old material or combine

new with old interpretation and depending on the situation, review may evaluate the

sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant. Review of literature is

source and advises the reader on the most pertinent or relevant. Review of literature is

written in sassy format and discusses trends and developments rather than focusing on

one item at a time. The format of review of literature may vary from discipline to

discipline and from the assignment to assignment

The purpose of review of literature is to place each work in the context of its

contribution to the understanding of the research problems being studied to describe

the relationship of each work to the others under consideration to identify new ways

to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in previous research to resolve conflicts a

amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies to identify areas of prior

scholarship to prevent duplication of efforts to point the way in fulfilling a need for

additional research and to locate one’s own research within the context of existing

literature.

For the above purpose the review of literature has been divided into two parts.

The first part represents the studies conducted in India a second part represent the

studies conducted in abroad.

40

2.1 Studies Conducted in India

Das (2012) in his paper “drinking water and sanitation in rural madhya

pardesh : issues and challenges for policy” the writer presents a brief amount based on

primarily on available secondary sources of the current status of drinking water

supply and sanitation in rural Madhya Pardesh. A brief discussion on the poor

sanitation coverage of rural household in the state has been attempt. In addition to the

State’s role in enhancing the availability of water resources through rain water

harvesting. The writer concluded the paper with that the State’s effort for enhancing

the supply of water as not much as desired. Even the absence of laws providing for

curtailing excessive withdrawal of ground water has acted against the interest of better

and wider accesses of the resources. Further lack of useable and reliable database on

the coverage and related aspects has been a cause of concern. The scenario of rural

sanitation in state leaves much to be desired in the terms of the massive intervention

that is needed to raise the coverage from an unacceptable about 13 percent to

achieving what may be termed a situation of open- defecation Free State.

Malhotra at al. (2012) in his article “utilization of rural water supply and

sanitation services: a comparison among rural and urban consumers” the present study

was undertaken to access the utilization, problems faced by the respondents and the

action taken by them for water supply and sanitation services. The study was

conducted in rural and urban areas of Ludhiana district. For rural sample two villages

randomly selected and for urban sample two localities from Ludhiana city were

selected to collect the data. Interview schedule method was used to collect the data

from the respondents. Sixty respondents from each rural and urban were taken, thus

making the total sample size of 120. The paper concluded with findings that the

utilization of various water supply and sanitation services were less in rural areas as

compared to the urban areas which could be due to lack of awareness among the rural

people. While using the services majority of the respondents were tackled with many

problems but they are not even taken the single efforts to take any action. The writer

writes that the people should come forward to protect their rights rather than bearing

the problems. More avenue need to invest by the government to aware the masses

regarding the availability and maximum utilization of consumer protection services.

41

Fahimuddin (2012) in his study on “drinking water collection and cost benefits

analysis of rural water supply scheme in Uttarakhand state” this study accrued in

state of Uttrakhand, where the availability of safe drinking water has been a serious

problem. The study mainly focused on two issues, first was situational analysis of

various dimensions of drinking water collection in the state. The second issue was the

cost benefits analysis of a rural water supply scheme. The methodology was adopted

for the study was mainly basis of primary data collected from 102 households,

covering a population of 556 persons from the state. The paper concluded that the

state availability of safe drinking water has been a dependency on natural sources of

water. But due to their natural open flows, water gets contaminated and becomes

unsafe for human consumption. To make available the safe water to the people, state

government had installed many water supply schemes in the past, which could not be

successful because of lack of community participation in their operation and

maintenance.

Singh (2011) in his research paper on study on “quality of drinking water in

India” she point out the constitutional provisions for the requirement of water for

Indian masses and also explore contaminants and there limiting values. She also

explore the toxic limits of contaminants and their health risks in this paper the author

explain the water requirements of Indian population that ground water is the major

swore of drinking water in India and this only 0.61.10 of the available water on earth

and only 4’10 of worlds fresh water resource are available in India while Indian in

habitants 14per cent of the world population. This shows scarcity of water in India.

Article 47 of Indian constitution wets the possibility of providing safe drinking water

to public with the state government. The other objective of study the contamination of

drinking water after it contains suspension or dissolved impurities beyond d toxic

limits. The toxicity limits as prescribed. The suspension and colloidal particles are

unlived dissolved inorganic impurities some pullouts much lorgeinsizein if they settle

in body of water they will course added problem on toxicity. The study find out that

availability of safe water in adequate amount in India is still a major problem even

after 62 years of independence. There is scope for research engineering and chemistry

to convert available of water deliver safe water. This supply and main lenience of

safe drinking water is basic requirement of public water.

42

Singh (2009) in his study on “ why people participation?” underlined the direct

involvement of people and indirect involvement through their representative is very

essential for proper implementation of the project. It can be decision-making, in

implementation of development programmes and projects: in monitoring and

evaluation: and sharing of benefits. The People participate because they know their

needs, requirements & emergent problems. They try to enable the communities to

overcome problems and gains more control over natural resources. The people

participate to gain the knowledge through experience and wisdom of people. They get

help in implementation of development projects like RWSS. They should to make feel

part of it because they have stake of it. People should be motivated to achieve

expected goals. It’s also need to keep strict vigil. It’s also to ensure equality sharing of

benefits. It should be keep on their eyes on monitoring and evaluate qualitative

aspects of RWSS.

Jha (2010) in his paper on “access of the poor to water supply and sanitation in

india: salient concepts, issues and cases” he explore about the access to safe water is

necessary for lives and livelihoods. In India and mention that the mid-term assessment

reveals the country has already met its MDG (Millennium Development Goal) in

terms of expanding access to water infrastructure although in the parallel subsector of

sanitation progress is falling far short of the mark. In reality, most basic observations

indicate that water supply coverage is not as good as the figures show while national

sanitation continues to be poor even after almost six decades of efforts to eradicate

open defecation. It argues that economic, technical, institutional as well as social

factors constrain access to safe drinking water and proper sanitation in India for both

the urban and rural poor, and that coverage figures do not reflect this restricted access.

It finds that, increasingly, communities are being required to manage their own water

and sanitation schemes, not just in rural areas but in urban ones as well. There are

definite advantages to such an institutional arrangement if the transition to community

management is carried out smoothly. Often, however, the chances of success of

community management are vitiated because policy makers misunderstand and

misapply three interlinked concepts that are crucial to the success of community

managed water and sanitation schemes participation; water and sanitation burden; and

project ownership. The paper concludes by clarifying these concepts and the

implications and the policy implementation in this sector.

