Chapter 7: Hedonism & Sensory Stimulation

PSY 338: Motivation

HEDONISM

Motivated to obtain pleasure; avoidance of pain

•Several philosophers have argued for hedonic explanations of behavior

• Hobbes – all actions fell into this category

• Spencer – pleasurable behaviors were adaptive (survival value); pleasure and pain were important modifiers of behavior

HEDONISMTroland (1932)

•Felt nervous system was especially tuned to pleasurable and aversive events

•Three categories of stimulation:

• Beneception

• Pleasant feelings are aroused by stimuli

• Nociception

• Occurs as the result of stimuli that arouse unpleasant feelings

• Neutroception

• Exists when stimuli cause neither pleasant nor unpleasant feelings

HEDONISMBeebe-Center (1932)

Hedonic Continuum

•Pleasantness Neutral Zone Unpleasantness

•Pleasant and unpleasant sensations depend on the way in which the sense organs react to stimulation; different types of activity in our sensory systems account for these feelings

Bright pressure

•Reactions of the sense organs in this manner produce pleasant feelings

Dull pressure

•Reactions of the sense organs in this manner produce unpleasant feelings

HEDONISM

Beebe-Center (1932)

Instructional Set

•Felt that instructions can change the perceived pleasantness or unpleasantness of stimuli

SIGN, INTENSITY, & DURATIONYoung (1959)

Hedonic Continuum

•Negative Indifferent Positive

•The affective processes represented by this continuum have three properties

1. Sign

• Approach behavior (+) vs. Avoidance behavior (-)

2. Intensity

• Preference test given to determine affective intensity

3. Duration

• Some hedonic processes may last only as long as the sensory stimulation; others linger

SIGN, INTENSITY, & DURATIONYoung (1959)

•The nervous system is constructed so that organisms attempt to maximize positive affect and minimize negative affect

•Organisms will learn behaviors that lead to positive affect change and away from negative affective change

SENSORY STIMULATION & THE HEDONIC CONTINUUM

Young & Falk (1956)

•Sensory and hedonic intensity are not closely related

• Choice between distilled water and salt water

• Initial preference for salty water

• Later, they increased salt solution and soon the preference changed for the distilled water

• When sensory stimulation initially increases, so does positive affect; this continues to a point, however, as further increases in sensory output are witnessed affect turns negative

SENSORY STIMULATION & THE HEDONIC CONTINUUM

Young & Falk (1956)

•Three motivational influences on behavior:

1. Positive affect leads to approach behavior; Negative affect leads to avoidance behavior

2. Affective processes activate and direct behavior; so that maximum positive affect and minimum negative affect is maintained

3. Affective processes lead to the development of stable motives and dispositions

SENSORY STIMULATION & THE HEDONIC CONTINUUM

Young (1973)

•Changes in motivation are seen as dependent on changes in hedonic value

• Rats given choices between flour and sugar prefer sugar; however if a third substance replaces one of the test foods an abrupt change may occur in the behavior exhibited towards the old substance in the next preference test

THE MOTIVATIONAL INFLUENCES OF SENSATIONS

Pfaffmann (1960)

•Suggested sensory stimulation by itself is motivating and leads to approach behavior

• Reported that animals show typical preference-aversion behaviors for salt even if the fluid passing through the mouth does not reach the stomach

• Taste sensations are sufficient to trigger approach or avoidance behavior without having to be tied to any physiological change

THE MOTIVATIONAL INFLUENCES OF SENSATIONS

Pfaffmann (1960)

•Agreed that hedonic intensity and sensory intensity are not equivalent

•Recorded electrical activity of nerves sending taste information to the brain

•Showed that as salt concentration of a fluid increases so does the electrical activity of the nerve

•However, hedonic value as evidenced by choices, does not always positively correlate with the sensory stimulation

• At first it does (increases) but then there is a change in hedonic response (decreases)

HEDONIC VALUE AND CONTACT RECEPTORS

Stimulation of contact receptors (taste, touch) are much more often associated with strong emotions than is the stimulation of distance receptors (vision)

•More likely to be associated with consummatory behavior

• Taste eating

• Genital contact sexual intercourse

•The hedonic behavior provided by direct contact (or lack of) may be an evolutionary adaptive response

• Distance receptors – need time to make judgments

• Contact receptors – quick actions often must be made to survive (pain)

PAIN

Pain Receptors

•Simple, bare nerve endings that travel along the peripheral nervous system until they reach the spinal cord

•Pain messages then are eventually sent to the brain

•A complicated mixture of sensation and emotion

WAYS OF RELIEVING PAIN

Researchers posit that we have a neurological “gate” located in spinal cord

•The spinal cord areas that receive messages from pain receptors also receive input from other skin receptors and from axons descending from the brain

•Nonpain stimuli provide input that can close the “gates” and decrease pain perception by releasing endorphins

•The “gates” can also be closed by focusing your attention elsewhere

Melzack & Wall (1965)

WAYS OF RELIEVING PAIN

Gate Theory can often be applied to sporting events

Melzack & Wall (1965)

