chapter 5 trends and pattern of higher education in...
TRANSCRIPT
197
CHAPTER 5
TRENDS AND PATTERN OF
HIGHER EDUCATION IN KERALA
“Education is not the answer to the question. Education is the
means to the answer to all questions”
Unknown.
The future of humanity depends very much on the cultural, scientific,
and technological developments which evolve from the centres of Higher
education. The mission of a higher educational institution (a college or a
university), hence, is to be a pioneer in the creation of an era so as to
preserve the God-given nobility of human existence, recognizing its moral
and spiritual dimensions. This truth has to be all the more insisted upon as
every centre of excellence in higher education should contribute to the future
development of society through the training of qualified individuals and
promotion of scientific research for welfare of mankind and preserving
human values and upholding human dignity.
Education is not merely the acquisition of textual knowledge, but a
continuous ongoing process towards the attainment of an integral personality and
culture. Education that does not aim at inculcating such human values and
enhancing humane qualities is no education at all. In the context of globalisation,
an education with a wider global perspective is the need of the hour. The vision of
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an institution of higher learning must be to produce intellectually trained, morally
upright, socially committed, and spiritually inspired individuals who can face any
modern challenge, but with a humane face.
“…It is the pleasure of the bee to gather honey of the flower, but it is also
the pleasure of the flower to yield its honey to the bee.
For to the bee, a flower is a fountain of life,
And to the flower, a bee is a messenger of love,
And to both bee and flower, the giving and receiving of pleasure is a need
and an ecstasy”.1
As Khalil Gibran narrates, “a teacher is flower, a student the bee: The
knowledge of the teacher is nectar; the inquisition of the student is the
redolence of the bee. For the teacher it is the glee and beatitude to pour the
knowledge. And to the student, it is the bliss and salvation to store it”.
Jacques Delors, Chairman of the International Commission on
Education for the 21st century (1996, UNESCO), in his report titled
“Learning: the Treasure Within”, observes, “the Commission does not see
education as a miracle cure or a magic formula opening the door to a world
in which all ideals will be attained, but as one of the principal means
available to foster a deeper and more harmonious form of human
development and thereby reduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance, oppression,
and war”.2
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Education is valued not only as a means to an end, but also as an end
in itself. And then the word education can be considered as an acronym of
E = Enlightenment
D = Dedication
U = Understanding
C = Curiosity
A = Acceptance
T = Tolerance
I = Intelligence
O = Organisation
N = Nobility.
An educated is one who is enlightened with wider visions to
appreciate everything around, dedicated with a missionary zeal to the service
of the community in particular and society in general, piqued with a curiosity
to learn the why, what, and who of everything, armed with a feeling of
acceptance to the realities of situation to make one pragmatic, acquire a spirit
of tolerance irrespective of caste, creed and religion, approach any situation
in an organized, systematic and streamlined manner to acquire nobler
qualities far from narrow-mindedness and parochialism.
The role and function of higher educational institutions are to be
integral to the process of social engineering. To attain the goal, the higher
educational institutions must provide quality education. The rhetoric of
globalization and modernization apply pressure for a paradigm shift in
contemporary higher education in the country and the state. Higher education
cannot be a hit and miss exercise. Higher education is required to be ‘High’
enough. “Quality” is the buzz word that we hear everywhere, to day. The
higher education in the state of Kerala presents a very sorry picture of
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continuous degradation of quality, over the years. The notion that the
university is an intellectual thoroughfare is certainly absent; the concept of a
college as a vibrant community of thinking minds is passé.
Literacy
Literacy is a basic step towards education, which is a process of life-
long learning and an entry point to the world of communication and
information. The literacy rate of Kerala, which was 47.18 per cent in 1951
almost doubled in 2001. According to 2001 census, the literacy rate for
Kerala is 90.92 per cent as against the all India average of 65.38 per cent.