43

Government of India (2010) in “handbook for gram panchayats” which is

prepared by the Water and Sanitation Program for the Department of Drinking Water

Supply, Ministry of Rural Development, The handbook seeks to serve as a quick

reference for Gram Panchayats and Village Water and Sanitation Committees

(VWSC) on how to plan, implement, operate, maintain and manage water supplies

and to ensure their sustainability. The handbook is based on the National Rural

Drinking Water Program (NRDWP) guidelines. The focus of this handbook is to

ensure ‘Drinking Water Security’ in rural India which means providing every person

in rural India with enough water for drinking, cooking and other domestic needs at all

times and in all situations. The hand book information is mention first about

preparatory phase which included initial stage to panchayats get started and after that

the planning phase which mention about how do panchayats prepare a Village Water

Security plan and also the implementation phase which is clearly instructed about how

panchayats implement the plan. The hand book information also elaborate operation

and Maintenance phase which ease to learn to panchayats about operate and maintain.

The Monitoring, Audit and Reporting Phase in the last which accesses the information

to panchayats about monitor own progress and performance.

Khyalia (2009) his presentation on “community mobilization for development

intervention specifically water supply & sanitation Sector-Do’s and don’ts for the

professionals”, the strategy followed was to include people of all ages and make them

understand the need for open defecation- free living. That is a briefing by the

motivators regarding need for sanitation in the villages. Towards the next step

awaking and motivation students and women of the villages to come forward. The

next step was the formation of Swachtha Samiti under community led program

comprising of instinctively interested villagers to give better & healthier environment

to the community.

A-Islamail (2009) in his presentation on “improvement of communication,

change management and strategies for behaviour change communication at grass root

level” The organization seek to socialize newcomers and values so that they will

conform to the prescribed norm and values of the organization, perform their roles

efficiently and exhibit commitment to the organization . most organization usually

design a specific set of experience to instruct newcomers to the knowledge, attitudes

44

and necessary skills to perform their new roles in that organization however

relationships between socialization tactics and neglect other notable influences such

as communication messages and relationships that provides direct meaning to

employees’ socialization experiences. Messages from role set members are critical

because supervisor’s co-workers and subordinate can clarify, reinforce, and/ or

contradict organization message and have considerable influence on employee’s

attitude about their job and the organization.

Bhasin (2009) unit coordinator (M&E) his presentation on “monitoring and

evaluation frame work under Punjab Rural Water Supply and Sanitation”. He stressed

that the objective of the monitoring and evaluation system is to monitor the

programme implementation evaluation, to continuously learn about the corrections

during implementation wherever required to monitor the targets for the entire state.

Sharma (2009) study on “overview of procurement procedures as per World

bank Guidelines” said that role of the procurement is a valid alarm for promoting

good governance and batter fiscal management of project. Procurement is a critical

element in a project implementation and unless it is carried out efficiently and

promptly, the full benefits of the project cannot be realized. The World Bank

developed guidelines for procurement of goods, works, and consultancy.

Mehta (2009) presented on “overview of financial management and

accounting under Punjab Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project.” The financial

management manual gives detailed information on various financial & accounting

aspects like planning & budgeting, flows of funds from World Bank to various levels,

accounting policies, bookkeeping and accounting at SPMC , DPMC ,and GPWSCs

level financial reporting ,auditing etc. Since the participants are not from the field of

finance, such a detailed knowledge is not required by them. Only the relevant

information relating to financial management & accounting which every person who

is associated with PRWSS project should know is given hereunder.

Jha, and Sinha , 2009) in their study on 'towards better management of ground

water resources in India' have stated that groundwater is the most preferred source of

water in various user sectors in India on account of its near universal availability,

dependability and low capital cost. The increasing dependence on ground water as a

45

reliable source of water has resulted in indiscriminate extraction in various parts of

the country without due regard to the recharging capacities of aquifers and other

environmental factors. It is mentioned that there are areas in the country, where

ground water development is sub-optimal in spite of the availability of sufficient

resources, and canal command areas suffering from problems of water logging and

soil salinity due to the gradual rise in ground water levels. As per the latest

assessment, the annual replenish able ground water resource of the country has been

estimated as 433 billion cubic meter out of which 399 billion cubic meter is

considered to be available for development for various uses. It states that irrigation

sector remains the major consumer of ground water, accounting for 92 percent of its

annual withdrawal. The development of ground water in the country is highly uneven

and shows considerable variations from place to place. Though the overall stage of

ground water development is about 58 percent, the average stage of ground water

development in north western plain States is much higher (98 percent) when

compared to the Eastern Plain States (43 percent) and Central Plain States (42

percent). Management of ground water resources in the Indian context is found in

extremely complex proposition. The highly uneven distribution and its utilization

make it impossible to have single management strategy for the country as a whole. It

suggested that any strategy for scientific management of ground water resources

involve a combination of supply side and demand side measures depending on the

Regional setting. It mentions that the share of alluvial areas covering Eastern Plain

safts of Bihar, Orissa (part), Eastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal and North Wem

plain states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Chandigarh; is about

44 percent of the total available resource. However, these groups of states have

overall development of the order of 43 percent and 98 percent respectively. It suggests

a need to critically analyze the underlying factors responsible for the imbalances in

terms of technical and socio-economic considerations. It concludes that there is urgent

need for coordinated efforts by various Governments and nongovernmental agencies,

social service organizations and the stakeholders for evolving implementable plan for

effective management of this precious natural resource.

Water Aid (2008) report on “feeling the pulse, a study of the total sanitation

campaign in five states” This report is the outcome of a study undertaken to

understand the principles of what has worked and what has not worked in Total

46

Sanitation Campaign which is the national programme on reforms in rural sanitation

launched by the Government of India in 1999. The focus of this study is to draw

learning lessons from the implementation experience so far, for improved

effectiveness in the future. The study team is immensely grateful to women, men and

children of 40 Gram Panchayats in 20 blocks of 10 districts across 5 states of Bihar,

Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Karnataka, and Tripura .Methods used for generating

qualitative information included focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and

discussions. The report concluded with the result in states and districts where PRIs

have been actively involved in TSC, the results have been quicker and more

sustainable. lack of awareness of disaster risks related to floods, droughts,

earthquakes, landslides, cyclones and other events, and their possible impact on

sanitation facilities at the household and community levels women, poor and the

marginalised in total sanitation is skewed and undertaken on fairly unequal terms in

places visited in Bihar for example, no consultation with the poor dalit communities

even in NGP villages had taken place and women were not even aware of the

program.

