chapter 8 political participation. i.a closer look at nonvoting a.alleged problem: low turnout of...

Chapter 8Chapter 8

Political ParticipationPolitical Participation

I.I. A closer look at nonvotingA closer look at nonvoting A.A. Alleged problem: low turnout of voters in Alleged problem: low turnout of voters in

the United States compared with Europethe United States compared with Europe 1.1. Since 1996, 60 percent of citizens aged 18 and Since 1996, 60 percent of citizens aged 18 and

older who are eligible to vote actually registered to older who are eligible to vote actually registered to vote during mid-term congressional elections with this vote during mid-term congressional elections with this percentage rising to 66 percent during presidential percentage rising to 66 percent during presidential elections.elections.

2. 2. Only 43.6 percent of those registered to vote Only 43.6 percent of those registered to vote actually voted in the 2006 midterm Congressional actually voted in the 2006 midterm Congressional elections.elections.

3. Comparing the percentage of registered voters who 3. Comparing the percentage of registered voters who voted to the total percentage of the population eligible voted to the total percentage of the population eligible to vote, we see that 70.7 percent of registered voters to vote, we see that 70.7 percent of registered voters voted.voted.

I.I. A closer look at nonvoting A closer look at nonvoting (cont.)(cont.)

4. Cross-national comparisons of voting turnout rates 4. Cross-national comparisons of voting turnout rates between the United States and Europe reveal three between the United States and Europe reveal three factors:factors:

a. Ranked in terms of average voter turnout as a percentage a. Ranked in terms of average voter turnout as a percentage of voting-age population during the period 1945 to 2007, the of voting-age population during the period 1945 to 2007, the United States ranks last behind democracies such as United States ranks last behind democracies such as Germany (81 percent) and India (61 percent).Germany (81 percent) and India (61 percent).

b. Ranked in terms of voter turnout among registered voters, b. Ranked in terms of voter turnout among registered voters, the United States is in the middle of the pack, with France at the United States is in the middle of the pack, with France at 67 percent and the United Kingdom at 75 percent.67 percent and the United Kingdom at 75 percent.

c. Ranked in terms of voter turnout during presidential c. Ranked in terms of voter turnout during presidential elections, the United States would be in the top half of the elections, the United States would be in the top half of the pack at 70 percent, ahead of Japan (68 percent) and Canada pack at 70 percent, ahead of Japan (68 percent) and Canada (69 percent).(69 percent).


5. Apathy on national election days is not the source of 5. Apathy on national election days is not the source of the problem. A majority of those registered to vote the problem. A majority of those registered to vote actually participate. The problem is the low actually participate. The problem is the low percentage of eligible person who actually register. percentage of eligible person who actually register. How do Americans stimulate registration? How do How do Americans stimulate registration? How do they get registered voters to actually vote?they get registered voters to actually vote?

a. Various get-out-the-vote (GOTV) strategies have a. Various get-out-the-vote (GOTV) strategies have a limited impact on actual turnout.a limited impact on actual turnout.

b. When asked, registered voters who did not vote b. When asked, registered voters who did not vote gave three reasons for not voting:gave three reasons for not voting:

• i. About a quarter of registered voters stated they were too i. About a quarter of registered voters stated they were too busy or had scheduling conflicts busy or had scheduling conflicts

• ii. Family chores or obligations (12 percent)ii. Family chores or obligations (12 percent)• Iii. They believed their vote would not matter (12 percent).Iii. They believed their vote would not matter (12 percent).


6. Other proposals to the problem of nonvoting include making 6. Other proposals to the problem of nonvoting include making Election Day a national holiday or holding elections on weekends. Election Day a national holiday or holding elections on weekends. Voting prior to elections by mail in ballots or no fault absentee Voting prior to elections by mail in ballots or no fault absentee voting have also failed to produce significant increases in voter voting have also failed to produce significant increases in voter participation.participation.

a. 40 million registered voters failed to vote in the 2006 and 2008 a. 40 million registered voters failed to vote in the 2006 and 2008 elections.elections.

b. 40 million voting-age citizens failed to register in either of the two b. 40 million voting-age citizens failed to register in either of the two elections.elections.

7. In Europe, registration is done by the government. In the 7. In Europe, registration is done by the government. In the United States, the burden falls on the individual. Would reducing United States, the burden falls on the individual. Would reducing the cost of registrations increase the percentage of eligible voters the cost of registrations increase the percentage of eligible voters who are actually registered?who are actually registered?

a. In 1993, Congress passed the Motor Voter law, which allows a. In 1993, Congress passed the Motor Voter law, which allows people in all fifty states to register to vote when applying for driver’s people in all fifty states to register to vote when applying for driver’s licenses and to register through the mail. Many did register but did not licenses and to register through the mail. Many did register but did not vote.vote.

b. Data still show many have not registered.b. Data still show many have not registered.