Keral’s male literacy rate at 94.20 per cent and female literacy rate at 87.86
per cent is unique feature compared to the corresponding national averages
of 75.85 per cent and 54.16 per cent respectively. Among the districts in
Kerala, the highest literacy rate of 95.90 per cent is in Kottayam and the
lowest in Pakakkad at 84.31 per cent. A taluk-wise analysis reveals that
literacy rate is the highest in Mallappally taluk (97.03 per cent ) of
Pathanamthitta district and the lowest in Nilamboor taluk (81.39 per cent ) of
Malappuram district.3
School Education
In Kerala, there were 12644 schools in the year 2006 consisting of
6817 lower primary schools, 3037 upper primary schools, and 2790 high
schools. Besides there were 587 CBSE Schools, 78 ICSE Schools, 26
Kendriya Vidyalaya and 13 Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya.4 (A vivid account
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6827 6817
3042 3047 2781 2790
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
L.P U.P H.S
2005 2006
is given in chapter three regarding the number of schools and school
enrolments in Kerala) The following table shows the educational
infrastructure (stage-wise) in Kerala during 2005-06.
Table 5.1
Stage-wise Educational Infrastructure: 2005 and 2006, Kerala.
Year L.P U.P H.S Total
2005 6827 3042 2781 12650
2006 6817 3047 2790 12644
Source: Directorate of Public Instructions, Government of Kerala, 2006
Figure 5.1
Stage-wise Educational Infrastructure: 2005 and 2006, Kerala
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78
26 13
587
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
CBSE ICSE Kendriya
Vidyalaya
Jawahar Navodaya
Vidyalaya
Table 5.2
National Educational Infrastructure: 2006, Kerala.
Year CBSE ICSE Kendriya Vidyalaya
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya
2006 587 78 26 13
Source: Directorate of Public Instructions, Government of Kerala, 2006
Kerala has been ranked the most developed state at all levels of
schooling, except higher secondary. At the higher secondary level, Haryana
ranked the highest followed by Kerala, Punjab, and Rajasthan.5
Figure 5.2
National Educational Infrastructure: 2006, Kerala
University and Higher Education
The higher education system in Kerala has increased manifold. The
number of universities and colleges today is several times higher compared
to the time of the formation of the State. Arts and science colleges still
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dominate the higher education sector in Kerala. The number of arts and
science colleges in the government Sector is 39 and in the aided Sector 150.
According to 2006 statistics, the total number of university-wise arts and
science colleges are given in the following table:
Table 5.3
University-wise Arts and Science Colleges: 2006.
Sl.No. Name of University
Govt. Aided Total Un-Aided
1 Kerala 9 37 46 14
2 Calicut 17 45 62 50
3 Mahatma Gandhi
7 56 63 57
4 Kannur 6 12 18 46
Total 39 150 189 167
Source: Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006.
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Table 5.4
District-wise Number of Government and Private Sector Colleges
(Aided only) in Kerala - (2007)
Sl. Number Districts Government Colleges
Private Aided
Colleges Total
1 Thiruvananthapuram 08 12 20
2 Kollam 01 12 13
3 Pathanamthitta -- 09 09
4 Alappuzha -- 12 12
5 Kottayam 01 20 21
6 Idukki 02 06 08
7 Ernakulam 04 21 25
8 Thrissur 03 17 20
9 Palakkad 03 07 10
10 Malappuram 03 09 12
11 Kozhikkode 06 08 14
12 Wayanad 02 04 06
13 Kannur 02 09 11
14 Kasargod 03 02 05
Total 38 148 186
Source: Official Web Site, Department of Higher Education, government of Kerala.
The above table reveals that the maximum number of arts, science
and commerce colleges are there in Ernakulam district (25) and the
minimum number is there in Kasaragod district. The northern districts –
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2013
9
12
21825
20
10
12
146 11 5
Thiruvananthapuram Kollam Pathanamthitta
Alappuzha Kottayam Idukki
Ernakulam Thrissur Palakkad
Malappuram Kozhikkode Wayanad
Kannur Kasargod
Kasaragod, Wayanad, and Kannur – lag behind in number of colleges and
the rate of accessibility of higher education. The following chart is ready-
reckoner of the skewed distribution of colleges in Kerala.
Figure 5.3
The skewed distribution of colleges in districts in Kerala 2007
The Faculty in Arts, Science And Commerce Colleges in Kerala
The number of teachers in arts and science colleges has decreased
form 10468 in 2004-2005 to 9802 in 2005-2006. University-wise break up of
teachers shows that the maximum number of teachers is in Mahatma Gandhi
University, Kottayam (3523) followed by the University of Kerala (2833),
University of Calicut (2609) and Kannur University (837). The percentage of
women teachers is 45.
The university-wise number of teachers in Arts and Science Colleges
in Kerala is given in the table given below.