Misra (2008) in her paper on “inefficiency water supply schemes in India” this

policy paper extracted from the world bank study on review of effectiveness of rural

water supply schemes in India, June 2008 .the author explore in this paper about the

inefficiency in cost management in rural water supply in India from e last one-and-a-

half decades, there has been an annual average expenditure of about one billion US

dollars in the rural water supply sector in India. This has led to an appreciable

increase in coverage (from 75 percent in 1997 to 97 percent in 2006, according to

official statistics), but the overall improvement in the provision of water supply in

rural areas has not been commensurate with the level of expenditure undertaken due

to inefficiencies and wastages of various kinds. The paper concluded with the to study

10 states on the Effectiveness of Rural Water Supply Schemes, undertaken by the

World Bank at the request of the Government of India, has looked at various aspects

of ‘inefficiency’ along with measures to address these issues.

Upadhyay (2007) highlighted the role of women groups in management of

water, livestock, forestry fishery and agriculture. It is stated that women are better

managers of natural resources and they are more sensitive o the issues. It is suggested

47

that it is important for the policy planners and development workers to understand the

significance of involvement of various stakeholders for conservation of natural

resources and their circumstances in which they operate. Their strengths such as

decision making, traditional knowledge and strength, and proper utilisation of

resources should be considered. It is stressed that local community based institutions

can bring desired results in resource conservation issues.

Menon, et.al (2007) in their study on, community based natural resource

management' elaborated the prominent role played by nongovernmental organizations

in south Asia for democratic decentralization and for promoting the sustainable use of

the natural resources. They further elaborated that they have made significant

contribution to livelihood enforcement for the needy people at the grassroots level and

their management and mobilisation practices are better bringing desired results in the

programmes. Further it states that there is need for more professional inputs from

NGOs and for sustainability of the programmes on community based natural

resources.

Feedback Ventures Private Limited (2006) sponsored by Punjab Rural Supply

and Sanitation Project of department of water supply and sanitation, Punjab that the

quality of ground water in the top prelatic aquifer is getting degraded in those parts of

the state where industrial effluents are being disposed off in water sources or on

agricultural land without any treatment. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Fluoride, Iron,

hardness and Chloride have been found to be the major water quality parameters

relevant to shallow groundwater quality in Punjab. The shallow groundwater quality

in many parts of Punjab is poor owing to natural pressure of salinity and fluoride at

concentrations exceeding the permissible levels for drinking water use. In addition,

the quality of shallow groundwater indicated bacteriological or chemical

contamination due to inadequate treatment and disposal of sludge, effluent from septic

tanks or industrial discharges. It further explains that about 54 percent of the total

12,267 villages in Punjab suffer from poor water quality conditions. Further it states

salinity is a significant problem in districts of Bathinda, Sangrur, Faridkot, Ferozepur,

Mansa, Moga and Muktsar prevalence of fluoride in groundwater is indicated in

Ludhiana, Faridkot, Sangrur, Jalandhar, Amritsar, Ferozepur and Patiala. In addition,

48

isolated pockets of Ludhiana and Bathinda have been reported to have presence of

heavy metals and pesticides. Respectively in shallow groundwater.

Department of Water Supply and Sanitation, Punjab (2006) states that the

consumption of contaminated water has caused serious health diseases in the State

like Flourishes’, blue baby syndrome due to nitrate, cancer, jaundice, hepatitis, skin

diseases, hair loss, infertility gastroentitis and situation would be more alarming for

the future generations.

Pavitra (2005) study on “inequalities in coverage of preventive child health

interventions: the rural drinking water supply program and the universal

immunization program in Rajasthan, India”. The objective of the study was assessed

the Rural Drinking Water Supply Program and the Universal Immunization Program

have achieved equitable coverage in Rajasthan, and explored program characteristics

that affect equitable coverage of prevention health intervention. The methodology

were used to achieve the said objective, a total of 2640 children were presenting at 12

primary health facilities in one district of Rajasthan were taken and classified into

economic quartiles based on possession of assets. Immunization coverage and prime

source of drinking water were compared across quartiles. The study concluded with

result that the rural drinking water supply has achieved fair coverage, while universal

immunization program coverage remains highly unbalanced. Program can make more

reasonable by formulating clear objectives to ensure physical access to all. Another is

to promoting the interventions demand by the poor, and enhancing the support and

monitoring of frontline workers who deliver these interventions.

Ramachandraiah (2004) in his book on “right to drinking water in India” write

that the Right to water has assumed greater significance in India in recent years.

Declarations by the United Nations and other international organisations, and judicial

pronouncements by the Supreme Court of India from time to time that right to water

is part of right to life as per Article 21 of the Constitution of India have, among

others, contributed to the growing awareness on this issue. That the State has the

obligation to protect and fulfil the fundamental rights of citizens, in this case

provision of clean drinking water as part of right to life, has not mattered much to the

condition of the poor in this regard. In addition to the lack of access to adequate

quantity of water, millions of poor have been suffering from the adverse

49

consequences of water contamination. There has been a paradigm shift towards

treating water as an economic good in India as a result of the structural adjustment

policies and the State has been adopting policies that favour the corporate business in

water sector. This paper analyses some of these issues and argues that the entry of the

corporate capital in water sector together with the role of the State in this sector, poses

a threat to the realization of the right to water for the poor and marginalized groups in

India. The paper further argues that the right to food campaign should strongly

incorporate the right to water in the struggle against hunger and starvation. The paper

concluded with the inadequate (or denial of) access to water and sanitation to the poor

in India has been going on for a long time even before the advent of economic

reforms. This has been happening despite the Supreme Court's rulings time and again

that access to clean drinking water is a fundamental right as part of right to life in

Article 21 of the Indian Constitution. Why is it that the same governments at State and

Central levels show such callous attitude to the problem of drinking water to poor

people even while adhering, in public postures, to the basic tenets of the Constitution?

The hold of the rich and powerful middle class groups over the State machinery, their

capacity to appropriate natural resources (public water at highly subsidized rate, in

this case), and the inability of the poor to mobilise themselves into effective pressure

groups over a longer period of time may be some possible explanations. The post-

liberalisation period since 1991, with the advent of the multinational capital, has made

the hold of these powerful groups on natural resources and the State machinery much

stronger. The enthusiasm of the State in executing large water projects through these

groups is not matched even remotely by the concern in practice to extend clean water

supply to the poor on a sustainable basis.