B.B. Voting is not the only way to participate; Voting is not the only way to participate; by other measures, Americans may by other measures, Americans may participate in politics more than Europeans.participate in politics more than Europeans.

C.C. Important question: how do different Important question: how do different kinds of participation affect the government?kinds of participation affect the government?

II.II. The rise of the American The rise of the American electorateelectorate

A.A. From state to federal controlFrom state to federal control 1.1. Initially, states decided who could vote and for Initially, states decided who could vote and for

which officeswhich offices 2.2. This led to wide variation in federal electionsThis led to wide variation in federal elections 3.3. Congress has since reduced state prerogatives Congress has since reduced state prerogatives

through law and constitutional amendment.through law and constitutional amendment.• a)a) By 1842 law, House members elected by By 1842 law, House members elected by

districtdistrict• b)b) Fifteenth Amendment (1870): seemed to Fifteenth Amendment (1870): seemed to

give suffrage to African Americansgive suffrage to African Americans (i)(i) Opened the door to literacy tests, poll taxes, Opened the door to literacy tests, poll taxes,

and grandfather clausesand grandfather clauses (ii)(ii) Voting Rights Act of 1965 finally guaranteed Voting Rights Act of 1965 finally guaranteed

blacks the right to vote blacks the right to vote

II.II. The rise of the American The rise of the American electorate (cont.)electorate (cont.)

• c)c) Women given right to vote by Nineteenth Women given right to vote by Nineteenth Amendment (1920); participation rose immediately, but no major Amendment (1920); participation rose immediately, but no major impact on electoral outcomesimpact on electoral outcomes

• d)d) Eighteen-year-olds given suffrage by Twenty-sixth Eighteen-year-olds given suffrage by Twenty-sixth Amendment (1971); voter turnout among the newly eligible was low, Amendment (1971); voter turnout among the newly eligible was low, and has continued to falland has continued to fall

• e) In 2008, 52 percent of the eighteen- to twenty-nine-year-old e) In 2008, 52 percent of the eighteen- to twenty-nine-year-old voting population voted. This was higher than 2000 (41 percent) voting population voted. This was higher than 2000 (41 percent) and 2004 (48 percent) but lower than 1972 (55 percent) or 1992 (52 and 2004 (48 percent) but lower than 1972 (55 percent) or 1992 (52 percent). From 1996 to 2004, under-thirty voters only accounted for percent). From 1996 to 2004, under-thirty voters only accounted for 17 percent of the electorate. That figure rose to 18 percent in 2008.17 percent of the electorate. That figure rose to 18 percent in 2008.

4.4. National standards now govern most aspects of National standards now govern most aspects of voter eligibility.voter eligibility.

5.5. Twenty-third Amendment was ratified in 1961, Twenty-third Amendment was ratified in 1961, giving District of Columbia residents the right to vote in giving District of Columbia residents the right to vote in presidential elections.presidential elections.


B.B. Voter turnoutVoter turnout 1.1. Debate about declining percentages of eligible Debate about declining percentages of eligible

adults who vote; two theories:adults who vote; two theories:• a)a) Real decline caused by decreasing popular Real decline caused by decreasing popular

interest and decreasing party mobilizationinterest and decreasing party mobilization• b)b) Apparent decline, induced in part by the Apparent decline, induced in part by the

more honest ballot counts of todaymore honest ballot counts of today (i)(i) Parties once printed the ballotsParties once printed the ballots (ii)(ii) Ballots were cast in publicBallots were cast in public (iii(iii Parties controlled the countingParties controlled the counting (iv)(iv) Rules regarding voter eligibility were easily Rules regarding voter eligibility were easily

circumvented.circumvented. (v)(v) Australian ballot (standard, printed by the Australian ballot (standard, printed by the

government rather than parties, printed, and cast in secret) was government rather than parties, printed, and cast in secret) was adopted throughout the country by 1910.adopted throughout the country by 1910.


2.2. Most scholars see some real decline, due to Most scholars see some real decline, due to several causes:several causes:

a)a) Registration is more difficult: longer residency Registration is more difficult: longer residency requirements; educational qualifications; discrimination; and requirements; educational qualifications; discrimination; and registration has to occur far in advance of electionsregistration has to occur far in advance of elections

b)b) Florida controversy in 2000 presidential election has Florida controversy in 2000 presidential election has provided for some changes to make voting more consistent provided for some changes to make voting more consistent nationally, but stops short of creating a uniform national voting nationally, but stops short of creating a uniform national voting system.system.

c)c) Continuing drop after 1960 cannot be easily explained, Continuing drop after 1960 cannot be easily explained, and may be a function of how turnout is calculated, rather than a and may be a function of how turnout is calculated, rather than a substantial phenomenon.substantial phenomenon.