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Table 5.5
University-wise Number of Teachers in Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala (2003 – 06).
Sl.No Name of University
Number of Teachers
2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total
1 Kerala 1526 1625 3151 1632 1535 3167 1528 1305 2833
2 M.G 1720 1973 3693 1987 1701 3688 1891 1632 3523
3 Calicut 1351 1440 2791 1461 1372 2833 1401 1208 2609
4 Kannur 310 402 712 402 378 780 562 275 837
Total 4907 5440 10347 5482 4986 10468 5382 4420 9802
Source: Economic Review, 2006, Planning Board, Government of Kerala.
Enrollment of Students
The total number of students enrolled in various arts and science
colleges (excluding un-aided colleges) under the four general universities in
Kerala during 2006 is 1.79 lakh as against 1.77 lakh in 2005.6 Although it
shows an overall increase of 1736 students compared to previous year, a
substantial decrease of 2715 is noticed in the case of undergraduates. Out of
this, a bigger decrease is found in B.A and B.Sc courses. Of the 1.79 lakh
enrolled students, 156029 (87.31 per cent ) are degree students and the rest
22677 (12.69 per cent ) are post graduate students. Girl students outdistance
boys in 2006 too as in previous year. Their percentage to the total student
community is 66.87 in 2006.7 SC students constitute 14.19 per cent of the
total students and the corresponding figure for ST students is only 1.05.8
More details are given in the table given below.
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Table 5.6
Enrolment of Students in Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala: 2005 & 2006.
Name of
Course
2005 2006 Increase
in Enrolment
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total
BA 23004 45618 68622 22371 45165 67536 -1086
B.Sc. 20791 45114 65905 19788 44382 64170 -1735
B.Com 11143 13074 24217 11338 12985 24323 +106
Sub-
Total
54938 103806 158744 53497 102532 156029 -2715
M.A 1862 5581 7443 2080 6309 8389 +946
M.Sc. 1576 6616 8192 2414 8249 10663 +2741
M.Com 852 1739 2591 1216 2409 3625 +1034
Sub-
Total
4290 13936 18226 5710 16967 22677 +4451
Total 59228 117742 176970 59207 119499 178706 +1736
Source: Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006.
Out of the 1.56 lakh degree students 34.29 per cent are boys and
65.71 per cent are girls. As far as SC students are concerned, boys form
14.44 per cent of the total students; the corresponding ST representation is
only 1.05 per cent. The proportion of SC girls to total girl students is 14.08
per cent. However, the proportion for the ST is only 0.96 per cent.
Out of the total students in various degree courses, 67536 (43.3 per
cent ) are BA students, 64170 (41.1 per cent ) are B.Sc students and 24323
208
59228
117742
59207
119499
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
120000
2005 2006
Boys Girls
(15.6 per cent ) are B.Com students. The percentage of girls in BA courses is
66.9. Sixteen subjects are offered for BA courses, of which the maximum
number of students is admitted to economics. Out of the total B.Sc students,
69.2 per cent are girls. A total of 15 subjects are offered for B.Sc courses.
The maximum number of students has chosen mathematics. In the B.Com
courses, the share of girls to total students is 53.4 per cent.
Figure 5.4
Enrolment of total Students in Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala: 2005 & 2006
The total number of students enrolled for postgraduate courses during
2006 is 22677 as against 18226 in 2005. Out of 22677 students, 8389 (37 per
cent ) are in MA courses, 10663 (47 per cent ) are in M.Sc courses and 3625
(16 per cent ) are in M.Com. The percentage of girl students in post graduate
courses is 74.82. A total of 16 subjects are offered for M.A courses and
among them the maximum number of students has opted for economics, i.e.,
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1892 students (22.55 per cent ). The percentage of girls to the total M.Sc
students is 77.36. Out of the 10 different subjects offered for M.Sc courses,
the maximum number of students is admitted to mathematics, i.e., 2045
students (19.18 per cent ). In the case of M.Com courses, women’s
representation is 66.46 per cent.
Out of 22677 postgraduate students, SC students are 2827 which is
12.47 per cent of the total. Women SC students constitute 11.73 per cent of
total women students. However, ST students are only 226, not even one per
cent of the total. ST representation among women students is only 0.88 per
cent.