Planning Commission, Government of India (2002) report on “the assessment

of drinking water supply and sanitation in India” This report on the assessment of

drinking water supply and sanitation in India is the result of a collaborative exercise

between the Planning Commission of India, the World Health Organization (WHO),

and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) as part of a joint monitoring

programme (JMP) for the sector.. The assessment was done using both primary and

secondary sources of information. Primary information collection was done by a

series of discussions held with personnel from various government institutions

including the Planning Commission, the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water

50

Mission (RGNDWM), and the Ministry of Urban Development and Poverty

Alleviation (MoUD). A significant amount of information for the assessment came

from a variety of secondary sources. Governmental sources included data and

documents from the Planning Commission, RGNDWM, MoUD, Ministry of Rural

Development (MoRD), and the Department of Statistics. The websites of these and

other governmental organisations such as the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

proved invaluable. Non-governmental sources for secondary information included

various reports and documents from UNICEF, WHO, the World Bank, the Water and

Sanitation Program South Asia (WSP-SA), United Nations Development Program

(UNDP), and the Department for International Development (DFID). Detailed

references and bibliography are presented at the end of this report explore about the

wealth of experience in the country in the areas of water resources management,

RWSS, UWSS, and health. This experience, spanning decades, is however ‘scattered’

both geographically and between diverse institutions including government ministries

and departments and other bodies, development aid agencies, private sector, and civil

society groups such as NGOs. The institutional experience is also diverse, ranging

from policy to grassroots implementation. Recognizing the connectedness of these

sectors, there is ample scope to bring together these experiences and document best

practices and what works and what does not, to use this as a planning and

implementation tool, and also to promote cross-sectoral learning. It will be extremely

useful to set-up a state-of-art centralised resource centre for collection, compiling, and

disseminating information on water resources, RWSS, UWSS and health. Such a

centre could become an important hub promoting inter-sectoral coordination and

dialogue. The centre could also form a hub to promote networking among the sector

agencies (and especially including the vibrant NGO/INGO and private sectors).

Joshi (2001) in her paper subjected “water, Hindu mythology and an unequal

social order in India” explore about the age-old Hindu philosophy of water and the

human body being social constructs persists but notions of this belief have changed

with history and there is no evidence that these changes have resulted in positive

outcomes for the socially deprived. Social inequality, instituted in the later Vedic

periods on the basis of caste ascribed by birth and gender, persists and thrives in

contemporary Hindu society and the losers in this unequal social order are the Dalits

and women. In the rural mountain villages, the social order remains unequal and

51

behaviour in relation to water remains instrumental in determining inequality.

Consequently the Dalits remain permanently excluded and women are cyclically

excluded from traditional, but currently preferred and used systems of water delivery.

This observation may vary in specific villages, however given the constancy of ritual

purity and pollution and the role of water in defining these, one can safely assume that

the situation is largely universal, especially in those areas where the Dalits remain a

minority. Official policy aimed to improve access to water for the Dalits, who were

identified as those who had historically been excluded from traditional water sources.

However, inequity in social order at local levels, coupled with the inadequacy of

official interventions, has determined that Dalits continue to lack access to reliable,

appropriate and adequate water sources. New policies identify the failure of official

interventions and aim to improve access to water by restoring authority to village

communities. In order to socially empower women and the Dalits and to improve their

access to water, such policies aim to include the formerly excluded in decision-

making forums at the village level. However, policy does not identify the root causes

of the principles of social exclusion operating at local levels. When authority is

handed over to local communities, local power positions determine that power

remains concentrated in the hands of the socially dominant.

Water Aid Report (2001) on the theme of “looking back: the long-term

impacts of water and sanitation projects” in this report mention about around the

world, especially in many remote and isolated communities, people live in conditions

of extreme water scarcity. These hardships are compounded by associated sanitation

and hygiene problems, all of which affect the physical, economic, social and cultural

well being of communities. The Looking Back Study teams listened to the women and

men of some of these communities. In doing so, they have heard how water and

sanitation projects produce immeasurable benefits far beyond those of reducing

disease and the burden of long distance water collection. After project implemented

time saved can be allocated not only to improving livelihoods, but also to spending

more time with the family and attending to social and religious obligations.

Traditional birth attendants can deliver babies more safely. Mental as well as physical

health can improve, along with school attendance and the quality of teaching. In many

cases the self esteem of individuals and entire communities is dramatically enhanced.

Economic opportunities for women increase, as does the chance for girls to take part

52

in formal education. Their narratives tell more. They show how community members

are capable of assessing the impact of interventions and introducing their own

management systems for the operation of facilities that do not necessarily follow

‘established’ rules of water point management. They provide advice on the time

needed to realise changes in sanitation and hygiene behaviours, and on the training

schemes that need to be set up alongside water and sanitation projects. They show that

when relationships mature between organisations such as WaterAid, local partners

and communities, water and sanitation facilities become more sustainable.

Singh (1996) in his book on “decentralization panchayati raj and district

planning” mention that the essence of panchayati raj institutions lies in the idea of

local self government that is the freedom to decide the course of development, its

planning, its funding and the terms of its staff. Toward the end, seventy third

amendment of the Indian Constitution is a landmark as it is expected to initiate a new

era in the evolution of democratic institutions decentralization in economic

development planning. It aims to achieve this by making elections mandatory and

preventing the state government from superseding these institutions for indefinite

period as has happened too often in the past and by enabling the state government

framework, the depth of political commitments to democratic decentralization will

determine whether or not Panchyat Raj institutions of the local communities.

Khanna (1992) in his book stressed on the fact that the main source of income

are government grants and the village common land in its possession. Other sources

of income are local taxes and fees, grants from other institutions and also donations.

The main items of expenditure of the Panchayat are on public works like construction

and repair of roads, streets drains and certain local public buildings. In Health and

sanitation construction and repair of hospital, health centres and veterinary centres ad

provision of drinking water. In education sector repairing and maintains school

building and provision of school furniture etc.

Bilas (1988) his book on” rural water resources and planning” described that

the important direct effects of the clean water in reducing entire diseases, supply of

drinking water can provide multiple benefits of board development values. Access to

safe water improves the quality of life with in entire communities and frees mothers

from burdensome task of carrying water over long distance. Moreover, the provision

53

of village water supplies can be taken as catalytic elements for a widening circle of

health-orientation and other co-operation, self help, community greatly to the delivery

of simple preventive health care by giving community the capacity to maintain a

healthy environment for all its members.