GATE CONTROL THEORY OF PAIN

Worthington, Martin, Shumate, & Carpenter (1983)

•Participants put into two groups

•Group 1: Lamaze method used

•Group 2: No instructions

McCaul & Malott (1984)

•Participants put into three groups

•Group 1: Pleasant images

•Group 2: Count backwards

•Group 3: No instructions

The “ice-water” Experiments

VIRTUAL REALITY DISTRACTION

• 3-D virtual world seems to help distract attention of burn victims

GENDER DIFFERENCES

Women are at much higher risk for many clinical pain conditions

•Some evidence that postoperative and procedural pain may be more severe for women

•Interaction of many factors: genetics, hormonal differences, differing gender roles, and other psychological factors (learning and emotional reactions)

PAIN OF THE PHANTOM LIMB

Approximately 80% of amputees have some phantom limb sensations•Sometimes, its a tingling sensation that is felt•Others experience pain•Intensity, duration, and severity all are variable•Cause is still debated but many feel the brain reorganizes itself so that different feelings are sent to the missing limb area

Phantom Limb Pain

NOVELTY, CURIOSITY, & EXPLORATORY BEHAVIOR

Behaviors released by stimulation

Berlyne (1960)•Novelty and uncertainty motivate us by increasing the arousal level of the organism•We attempt to maintain an optimal level of arousal•If bored we seek stimulation; if too excited we seek to lower our stimulation•Novel or surprising stimuli will usually motivate us because they provide small changes in arousal that are usually pleasant (leading to optimal levels)

BEHAVIORS RELEASED BY STIMULATION

Montgomery (1953)Procedure•Rats are allowed to explore one of three mazes that are painted black, white, or grey •Each rat allowed to explore twiceResults•Maximum exploration occurred when the second maze was maximally different from the first; least exploration occurred when the second maze was identical to the firstInterpretation•Stimulus change (novelty) motivates behaviors such as exploration

THE NEED FOR STIMULATION

Early Sensory Restriction

Thompson & Melzack (1956)

Procedure•Two groups of 4-week-old dogs raised separately•Group 1: raised in isolation (individual cages); released after 7-10 months •Group 2: raised normally

EARLY SENSORY RESTRICTION

Thompson & Melzack (1956)Results•Group 1 dogs were extremely active (like puppies)•They explored new environment long after control dogs had become bored•Isolated dogs explored more in maze tests than controls; this continued for several years•Higher overall activity levels•Less sensitive to painful objects•Problem-solving abilities were impaired•Submissive to other dogsInterpretation•Long-lasting and apparently permanent effects from the sensory restriction

ATTACHMENT

• A deep, affectionate, close, and enduring relationship that an infant has to his or her caregivers during their first year of life is of utmost importance

• This was illustrated in Harry Harlow’s experiments with monkeys at the Primate Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin Harry Harlow

(1905-1981)

HARLOW (1958)Maternal Deprivation•In Harlow's initial experiments infant monkeys were separated from their mothers at about 6-12 hours after birth and were raised instead with surrogate mothers made either of heavy wire or of wood covered with soft terry cloth

• Both types of surrogates were present in the cage, but only one was equipped with a nipple from which the infant could nurse

•Some infants received nourishment from the wire mother, and others were fed from the cloth mother

• Even when the wire mother was the only source of nourishment, the infant monkey spent a greater amount of time clinging to the cloth surrogate displaying contact comfort

HARLOW’S SURROGATE MOTHERS

UNFORTUNATELY…

The actions of surrogate-raised monkeys became bizarre later in life…

•They engaged in stereotyped behavior patterns such as clutching themselves and rocking constantly back and forth

•They exhibited excessive and misdirected aggression

•Self-injurious behavior

MATERNAL DEPRIVATION

Harlow & Suomi (1970)

•Contact most important but other factors needed as well: lactation, temperature, and rocking movement

•Facial design not important

PROTEST, DESPAIR, DETACHMENT, & AMBIVALENCE

Bowlby (1973)Procedure•Observations of children during parent-child separations

Results•Children go through four stages of behavior

See next slide

PROTEST, DESPAIR, DETACHMENT, & AMBIVALENCE

Bowlby (1973)

Four stages of behavior after child-parent separation

Protest

•Crying for up to nine days; especially around bedtime and during the night; uncooperativeDespair

•Accepted some comfort from attendants; possessive; hostile; toilet training regressedDetachment

•Various degrees of detachment witnessed upon return to their parents; possibly for several days; depended on length of time of separationAmbivalence

•Sometimes: hostility, rejection, defiance of the parents•Sometimes: clinging, crying behavior•As long as 12 weeks duration

DEPRIVATION DWARFISM

Reduction of bone maturation and growth due to a lack of appropriate home conditions; very small; look malnourished•Lethargic, apathetic; withdrawn•Sad faces•Avoidance behaviorSocial environment appears to be causing these problems•Disordered families with multiple (interacting) issues•Parental care is passively neglectful •Start growing after removal form home environment