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Table 5.7
Details of SC/ST students of Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala: 2001-02, 2003-04, 2005-06 (Students in Nos.)
Sl.No. Courses
Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe 2001-02 2003-04 2005-06 2001-02 2003-04 2005-06
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 B.A. 1516 3016 4532 3103 4007 7110 3862 7016 10878 90 271 361 260 360 620 376 562 938 2 B.Sc. 1106 2311 3417 2007 3513 5520 2623 5231 7854 66 98 164 103 117 220 124 242 366 3 B.Com 998 1200 2198 1381 1816 3197 1609 2192 3801 89 90 179 109 93 202 162 183 345 4 B.Ed. 40 109 149 60 303 363 79 390 469 6 25 31 10 39 49 14 56 70 5 B.B.A. 40 40 80 53 51 104 120 92 212 5 2 7 5 3 8 7 7 14 6 B.B.S. 4 6 10 4 12 16 11 12 23 4 2 6 4 2 6 4 2 6 7 B.P.E. 5 8 13 7 8 15 12 0 12 0 2 2 0 0 0 1 1 2 8 B.B.M 9 12 21 11 12 23 18 12 30 4 4 8 3 4 7 3 4 7 9 B.C.A 0 10 10 4 15 19 17 15 32 2 0 2 1 1 2 3 1 4 10 M.A. 190 506 696 270 670 940 380 875 1255 16 25 41 21 23 44 33 68 101 11 M.Sc. 117 490 607 163 698 861 271 723 994 12 20 32 12 27 39 24 56 80 12 M.Com. 107 250 357 143 310 453 186 392 578 11 15 26 9 17 26 19 26 45 13 M.Ed. 5 4 9 5 4 9 5 4 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14 M.S.W. 4 16 20 4 20 24 7 27 34 0 1 1 0 0 0 2 1 3 15 M.B.A. 4 5 9 8 5 13 8 5 13 2 2 4 0 0 0 2 3 5 16 M.C.A. 2 3 5 4 3 7 4 3 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 M.Phil. 4 7 11 7 7 14 7 7 14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Total 4151 7993 12144 7234 11454 18688 9219 16996 26215 307 557 864 537 686 1223 774 1212 1986
Source: Directorate of Collegiate Education.
211
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
2001-02 2003-04 2005-06
There is a constant and steady increase in the enrolment of scheduled
caste and scheduled tribe students in all the programmes of graduation and
post graduation in the arts, science and commerce colleges in Kerala. This
trend is vivid from the above table. Higher education in Kerala is accessible
to these two categories. In certain cases even seats remain vacant. The
following diagrams adds clarity to the progressive trends.
Figure 5.5
Total strength of Scheduled Caste students of Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala during 2001-02, 2003-04, 2005-06
(the progressive trend)
212
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
2001-02 2003-04 2005-06
Figure 5.6
Total strength of Scheduled Tribe students of Arts and Science Colleges in Kerala during 2001-02, 2003-04, 2005-06
(the progressive trend)
Private Registration
The number of private registrants show a fluctuating trend. It was
78734 in 2002-03 and it declined to 70902 during 2003-04. It then increased
to 72322 during 2004-05. A further decline was there in 2005-06 and the
number fell down to 722229. The University of Kerala has discontinued
private registration in PG Courses from 2003-04. There is no private
registration for P G Courses in the University of Calicut too10.
The following table shows the break up of private registration in the
state (2001 to 2005).
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Table 5.8
Year-wise break up of private registration (2001 to 2005)
Year Kerala University Calicut University Mahatma Gandhi University
BA MA B.Com M.Com M.Sc Total BA MA B.Com M.Com M.Sc Total BA MA B.Com M.Com M.Sc Total
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
2001 9888 3949 12458 1952 565 28812 16822 6137 13779 2021 510 39269 3659 2835 11056 14859 203 19612
2002 8978 3640 10510 2625 1000 26753 18624 5930 18052 2734 483 45823 4381 2930 13033 2556 272 23172
2003 6466 N.A 9866 N.A N.A 16332 19738 4643 21534 3205 570 49690 2754 3018 9199 2322 306 17599
2004 6172 N.A 7175 N.A N.A 13347 18455 N.A 22472 N.A N.A 40927 2530 3220 7732 2794 352 16628
2005 7000 N.A 7500 N.A N.A 14500 18096 N.A 23448 N.A N.A 41544 2616 3172 7145 2967 378 16278
Source: Universities in Kerala.