Shah (1980) in his article “rural water supply” the author explores in his

article the problem of water supply in rural areas. He wrote that 1,43,500 villages

covered by the Rural Water Supply Scheme under the Minimum Needs Programme

(1974-78) and Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (1972-74 and 1977-78)

by April 1, 1979, 58,000 villages were reported to be' those . Which were categorized

as the problem villages The 'problem villages' (1.53 lakh) were located in the hilly and

desert regions where the nearest water sources were either 1.6 kms away, contained

toxic elements dangerous to health, or endemic to cholera. He also mention about the

Planning Commission’s the Pragramme Evaluation Organisation (PEO). Which

undertook an All-India 'Quick Study' of the accessibility of the Poor to the Rural

Water Supply with the main objective of ascertaining whether the 'poor' had received

the facility of drinking water provided under the Minimum Needs Programme and

Centrally sponsored Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme'. For the purpose of

this study, the 'poor' were operationally defined to be those who belonged to the

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tries, were the Landless Agricultural Labourers (did not

own land but had a homestead). The objectives of the study were to ascertain the

relative location of water points areas inhabited by the 'poor' and the 'non poor' in the

villages covered under MNP and ARP and to find out the proportionate share of the

'poor' and the 'non-poor' in the water available from such points. Also to understand

the reasons of the low or no share of the 'poor', if any and to study the alternative

sources of drinking water, if the full requirements of the 'poor' are not met from the

sources provided under the MNP / ARP; and, in the to suggest ways and means for

correcting the imbalances, if any. The author additionally developed and discussed

four precise instruments of observation. Of these two were meant for the selection of

samples and consolidation of household' schedules canvassed by a field team. The

remaining two instruments were designed for the collection of data at the village level

and for interviewing the poor respondents at the household level. The instruments

developed were pre-tested and discussed with the PEO field teams during the four

training seminars organized for the study at different regional units. In this study the

54

author suggested that there is need to emphasize the criteria for the selection of the

problem villages and update the list urgently to enable the plan formulation on a more

realistic basis and also to ensure optimal utilization of the facility of drinking water

points, their location becomes very important. In this regard, it may be worthwhile to

mention once again that although 93 per cent of the relevant respondents reported the

availability of the drinking water points within a radius of half a kilometre, a sizeable

proportion of them were not found to be taking benefit from such points or using them

partly because they reported that these were at a distance, and were going in for open

dug wells and individual collection as the alternative source. The localities inhabited

exclusively by the poor should be provided with the requisite number of drinking

water points. Due consideration may be given to the location of the drinking water

points to ensure that the other available alternative sources are not used.

Kual (1980) in his paper on “drinking water for village” the author wrote in

his article about the availability of safe drinking water and sanitation and discussed

about the Health Survey and Development Committee, which submitted its report in

1946, which was the first of its kind to draw attention to the importance of the safe

drinking water to the people. It outlined a 35-year plan to provide potable water to all

people and the Environmental Hygiene Committee recommended in 1949 a

comprehensive plan to provide water and sanitation facilities for 90 per cent of the

people within 40 years. It noted that "an adequate supply of wholesome water by

acceptable quantity and standard should be considered first among the improved

health services that the community needs. But practical steps taken in this regard are

very disappointing. The author also outlined about the Union Health Ministry in 1963

appointed the Drinking Water Board. The board recommended the highest priority to

the provision of water supply in the difficult and scarcity areas and completion of this

programme within a period of five year after that, First Plan (1951-56) allocations for

water supply and sanitation schemes the States were made under the Community

Development Programme and. Local Development Works. The Second Plan (1956-

61) the total expenditure on rural water schemes was Rs. 32.5 crore 18 crore under the

National Water Supply and Sanitation Programme, 11.5 crore under the Community

Development Programme and 1.3 crore under the Local Development Works

Programme. An estimated 5, 55,050 wells were constructed or renovated. Besides,

about Rs. 3 crore were spent under the welfare of Backward Classes Programme

55

under which about 20,000 wells were estimated to have been built or renovated. Third

Plan An important objective of the Third Plan (1961-66) was to supply good drinking

water. It was realised that it was a difficult aim to achieve, and called for intensive

effort and effective coordination between all the agencies concerned in carrying out

the programme. The plan provided about Rs. 67 crore for rural water supply under

different programmes. Fourth Plan (1969-74), it was envisaged the bulk of the

provision under rural water supply and the budget allotted for this plan was 131 crore.

In the Fifth Plan (1974-78) the rural water supply was brought under the purview of

the Minimum Needs Programme, and outlays were especially made for water supply

in problem and difficult villages. The revised Fifth Plan outlay was 381.24 crore. In

the end the author point out the importance about The Sixth Plan draft which stressed

on the importance of the low-cost solutions and proper maintenance of the rural water

schemes already executed or planned. "The approach should be one well for one

village.

2.2 Studies Conducted in Abroad

Rosemary (2010) in her paper on “mainstreaming gender in water and

sanitation” in this paper the author emphasis on gender inequalities in water and

sanitation sector in Kenya. The author and her team experiences of mainstreaming

gender at various levels in the water and sanitation sector in Kenya. It begins with a

discussion on gender responses to policy and its requirement for analysis and clear

policy objectives to guide operations. The second section touches on experiences of

mainstreaming gender within sector operations, beginning with the importance of

mainstreaming in the workplace. It goes on to describe how gender can be addressed

within service delivery in urban water, in sanitation, in small towns’ and rural water

operations. Section three addresses gender responses to monitoring and evaluation

processes, while the fourth section examines responses to gender issues within

accountability and voice initiatives. Section five assesses gender responses within

hygiene and behaviour change programs, while section six examines the linkages

between water, sanitation and HIV/AIDS.

Government of Vietnam (2010) on the topic of “study of rural water supply

service delivery models in Vietnam” This report sets out a comprehensive description

of the current service delivery models in rural water supply presently applied in

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Vietnam and examines their effectiveness. The report is part of a multi-country

review of the sector which aims to examine the ways different countries organise rural

water supply services. It identifies lessons learnt and best practices that can be shared

with other countries participating in the review to help them develop the sector in a

practical and sustainable way. The report focuses on, the context at national and

provincial levels including institutional arrangements, the policy and legal framework,

the coverage of water supply, the planning cycle and Monitor & Evaluation system

and water supply models, different financial arrangements, access to credit, donor and

International Non Government Organisation support and sustainability. It also

explores the problem analysis and solutions developed by the government and

strengths and constraints in the water service delivery models. The report is primarily

a desk study.

