chapter 8: metabolism metabolism metabolism – all of the chemical reactions in an organism - a...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 8: Metabolism
Metabolism
• Metabolism – all of the chemical reactions in an organism
- A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product
- Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme
Examples dehydration synthesis (synthesis)
hydrolysis (digestion)
+
H2O
+
H2O
enzyme
enzyme
Enzyme 1 Enzyme 2 Enzyme 3
DCBAReaction 1 Reaction 3Reaction 2
Startingmolecule
Product
• Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds (ex: digestion)
- Ex: Cellular Respiration
• Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
- The synthesis of protein from amino acids is an example of anabolism
Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways
Forms of Energy
• Energy is the capacity to do work
- Kinetic energy is energy associated with motion
- Heat (thermal energy) is kinetic energy associated with random movement of atoms or molecules
- Potential energy is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure
- Chemical energy is potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
* Energy can be converted from one form into another
Describe the E transformations that occur when you climb to the top of a stairway
Flow of energy through life• Life is built on chemical reactions
– transforming energy from one form to another
organic molecules ATP & organic molecules
organic molecules ATP & organic molecules
sun
solar energy ATP & organic molecules
Energy Transformation
• Thermodynamics is the study of energy transformations– 1st law of thermodynamics = conservation of
energy • Energy of universe is constant, energy CAN be
transferred and transformed, but NOT created/destroyed
– 2nd law of thermodynamics• Every energy transfer or transformation increases the
entropy (disorder or randomness) in universe
(a) First law of thermodynamics (b) Second law of thermodynamics
Chemicalenergy
Heat CO2
H2O
+
Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions in Metabolism
• An exergonic reaction releases free energy • An endergonic reaction absorbs free energy from its
surroundings• Cells manage energy resources and do work by energy coupling• EXERGONIC REACTIONS DRIVE ENDERGONIC REACTIONS
Energy & life• Organisms require energy to live
– where does that energy come from?
• coupling exergonic reactions (releasing energy) with
endergonic reactions (needing energy)
+ + energy
+ energy+
digestion
synthesis
ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to
endergonic reactions• A cell does three main kinds of work:
– Chemical– Transport– Mechanical
• To do work, cells manage energy resources by energy coupling, the use of an exergonic process to drive an endergonic one
• Most energy coupling in cells is mediated by ATP
The Structure and Hydrolysis of ATP• ATP (Adenosine tri phosphate) is composed
of ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups
Phosphate groups Ribose
Adenine
• The bonds between the phosphate groups of ATP’s tail can be broken by hydrolysis (unstable bonds)
3 Things happen: WRITE THIS DOWN
1.A phosphate group is removed
2.ATP becomes ADP
3.Energy is released (exergonic reaction)
Inorganic phosphate
Energy
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
P P
P P P
P ++
H2O
i
How ATP Performs Work
• The three types of cellular work (mechanical, transport, and chemical) are powered by the hydrolysis of ATP
• In the cell, the energy from the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis can be used to drive an endergonic reaction
• ATP drives endergonic reactions by phosphorylation, transferring a phosphate group to some other molecule, such as a reactant
• The recipient molecule is now phosphorylated
Fig. 8-11
(b) Mechanical work: ATP binds noncovalently to motor proteins, then is hydrolyzed
Membrane protein
Pi
ADP+
P
Solute Solute transported
Pi
Vesicle Cytoskeletal track
Motor protein Protein moved
(a) Transport work: ATP phosphorylates transport proteinsATP
ATP
The Regeneration of ATP
• ATP is a renewable resource that is regenerated by addition of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
• The energy to phosphorylate ADP comes from catabolic reactions in the cell
Fig. 8-12
P iADP +
Energy fromcatabolism (exergonic,energy-releasingprocesses)
Energy for cellularwork (endergonic,energy-consumingprocesses)
ATP + H2O
Enzymes speed up metabolic reactions by lowering energy barriers
• A catalyst is a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
• An enzyme is a catalytic protein• The reactant that an enzyme acts on is called the enzyme’s
substrate • The enzyme binds to its substrate, forming an enzyme-
substrate complex• The active site is the region on the enzyme where the
substrate binds
The Activation Energy Barrier
• The initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called the activation energy (EA)
• Enzymes catalyze reactions by lowering the EA barrier
• Enzymes do not affect the change in free energy (∆G); instead, they speed up reactions that would occur eventually
Activation energy• Breaking down large molecules
requires an initial input of energy– activation energy
– large biomolecules are stable
– must absorb energy to break bonds
energycellulose CO2 + H2O + heat
Progress of the reaction
Products
Reactants
∆G is unaffectedby enzyme
Course ofreactionwithoutenzyme
Fre
e en
erg
y
EA
withoutenzyme EA with
enzymeis lower
Course ofreactionwith enzyme
Properties of enzymes• Reaction specific
– each enzyme works with a specific substrate • chemical fit between active site & substrate
– H bonds & ionic bonds
• Not consumed in reaction– single enzyme molecule can catalyze thousands
or more reactions per second• enzymes unaffected by the reaction
• Affected by cellular conditions– any condition that affects protein structure
• temperature, pH, salinity
Induced fit model• More accurate model of enzyme action
– 3-D structure of enzyme fits substrate– substrate binding cause enzyme to change
shape leading to a tighter fit • “conformational change”• bring chemical groups in position to catalyze
reaction
Substrate Specificity of Enzymes
• Induced fit of a substrate brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the reaction
Fig. 8-16
Substrate
Active site
Enzyme Enzyme-substratecomplex
(b)(a)
Factors Affecting Enzyme Function
• Enzyme concentration
• Substrate concentration
• Temperature
• pH
• Salinity
• Activators
• Inhibitors
catalase
Cofactors
• Cofactors are nonprotein enzyme helpers
- Cofactors may be inorganic (zinc, iron, copper)
OR…
• An organic cofactor is called a coenzyme
- Coenzymes include vitamins
Enzyme Inhibitors
• Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme, competing with the substrate
• Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to another part of an enzyme, causing the enzyme to change shape and making the active site less effective
• Examples of inhibitors include toxins, poisons, pesticides, and antibiotics
Competitive Inhibitor • Inhibitor & substrate “compete” for active site
– penicillin blocks enzyme bacteria use to build cell walls
– disulfiram (Antabuse)treats chronic alcoholism
• blocks enzyme that breaks down alcohol
• severe hangover & vomiting5-10 minutes after drinking
Allosteric Regulation of Enzymes
• Allosteric regulation may either inhibit or stimulate an enzyme’s activity
• Allosteric regulation occurs when a regulatory molecule binds to a protein at one site (not active site)– This binding changes shape of enzyme
Non-Competitive Inhibitor • Inhibitor binds to site other than active site
– allosteric inhibitor binds to allosteric site – causes enzyme to change shape
• conformational change• active site is no longer functional binding site
– keeps enzyme inactive
– some anti-cancer drugsinhibit enzymes involved in DNA synthesis
• stop DNA production
• stop division of more cancer cells
– cyanide poisoningirreversible inhibitor of Cytochrome C, an enzyme in cellular respiration
• stops production of ATP
Feedback Inhibition
• In feedback inhibition, the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
• Feedback inhibition prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product than is needed