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The private registration has lead the growth of parallel colleges in the
state. The growth of parallel colleges by leaps and bounds in Kerala has
affected quality of our higher education very much. The parallel colleges
conduct programmes of graduation, post graduation and even professional
courses like MCA and MBA. Faculty available are very poor and even one
per cent of them does not hold the minimum level requirement of academic
brilliance. These parallel colleges are the academic slums and must be
regulated. The recent trend is that they have turned to professional courses of
MCA and MBA as already mentioned above.
Technical Education
The Technical Education System in the state covers engineering,
technology, management, architecture and such at diploma, degree, post
graduate and research levels. industrial trai8ning institutes, fine arts colleges,
technical high schools etc., also come under technical education system.
National Institute of Technology (NIT), Kozhikode, having the deemed
university status, offers graduate and post graduate courses. Cochin
University of Science and Technology (CUSAT) functions in line with the
status of a technical university.
Quality Improvement of Technical Education
In recent years, there has been an exponential growth in the number
of technical institutions especially engineering colleges. This mushrooming
has had implications for quality. In order to upscale and support the ongoing
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efforts of the government in improving the quality of technical education, a
Technical Education Quality Improvement Programme (TEQIP) has been
launched with the assistance of the world bank, in 2004.
The broad objectives of the programme are:
1. Selected engineering colleges can achieve their own set
targets for excellence and sustain it with autonomy and
accountability.
2. Improve efficiency and effectiveness of the technical
education management system in the institutions selected. The
vision is to ensure the highest quality in technical education at
state level consistent with state and national policies and
requirement to produce the best world-class engineering
professional so as to provide impetus to industry, business and
services.
Engineering Colleges
In recent years, there has been a remarkable increase in the number of
engineering colleges especially in the form of private self-financing colleges.
By the end of the ninth Five Year Plan, the number of engineering colleges
was 44.11 At present there are 84 engineering colleges with a sanctioned intake of
24452 seats. Out of 84 engineering colleges, nine are government, five are private
aided, and 70 are self-financing. University-wise analysis shows that the
maximum number of engineering colleges is in M G University (22), followed by
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the University of Kerala (19) CUSAT (18), University of Calicut (18), Kannur
University (5), and the Agricultural University (2). The Institute of Human
Resource Development (IHRD), Kerala, also conducts engineering courses.
There are nine Engineering Colleges functioning as self financing institutions
under IHRD.12 The following table carries the list of engineering colleges under
various universities in Kerala during the year 2006-07.
Table 5.9
University-wise Engineering Colleges in Kerala, 2006-07
Sl No. Name of University No. of Colleges
1 University of Kerala 19
2 Mahatma Gandhi University 22
3 University of Calicut 18
4 Kannur University 5
5 CUSAT 18
6 Agricultural University 2
Total 84
Source: Directorate of Technical Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.
The total number of approved engineering colleges in India is 1358
with an intake capacity of 450954.13
The district-wise analysis of engineering Colleges in Kerala reveals
that Thiruvananthapuram has the highest density (15), followed by
Ernakulam (13). No government engineering college in Kollam,
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Pathanamthitta, Ernakulam, and Malappuram districts in the state. In all
other districts there is at least one government engineering college.14
Polytechnics and Technical High Schools
There are 43 government polytechnics and six private aided
polytechnics in the state. The annual intake in the government and aided
polytechnics is 8160 and 1500 respectively for 2006-07. Thus altogether
there is a sanctioned intake of 9660. In addition, six model Polytechnics are
functioning under IHRD.15
At secondary level, there are 39 government technical high schools.
The trade-wise annual intake remains 2085 in 2006-07. Total student
strength during 2006-07 was 6305 compared to 6255 in the year 2005-06.16
Institute of Human Resource Development (IHRD)
IHRD was established by the State Government under Travancore
Cochin Literary, Scientific and Charitable Societies Registration Act of 1955
to develop manpower in the field of electronics, computer and allied areas.
There are nine engineering colleges, six model polytechnics, 18 colleges of
applied science, 25 technical higher secondary schools, two regional centres,
and two extension centres functioning under IHRD. Thus, altogether there
are 62 institutions with intake capacity of 10114 under IHRD at present.17
The ensuing table shows the strength and annual intake of students
institutions under IHRD.