George (2009) in his paper on “Nirmal Gram Puraskar: a unique experiment in

incentivising sanitation coverage in rural India” the author wrote in this paper to

explore an incentive scheme of the Government of India Nirmal Gram Puraskar which

was launched by the in 2003. The efforts made under the Total Sanitation Campaign

for Clean drinking water and proper sanitation facilities for a healthy life. Sanitation

coverage in rural India has been growing at an impressive rate since 2001, The

Nirmal Gram Puraska' (NGP) is initiated for fully sanitized and open defecation-free

Gram Panchayats, Blocks, and Districts. The eligible Gram Panchayats, Blocks, and

Districts are those that achieve 100per cent sanitation coverage of individual

households and 100per cent school sanitation coverage also freedom from open

defecation and environmental cleanliness. Also eligible for the award are individuals

and organizations, which have been the driving force for effecting full sanitation

coverage in their respective geographical areas. The author concluded his paper and

wrote that the Nirmal Gram Puraska' has succeeded in setting off a healthy

competition among Gram Panchiyats . The award has brought about a silent

revolution in the countryside in sanitation. The pride and honour associated with

receiving an award from the President of India is a reason in itself for Gram

Panchiyats heads of to take a personal interest in covering all households and schools

with sanitation facilities under Total Sanitation Campaign.

57

Irura (2008) in her paper on “women, water and sanitation: going the extra

mile” the paper based on the studies on African countries. The author explore the

problem faced by the African women’s in their own countries regarding the water

supply and sanitation Given the role of gender in the supply of water and sanitation in

Mozambique. The author make some of the recommendations we can make, the

management of water and sanitation becomes the most important strategy resource

essential for the sustainable life and achieving of the sustainable development in our

country and the government should stump its efforts to up lift the lives of its citizen. It

should also see to it that priorities are given to the right people. There have been

situations of a project failing because attention was targeted at the wrong people.

There is need to offer equal opportunities for sharing ideas and views for both men

and women regarding water and sanitation issues. There must be enough consultation

to the targeted people or communities be it in the urban or rural areas. All the gender

needs should be addressed from the planning stage up to the evaluation. All

responsible NGO working for the improvement of water supply and sanitation should

work collectively to combat this problem. As both men and women play very

significant roles in the society, there must be avenues to enhance educative programs

in which the roles of both parties are stressed. There is need also to overcome the

presumption of female inferiority. It is also important to recognise the different roles

played by man and women whenever we design the project or in the planning thus can

increase chances for project sustainability and at the same time for the development of

the country.

Jouravlev (2004) in his report on “drinking water supply and sanitation

services on the threshold of the XXI century” The objective of this paper is to analyse

the status of drinking water supply and sanitation services in the countries of Latin

America and the Caribbean at the beginning of the twenty-first century. For this

purpose, and for methodological reasons, the study is divided into two parts. The first

section consists of an analysis of access to services and their quality. The coverage

levels achieved in the region may be considered reasonable, with the possible

exception of wastewater treatment, but there are still serious deficiencies in access to

services, which disproportionately affect low-income groups and rural areas. The

insufficient coverage and poor quality of the services not only have negative impacts

on the health of the population but also affect the environment, the economy, foreign

58

trade and the availability of water for various uses. The second section of the study

contains an analysis of the reforms carried out in recent years by the countries of the

region. Despite the inevitable differences in a region that includes very different

countries, the reforms have shown many common features: institutional separation of

the functions of sectoral policymaking, economic regulation and systems

administration extension and consolidation of the decentralization process in the

provision of services a general interest in promoting private participation; formulation

of new regulatory frameworks and the requirement, since the crisis of the 1980s, that

services should move towards being self financing, and when that occurs, that subsidy

arrangements should be set up for low-income groups. Lastly, some conclusions are

drawn. The analyses carried out in this study have prompted the following

conclusions concerning the current situation of the drinking water supply and

sanitation sector in the region’s countries Latin American and Caribbean countries

have made great efforts to improve the population’s access to drinking water supply

and sanitation services. Although the situation varies considerably among countries,

levels of coverage can generally be considered reasonable, with the possible exception

of wastewater treatment. However, there remain serious shortcomings in access to

services, with low-income groups and rural areas being disproportionately affected.

For various reasons, many reforms have been carried out in the drinking water supply

and sanitation sector of most of the region’s countries since the 1980s. Broadly

speaking, an analysis of the situation reveals significant progress in the adoption of

new legal and regulatory frameworks, the setting up of the relevant institutions,

changes in the sector’s institutional and industrial structure and, in some cases

(mainly Argentina and Chile), and the incorporation of the private sector. On the other

hand, the most important advances have often been made in terms of policies and

declarations of intentions. The majority of the region’s countries are falling short in

reforms associated with tariff readjustments to levels that guarantee the financial

sustainability of service providers, the creation of effective subsidy systems for low-

income groups, the application of regulatory frameworks and changing the behaviour

of public service providers. The combination of these problems, macro economic

instability and the structural deficit in public finances has resulted in reforms that

have been less successful than expected.

59

Mehta and Fugelsnes (2003) in their paper on “water supply and sanitation in

poverty reduction” in their paper the author explore about importance of water supply

and sanitation (WSS) for poverty reduction is inadequately represented in the

development of poverty reduction strategy papers in Sub-Saharan Africa. This is

especially true of sanitation. This paper provides an assessment of water and

sanitation coverage in PRSPs in Sub-Saharan Africa through a review of 12 countries:

Benin, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Mauritania, Mozambique, Rwanda,

Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia the author mainly explore the three point in

their paper is first what is the nature of the opportunity presented by the poverty

reduction strategy papers and highly Indebted Poor Countries initiatives for the Water

Supply and Sanitation sector in Sub-Saharan Africa and second one the degree of

Water Supply and Sanitation coverage in poverty reduction strategy papers in Sub-

Saharan Africa and last is how can Water Supply Sanitation coverage and

incorporation into PRSPs be improved. In the last the author concluded paper and

mentions that it is important to develop forceful advocacy tools to build and sustain

commitment to the sector within poverty reduction strategies. Successful development

of these ideas will require considerable support to the sector agencies and for sharing

of good practices. It is also necessary to ensure that the finance and planning

ministries and sector donors create incentives and opportunities for the sector to

engage in the PRSP process. The role of civil society is also very important in this

process.