3.3. Some scholars believe that nonvoters mirror Some scholars believe that nonvoters mirror voters in their demographic and ideological composition, voters in their demographic and ideological composition, so their absence has little effect on electoral outcomes.so their absence has little effect on electoral outcomes.

III.III. Who participates in politics?Who participates in politics?

A.A. Forms of participationForms of participation 1.1. Tendency to exaggerate participationTendency to exaggerate participation

• a)a) Voting is the commonest form of Voting is the commonest form of political participation, but 8 to 10 percent of citizens political participation, but 8 to 10 percent of citizens report voting regularly when they have not.report voting regularly when they have not.

• b)b) If voting is exaggerated, other forms If voting is exaggerated, other forms of participation are also likely to be exaggerated.of participation are also likely to be exaggerated.

III.III. Who participates in politics? Who participates in politics? (cont.)(cont.)

2.2. Verba and Nie’s six forms of participation Verba and Nie’s six forms of participation characterize six kinds of U.S. citizens:characterize six kinds of U.S. citizens:

a)a) Inactives: rarely vote, contribute to political Inactives: rarely vote, contribute to political organizations, or discuss politics (little education, low income, organizations, or discuss politics (little education, low income, young, many blacks; 22 percent)young, many blacks; 22 percent)

b)b) Voting specialists: vote but do little else; not much Voting specialists: vote but do little else; not much education or income, oldereducation or income, older

c)c) Campaigners: vote and get involved in campaign Campaigners: vote and get involved in campaign activities; more education, interested in politics, identify with a activities; more education, interested in politics, identify with a party, take strong positionsparty, take strong positions

d)d) Communalists: nonpartisan community activists with a Communalists: nonpartisan community activists with a local focuslocal focus

e)e) Parochial participants: don’t vote or participate in Parochial participants: don’t vote or participate in campaigns or political organizations, but contact politicians campaigns or political organizations, but contact politicians about specific problemsabout specific problems

f)f) Activists: Participate in all forms of politics (highly Activists: Participate in all forms of politics (highly educated, high income, middle aged; 11 percent)educated, high income, middle aged; 11 percent)


B.B. Participation: Cause and Meaning Participation: Cause and Meaning 1. 1. Political participation of any form is greater Political participation of any form is greater

among people who have gone to college, are among people who have gone to college, are employed. It is greater among white and blacks than employed. It is greater among white and blacks than Hispanics.Hispanics.

• a)a) These differences are descriptive but make These differences are descriptive but make generalization problematic. Religion increasing political generalization problematic. Religion increasing political participation is too sweeping a statement. “Certain types of participation is too sweeping a statement. “Certain types of religious expression” can sometimes increase political religious expression” can sometimes increase political participation.participation.

• b)b) Americans participate in nonvoting activities Americans participate in nonvoting activities at higher rates than citizens of other democracies. According at higher rates than citizens of other democracies. According to a groundbreaking book published in 2008 by Corwin E. to a groundbreaking book published in 2008 by Corwin E. Smidt, factors influencing political participation are Smidt, factors influencing political participation are complicated. Americans vary by religious tradition but also by complicated. Americans vary by religious tradition but also by their level of public religious practice on a scale (high or low).their level of public religious practice on a scale (high or low).


2. Holding other variables constant (income, race, 2. Holding other variables constant (income, race, gender, age, marital status) mainline Protestants are gender, age, marital status) mainline Protestants are more likely than members of other religious traditions to more likely than members of other religious traditions to participate in voluntary associations.participate in voluntary associations.

3. Regardless of religious tradition, those whose form of 3. Regardless of religious tradition, those whose form of religious expression involves high levels of both public religious expression involves high levels of both public and private practice are more likely to join voluntary and private practice are more likely to join voluntary associations.associations.

4. What about religion in relation to political 4. What about religion in relation to political engagement? Religion is a significant factor in engagement? Religion is a significant factor in determining who votes but no more than education or determining who votes but no more than education or income.income.

5. One’s form of religious expression has a greater 5. One’s form of religious expression has a greater impact in shaping civic rather than political participation.impact in shaping civic rather than political participation.


C.C. The meaning of participation ratesThe meaning of participation rates 1.1. Americans elect more officials and have Americans elect more officials and have

more elections.more elections. 2.2. Latinos doubled their participation rates Latinos doubled their participation rates

in elections between 1996 (5 percent) and in elections between 1996 (5 percent) and 2008 (9 percent). Latino voters gain political 2008 (9 percent). Latino voters gain political information from church membership but also information from church membership but also have politically relevant skills and attach have politically relevant skills and attach quasi-religious meaning to civic engagement.quasi-religious meaning to civic engagement.

chapter 8 political participation. i.a closer look at nonvoting a.alleged problem: low turnout of...

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