218
Table 5.10
Institutions and annual intake of students under IHRD: 2006
Sl.No. Name of Institutions No. of Institutions
Annual Intake
Students admitted
1 Engineering colleges 9 1405 NA
2 Polytechnics 6 700 681
3 Technical higher secondary schools
25 4320 3022
4 College of applied science 18 1489 1124
5 Regional centres (PGDCA)
2 NA NA
6 Extension centres (PGDCA)
2 NA NA
7 In addition, PGDCA is conduced in 22 institutions mentioned above.
- 1720 NA
8 Data entry techniques and PC Maintenance are conducted in 6 institutions mentioned above
- 480 NA
Total 622 10114 4827
Source:Institute of Human Resources Development (IHRD), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006.
Note: NA refers to Not Available.
Industrial Training Institutes and Industrial Training Centres
Industrial training department conducts craftsman training through
Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs), Industrial Training Centres (ITCs), and
219
Related Instruction Centres (RICs). There are 34 government ITIs and 354
ITCs in the State. In addition, 41 ITCs under Scheduled Caste Development
Department and one ITC under Scheduled Tribe Development Department
are functioning in the State. Total seat strength under it is is 9901 in 2006-07
and that of ITCs is 14806.
Arts, Sports, Culture, Heritage and…such
Kerala State Sports Council, Directorate of Sports and Youth affairs,
Kerala state Youth welfare Board, Kerala sahithya academy (Thrissur),
Kerala Sangeetha Nataka Akademy, Kerala Lalitha Kala Akademy, Kerala
Folklore Akademy, Kerala Chalachithra Akademy, Kerala Council for
Historical Research, Kerla State Library Council, Kerala Book Marketing
Society, the Centre for Heritage Studies (CHS, Thrippunithura),
Multipurpose Cultural Complex Society (Vailoppilly Samskrithi Bhavan,
Thiruvananthapuram), MARGI (a training-cum-performing group in theatre
arts like Kadhakali and Koodiyattam), Vasthuvidya Gurukulam, Guru
Gopinath Natana Gramam (Vattiyoorkavu), Kumaranasan National Institute
of Culture, Archaeology Department, Directorate of Archives, Kerala State
Film Development Corporation (KSFDC, Thiruvanathapuram), Institute of
Management in Government (IMG, Thiruvanathapuram and Kochi), Bharat
Bhavan, Jawahar Balabhavan (Thiruvanathapuram), Kerala State Institute of
Children’s Literature, Museums, Zoos and Art Galleries in Kerala are other
temples for learning and higher learning and research in Kerala.
220
Sources of Income for Universities in Kerala
The two major sources of income for the universities in Kerala are the
Plan and Non-Plan grants provided to them by the state government. The
plan and non plan grants for the universities during 2004-05 was Rs.
12601.43 lakh. It increased to 13742.58 lakh during 2005-06. In the budget
estimate for 2006-07, the maximum plan grant is given to Kannur University
and the maximum non plan grant to the University of Kerala. The details
regarding the plan and non plan grants provided to the universities from
2004-05 to 2006-07 are given in the following table:
Table 5.11
Grant-in-Aid given to Universities by Government of Kerala during 2004-05 to 2006-07 (Rs lakhs)
2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 RE
Name of University
Plan Non Plan Total Plan Non Plan Total Plan Non Plan Total
Kerala 382.5 4490.85 4873.35 450 4827.66 5277.66 475 5310.43 5785.43
Calicut 297.5 3142.65 3440.15 350 3378.35 3728.35 375 3631.73 4006.73
Mahatma Gandhi
467.5 1875.30 2342.80 450 2015.95 2465.95 475 2167.15 2642.15
Sree Sankaracharya
127.5 820.00 947.50 150 1048.13 1198.13 150 1048.12 1198.12
Kannur 680.0 317.63 997.63 700 372.49 1072.49 700 400.43 1100.43
Total 1955 10646.43 12601.43 2100 11642.58 13742.58 2175 25115.72 14732.86
Source: Detailed budget estimates: 2006-07, Vol.1, Government of Kerala.