Kabonesa and Margaret (2003) in their paper on “the gender gap in water

resource management in the Nile basin countries: the case for rural women in

Uganda” The paper discusses women’s predominant role in activities relating to water

i.e. the pivotal role women play as water providers and users of water. Women’s

experiences with and concerns about water resource use and management and related

decision-making leading to their marginalization in the policies and programmes of

water management are discussed. Socio-cultural factors relating to the marginalization

of women in water management identified and arguments for women’s involvement

in protection of water resources provided. Recommendations towards viewing women

as managers of resources including water resources and community capacity building

for water resource management are proposed. The foregoing revelation underscores

the significant role of women in the management of water. Women, as users and

60

beneficiaries, are a special interest group as well as a mainstream interest group.

Because of their important role as domestic providers of water, women cannot be

ignored in water management. Typically, the conspicuous absence or sidelining of

women from participation has led to the demise of many a project in Uganda. New

water facilities have fallen into disuse or disrepair if women are not consulted.

Therefore, planners and policy makers who ignore women, do so at their own peril.

However, the engendering of water management is yet to bear fruits. In order to

realize equitable and sustainable use of waters in the Nile Basin, with emphasis on

Uganda, all actors in water management, government, civil society, non-governmental

and donor organization should assume a common responsibility of addressing gender

issues at different levels on the development process. On the other hand, however, the

basic strategies for generating water supplies in Uganda are in place. All that is

needed is to boost them through an enabling operational environment: promoting

appropriate institutional development, planning and prioritization mechanisms, and

promoting data collection and dissemination. These areas must be further explored for

specific actions in conformity with globally recognized practices.

Fletcher (2002) in his report on “water supply and sanitation in India” this

report represents information gathered from a five-week expedition to India,

investigating the problems associated with water supply and sanitation and how

various organisations find solutions to these problems. The main problems associated

with water and sanitation are, lack of water and sanitation availability, both in rural

and urban areas, Poor water quality due to chemical and bacterial contamination , low

cultural priority traditionally given to hygiene and lack of education and hence

awareness concerning sanitation and last the poverty trap which compounds all these

problems. The organisations visited which are concerned with tackling these issues

can be classed as strategic, high level players and low level, hands-on engineering

NGO’s, backed up technologically by scientifically minded research organisations. It

appears that water quantity is, on the whole, more of a problem than water quality – it

not being sensible to try to solve the problem of the latter without first sorting out the

former. In many cases solutions have been found by NGO’s operating in the sector.

These are most successful when an integrated approach is taken to tackle poverty,

hygiene and water supply issues simultaneously. Furthermore, community

involvement right from the beginning of any project is also very important if it is to be

61

sustainable and continue when the NGO is no longer present. These are lessons which

the Government has learnt from the many NGOs in the sector after making mistakes

itself. While there are still vast social and economical disparities within India there

will continue to be inequality in terms of water supply, sanitation and hence health

throughout the country. The author concluded the report and mention that the

Government wields the most power with regards to water supply in the country.

Having made mistakes in providing water blindly without instigating community

participation it has learnt from various NGO’s that decentralisation is the most

effective method for sustainable improvements in water availability. The provision of

free electricity and hence water to farmers is unlikely to change, as no government is

likely to remove this benefit from potential voters. However, this issue may be

resolved if electricity is privatised in the country, which due to external international

pressure, may be a possibility in the future.

Marsh (2002) in his study on “working with local institutions to support

sustainable livelihoods” found that NGOs are effective intermediaries and play a

positive role in bridging the gap between traditional local institutions and policies or

programs promoted by government and international donors for promotion of natural

resources. Study stressed that when village-government relations improve, with the

intervention of NGOs, it helps in strengthening and revitalization of the local

institutions to take on new roles and responsibilities, particularly in natural resource

management and rural development planning. It is found that while dealing with

complex resource and development issues involving multiple stakeholders, NGOs are

useful in facilitating multi-stakeholder dialogue and collaborative processes for

managing conflict and finding lasting solutions. It is mentioned that it is more true

when local communities mistrust government because of past abuses, or the perceived

political partisanship of government bureaucrats. NGOs work with leaders "who

enjoy the greatest legitimacy in the life of the rural communities", to ensure greater

institutional sustainability of their projects and programs. He quoted that many

international donors prefer to channel funds through NGOs, rather than government

agencies, to get around political favours and improve program efficiency. He

suggested that the important role of NGOs is to provide training to different types of

local institutions in the skills needed to take on new roles and responsibilities,

particularly in countries with strong decentralization policies and increasing

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devolution of authority to local levels. To complement local knowledge of resources,

local institutions will need training in the modern tools of resource mapping, planning

and sustainable management, for understanding how to identify and market both

traditional commodities and environmental services, and in financial management,

among other skills. The research, together with other studies on local institutions and

rural development or natural resource management, demonstrate the richness of local

institutional environments; in particular, the informal and less visible institutions,

practices and arrangements that characterize rural socioeconomic and cultural

interactions. The more resilient and organized local institutions are providing essential

goods and services to the rural poor and vulnerable groups, particularly in the absence

of well-functioning markets and safety nets. The research findings suggest the need

for a flexible and context-specific approach to partnering with local institutions.

James and Robinson (2001) in his research paper on “water and sustainable

rural livelihoods in Andhra Pradesh” the author emphasis on water supplies, rural

development and rural livelihoods on Andhra Pradesh. He started the paper write

about the introduction about the Andhra Pradesh covers an area of about 275,000 sq.

km. It is the fifth largest state in India and the fourth most populous. It has a

population of 66.5 million in 1991, projected to be around 75 million in 2001. Nearly

3/4ths of this population live in rural areas. Only about 14 percent of rural households

have access to pipe water schemes to meet drinking and domestic water needs. Most

use water from tube wells or open wells, while a small minority uses tanks and

springs. Hence there is a high dependence on groundwater for drinking and other

domestic purposes. Nearly 90 percent of rural households collect water from

community sources, which are often remote and suggesting that a substantial amount

of time and effort goes into water collection in rural AP. By 1993, only about 60

percent reported access to safe drinking water. And only 11 percent had these sources

within their own premises. The general situation is dismal. Only about 15 percent of

rural households had access to sanitation facilities in 1994. And only about 3 percent

of latrines had flush water facilities. The vast majority of rural households, thus, use

‘the bush’.