• Opposite effect as what is seen in usual child-parent situations

Patton & Gardner (1963)

DEPRIVATION DWARFISM

Patton & Gardner (1963)

•Quantity of growth hormone (somatotrophin) is subnormal is these children despite no pituitary malfunction

•Seems to be related to disruption of normal sleep pattern

•Critical period for optimal growth

poor social environment disruption of sleep alters somatotrophin dwarfism

SENSORY DEPRIVATION IN ADULTS

Heron (1957)Procedure•Male college students were asked to lie on a bed for as long as they could (minimum of 24 hours) in a lighted semi-soundproof room; monetary incentive to participate •Wore translucent goggles; wore cotton gloves which were attached to long cardboard cuffs that extended from fingertips to elbow•Slept on U-shaped pillow; AC provided monotonous background noise•Propaganda talk on psychic phenomena

See next slide - Deprivation chamber

SENSORY DEPRIVATION STUDIES

Heron (1957, 1961)

The Pathology of Boredom

SENSORY DEPRIVATION IN ADULTS

Heron (1957)Results•Most left by Day 2•Some before the 24 hour minimum•Boredom, restlessness, irritability, impaired thinking, hallucinations, changes in emotions, changes in brain activity; change in belief that psychic phenomena existed•Perceptual problems afterwardsInterpretation•Sensory deprivation for most people is clearly aversive•People maintain a certain level of stimulation and become motivated to increase it if deprived of adequate stimulation levels

SENSORY DEPRIVATION STUDIES

Total Isolation TV show

SENSATION SEEKING

Zuckerman (1971)

•Defined “sensation seeking” as a trait describing the tendency to seek novel, varied, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take risks for the sake of the experience•These people want to avoid boredom at all costs

Marvin Zuckerman(1928 – )

ZUCKERMAN (1984)

• Skydivers are characterized with both higher sensation seeking ambitions and a search for thrilling experiences, than most other partakers of other risky activities

• It is claimed that high sensation seekers believe risks to be not as great as do low sensation seekers

• The sensations are also valued less by the low sensation seeker

• An earlier view of psychologists in the late fifties was that skydivers had an inherent death wish

SENSATION SEEKING SCALES

Four Scales

• Thrill & Adventure Seeking TAS)

• Experience Seeking (ES)

• Disinhibition (DIS)

• Boredom Susceptibility (BS)

Thrill & Adventure Seeking (TAS)

A desire to engage in activities involving elements of speed or danger

APPARENTLY, THIS ADVENTURE-SEEKER WAS NOT ARRESTED

EXPERIENCE SEEKING (ES)

• Associating with unusual people

• A liking of arousing music and art

• The use of alcohol and drugs

• Exhibitionism

DISINHIBITION (DIS)

• Expresses a hedonistic philosophy; heavy “social drinking,” variety of sexual partners, wild parties, gambling

BOREDOM SUSCEPTIBILITY

• A dislike of repetition, routine work, predictable, dull or boring people

• A preference for exciting people and variety; a restlessness when things are unchanging

AGE AND SEX DIFFERENCES

• Men generally score higher than women on the total score and on all the subscales except Experience Seeking

• Scores increase during childhood, peak in the late teens or early twenties, and thereafter decrease steadily with age

EARLY SENSATION SEEKING

Identified in children as young as 2 years of age

•Quicker to reach for and react to new toys and sounds

•Chose more intense toys

•More likely to explore

•More likely to take physical risks

TOTAL SENSATION SEEKING

This ORTHIS?

TOTAL SENSATION SEEKINGHigh SS have more accidents when driving•Sensation seeking has been shown to correlate highly with accident involvement especially when paired with aggressiveness•Positive correlation between SS and driving Speed•Gambling & other financial risks•Promiscuity

RELATIONSHIPS

People with similar scores on the Sensation Seeking Scale tend to be more romantically compatible with each other

•High SS Seekers tend to see love as a game without strong commitment

•Low SS consider the long-term potential of partners rather than just their current arousal value

RELATIONSHIPSThe best combination is two people low in sensation seeking. They're happy with each other and don't become habituated to each other

•Two high sensation seekers are OK for a while, but even though their partner might be exciting, they are looking for variety everywhere

•The worst combination is high-low, because they just don't understand each other's interests

•Over all, high SS exhibit less relationship satisfaction than low SS and are more likely to divorce

•Divorced males score higher in SS than single and married males, and divorced and single females score higher than married females

Psychology Today Report (2004)

OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY: HEDONISM REVISTED

Solomon & Corbit (1974)

•Proposed that both pleasant and aversive hedonic states are opposed by a CNS process that reduces their intensity

•The process reduces these primary hedonic sensations by producing a hedonic state that is opposite in quality to that of the initial stimulus

• Two processes are interacting

• State A: initial hedonic reaction

• State B: opposite hedonic reaction

CREDITS

Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites:•faculty.knox.edu/fmcandre/Psyc100_Consciousness.ppt•http://www.austincollege.edu/Attachments/SensationSeeking.ppt#287,4,Definition