221
Expenditure on Education
Kerala State spent Rs.3207.56 crore for education (excluding Art and
Culture, Sports and Youth Services) during 2004-05 against Rs. 3034.39
crore in 2003-04. During 2005-06 it is estimated to have spent Rs. 3803.01
crore. This shows that state’s expenditure on education increased by 5.71 per
cent in 2004-05 over 2003-04 and the estimated expenditure in 2005-06
over 2004-05 shows 18.56 per cent increase. The figures for 2006-07 are not
yet available.18
Expenditure on education is incurred under both revenue and
capital accounts. In 2004-05, Primary education accounted for 41.50 per
cent of the total expenditure on education; secondary education
including vocational education accounted for 35.78 per cent, university
and higher education 16.07 per cent and technical education 4.99 per
cent. Further, out of the total expenditure, 95.01 per cent is earmarked
for general education and the remaining 4.99 per cent for technical
education. Of the 2004-05 expenditure of Rs. 3207.56 crore, Rs.3093.11
crore (96.43 per cent ) was Non Plan and Rs.114.45 crore (3.57 per cent )
was Plan. The details of revised estimates for 2005-06 and budget
estimates for 2006-07 are given below in the table.
222
Table 5.12
Stage-wise Expenditure on education: 2004-05 to 2006-07 (Rs. Crore)
Sl.No Stage 2004-05 2005-06(RE) 2006-07(BE)
Plan Non Plan
Total Plan Non Plan
Total Plan Non Plan
Total
1 Primary Education
6.67 1324.61 1331.28 7.50 1525.00 1532.50 7.50 1520.25 1527.75
2 Secondary Education
5.81 1141.94 1147.75 35.10 1399.85 1434.95 40.72 1445.37 1486.09
3 University & Higher Edn
25.93 489.43 515.36 29.71 540.34 570.05 30.51 531.77 562.28
4 Adult Education
0.19 0.00 0.19 0.50 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.00 0.50
5 Language Development
9,05 13.35 22.40 1.84 13.50 15.34 1.51 13.67 15.18
6 General 25.01 5.67 30.68 31.39 5.29 36.68 27.36 5.33 32.69
Sub Total General Edn.
72.65 2975.00 3047.65 106.04 3483.97 3590.01 108.10 3516.38 3624.48
7 Technical Education
41.80 118.11 159.91 71.40 141.60 213.00 59.54 143.23 202.77
Total Education
114.45 3093.11 3207.56 177.44 3625.57 3803.01 167.64 3659.61 3827.25
Source: Detailed budget estimates: 2006-07, Vol.1, Government of Kerala. Note: RE refers to Revised Estimate and BE refers to Budget Estimate.
Education Cess in Kerala
An Education Cess @ 2 per cent on direct and indirect central taxes
has been imposed through Finance Act 2004, “so as to fulfill the
commitment of the Government to provide and finance Universalized
Quality Basic Education”.
Unemployment
As on December 31, 2004, the number of employment seekers in
the live register of employment exchanges in India was 405 lakh. This
223
number decreased to 394 lakh in December 2005 and increased to 400
lakh in April 2006.
According to live registers of employment exchanges in Kerala, the
total number of work seekers in 2004 was 37.56 lakhs. This number
decreased to 36.7 lakhs in 2005 registering a decrease of 2.3 per cent. The
total number in September 2006 is 39.87 lakhs of which 38.01 lakhs are
general work seekers and 1.86lakhs professional/ technical work seekers.
The number of work seekers below SSLC decreased from 6.73 lakhs
in 2004 to 6.29 lakhs in 2005 and increased to 6.56 lakhs in September 2006.
The total number of work seekers who posses SSLC and above decreased
from 30.83 lakhs in 2004 to 30.4 lakhs in 2005 and increased to 33.31 lakhs
up to September 2006.
Table 5.13
Number of Work seekers in Kerala, 2006 (No. Lakh)
Year (ending
December)
Below SSLC SSLC and Above Total Work
Seekers Persons Percentage to total
Persons Percentage to total
2001 9.67 21.8 34.64 78.2 44.31
2002 7.12 19.3 29.68 80.7 36.80
2003 7.46 18.6 32.58 81.4 40.04
2004 6.73 17.9 30.83 82.1 37.56
2005 6.29 17.1 30.41 82.9 36.70
September 2006
6.56 16.5 33.31 83.5 39.87
Source: Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.