Gunyon (1998) in his report on “India: making government funding work

harder” in his report examines the evidence of two case studies from India community

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based rural sanitation, and hand pump maintenance – to suggest appropriate ways for

the government to use its resources to achieve results in the water and sanitation

sector, and assesses the implications for rural communities and NGOs. Coverage of

safe water and sanitation through cost-effective and sustainable services would be

improved by Government giving greater emphasis to programmes of education and

training, and the funding of new water projects, than to high capital subsidy of latrines

and provision of hand pump maintenance unlocking the capacity and resources of

communities to maintain village water facilities and offering families an informed and

affordable choice of sanitation facilities, coupled with greater access to micro-credit,

using the relative strengths of existing local institutions to complement each other’s

work. The case studies also show that: NGO networks enable members to share

experiences and to have a stronger voice when negotiating with government.

Government officials, NGO staff, and community members are strongly influenced by

seeing actual examples of successful work in the field. He concluded the report and

mention about the Government’s strengths lie in creating policies to enable universal

water and sanitation coverage. Such policies need to be consistently applied across

government departments and throughout the different layers of government. Evidence

from the case studies suggests that if Government shifts its resources away from

funding the high capital subsidy of latrines and the provision of hand pump

maintenance services, towards supporting a community based one, then there is

potential for a vast improvement in water and sanitation services. Available resources

should be used to facilitate communities to maintain their water systems, fund new

water systems, promote sanitation through education and communication campaigns,

and offer flexible subsidy and a greater variety of latrines.

Farrington (1997) stated in his study that extension services can be effectively

rendered to the people with involvement of the NGOs as they have group organizing

and human resource development skills which have tended to complement the

technical skills and facilities available to government. It is found that a formal forum

is required for certain types of interaction, including training, the joint planning of

research and extension agenda, and the securing of joint management agreements for

soil and water, fodder, and grazing resources between NGOs and Government sector.

The task for the coming decade will be to develop these in ways which are non

threatening both to the organizations involved and the government sector. It would

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help in developing the mutual trust and awareness of each other's activities on which

formal interaction depends It is suggested that agricultural and rural development

strategies would benefit from increased collaboration between government research

and extension organizations and nongovernmental development organizations. It is

found that funding agencies have begun to call for more NGO involvement in

programmes that have traditionally been implemented through the public sector, and

there has been a recent upsurge of donor interest in direct-funding to NGOs.

Feachem (1980) in his paper on “community participation in appropriate water

supply and sanitation technologies: The Mythology for the Decade” share his

knowledge about the community participation in appropriate water supply and

sanitation technologies. The International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation

Decade (1981- 90) is going on and during this period, massive international efforts

made to accelerate the provision of domestic water supply and sanitation facilities for

the rural population of developing countries. Certain concepts and approaches are

being developed and promoted as guiding themes that will help to steer and

coordinate the activities of the Decade. Among them is 'appropriate technology'

'community participation' and a 'village level' or 'user-choice' approach. The validity

and importance of these concepts are discussed. It is concluded that these concepts are

often applied in an over-simplified manner and that they divert attention away from

the fundamental political and administrative realities that primarily determine the

success or failure of rural water and sanitation programmes. He shares his idea about

the appropriate technology and sound, designs for water supply and sanitation

hardware are required, and are often available. However, failure of a programme is

not typically attributable to the wrong choice of pump, pipe, tap or latrine, but to

fundamental systemic diseases of poor management, inadequate institutions, scarcity

of skilled manpower and so on so, he emphasis on recently, economists that pointed

out the selection of appropriate technology may be reduced to correctly computed

social cost-benefit analysis and that, without overcoming fundamental distortions in

the apparent cost of resources, there can be no long-run incentive to adopt appropriate

technology. Appropriate technology can be defined as 'that process or technique

which provides a socially and environmentally acceptable level of service or quality

of product at the least social cost and computing social costs can be complex but can

steer the decision maker towards the correct choice of technology on the basis of

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sound economic arguments. At the end of his paper he talked about the community

involvement and participatory planning and development which are they ill-defined.

In connection with community participation, people will often talk of 'felt needs',

'local perceptions', 'bottom-up planning', 'motivation', 'latent development potential',

'catalytic development inputs', 'integrated development at the village level', etc. Yet

these concepts are each highly complex and diffuse and their meaning in any

particular context is often obscure.

Guest (1980) in his article “the world water decade” the author discussed in

his paper about the International Water Supply and Sanitation Decade during the

period 1981-90. The fact that safe drinking water and its corollary, proper sanitation,

are taken for granted in the more affluent countries but are a matter of life and death

in the developing world has been monitored with increasing concern by WHO in

recent years. The Habitat Conference, held. In Vancouver in 1976, stated as goal fresh

water The UN Water Conference, at Mar del Plata, Argentina, in 1977, made this

more specific and designated the period 1981-90 as the International Water Supply

and Sanitation Decade, while 1978-80 would be the years for collecting data and

evaluating the dimension of the crisis. Thirdly, the 1978 Alma-Ata Conference, in the

USSR, on Primary Health Care spelt out in broad and outline some of the ways and

means of incorporating the decade into a new two-part strategy for health more

"relevant" health services, and more emphasis on preventive health with all-round

social and economic development. Sanitation is closely related to drinking water. In

this paper the author also wrote about diseases associated with Water .The WHO

estimates that as much as 80 per cent of all diseases in the world are associated with

water. There are germs ingested through drinking contaminated water: these cause

typhoid, gastro-enteritis, and cholera. He also discussed in his paper about

Malnutrition and Water, Malnutrition and a lack of fresh water are interrelated.

Malnutrition undermines the individual's resistance to such diseases as diarrhea.

Diarrhea itself further reduces the intake of food and causes loss of body, fluids

resulting in further malnutrition. Just as the need for food is greatest in the developing

countries, so is the need for water in a dry climate the body requires, on average, up to

twice as much water (5 liters) a day. At the end author suggested Government has to

commit themselves to the objectives of the Water Decade, particularly with the active

collaboration of village communities. It had a proper institutional structure, proper

66

training of staff and cooperation between ministries and coordination of resources

with accurate technical supervision.

2.3 Conclusion

For this study the researcher has reviewed the studies related to rural water

supply and sanitation in India and abroad. It is evident from the review of studies that

community participation in safe water supply and sanitation has been acknowledged

as important world over but in the Indian context the community participation in rural

water supply and sanitation remains a distant dream. Most studies have mentioned the

significance of community participation in rural water supply and sanitation. Some

more studies conducted in particular countries, regions and based on culture

disparities, highlight the fact that socio-economic, cultural constraints and gender

based stereotypes of the community play a negative role towards achieving the

desired goals of providing safe drinking water through community participation in

India. . As per study of Punjab Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project is concern

the research studies clearly pointed implementation of the project at grass route level

should be as per the guidelines given by the funding agency.