224
9.67
34.64
7.12
29.68
7.46
32.58
6.73
30.83
6.29
30.41
6.56
33.31
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Sept. 2006
Below SSLC SSLC and Above
The number of graduates registered in employment exchanges stood
at 2.4 lakh in 2004. It decreased to 2.3 lakh in 2005 and increased to 2.4 lakh
in September 2006. The number of job seekers with post graduate degree
decreased from 0.61 lakh in 2004 to 0.55 lakh in 2005 and increased to 0.57
lakh in September 2006.
Figure 5.7
Number of Work seekers in Kerala, 2006 (No. Lakh)
Table 5.14
Number of Work Seekers in Kerala, 2006. (No.Lakh)
Year Graduate Post Graduate Total
2004 2.4 0.61 3.01
2005 2.3 0.55 2.85
September 2006 2.4 0.57 2.97
Total 7.1 1.73 8.83
Source: Compiled from the Data, Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.
225
Of the total employment seekers in 2006, 17.1 per cent are below
SSLC, 15.7 per cent plus two or equivalent, 6.3 per cent graduates and 1.5
per cent post graduates The share of Work Seekers in various levels of
education is given in Table 9.
Table 5.15 Share of Employment Seekers according to level of Education – Kerala
(1996, 2000, 2006)
Sl. No Level of Education
Share (Per Cent)
1996 2000 2006
1 Below SSLC 25.0 22.6 17.1
2 SSLC 60.4 57.3 59.4
3 Plus Two 8.7 12.6 15.7
4 Degree 4.9 6.1 6.3
5 P G 1.0 1.4 1.5
Total 100 100 100
Source: Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.
The number of professional and technical work seekers in 2004 was
1.77 lakh. This number increased to 1.86 lakh in September 2006. It is seen
that more than 93 per cent of the technical and professional employment
seekers are ITI and diploma holders in engineering.
The share of employment seekers with various professional and
technical qualifications is given in Table 10.
226
Table 5.16
Share of Professional and Technical Work Seekers in Kerala
Sl.No Educational Qualification Share (Per cent)
1996 2000 2006
1 Medical Graduates 1.53 1.48 1.93
2 Engineering Graduates 5.64 5.93 3.61
3 Diploma in Engineering 22.15 25.87 23.36
4 ITI Certificate holders (NTC) 69.67 65.94 70.31
5 Agricultural Graduates 0.98 0.77 0.45
6 Veterinary Graduates 0.03 0.01 0.34
Total 100 100 100
Source: Directorate of Employment, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala, 2006.
The number of medical graduates who had registered their names in
the employment exchanges decreased from 3910 in 2004 to 3428 in 2005
and again decreased to 2724 in September 2006. The number of Veterinary
graduate work seekers has decreased from 796 in 2004 to 547 in 2005 and
increased to 611 in September 2006. The number of job seekers in
agricultural Graduates has sharply decreased from 1662 in 2004 to 803 in
2005 and again to 738 in September 2006.19
A particular feature of Kerala’s unemployment situation is that
women outnumber men seeking employment through employment
exchanges. This position is reflected in all the 14 districts in Kerala. Out of
227
the total number of 37.93 lakh job seekers in March 2006, women number
21.98 lakh.20
Thiruvananthapuram district ranks first in the number of job seekers
in both general and professional categories. As on March 31, 2006, the total
number of work seekers in Thiruvanathapuram District is 5.49 lakh of which
3.36 lakh are women and 2.13 lakh are men. The second largest number of
work seekers is from Kollam District. There are 3.99 lakh job seekers in
Kollam District in March, 2006. Out of 2.35 lakh are women and 1.64 lakh
men.
Today, there is a strong feeling that the skills of graduates from the
state do not match the needs and expectations of the employment sector. The
ever increasing number of graduates / postgraduates work seekers in Kerala
is the best index of the unemployability syndrome. What are these skills,
which are expected by the employers of the graduate / postgraduate
workforce? The five top skills identified by employers and required of the
educated workforce are:
1. time management,
2. ability to work under pressure,
3. accuracy and attention to detail,
4. oral communication skills and
5. managing different tasks at the same time.
228
The UNESCO document on “Thematic Debate : The Requirements of the
World of Work” has added a few more to this list as :
“1. flexibility 2. innovativeness 3. creativity 4. entrepreneurship 5.
versatility and 6. teamwork”21
Today, these skills are the parameters by which the quality of higher
education is assessed. Such education enables persons, societies and even
nations acquire competencies required for living meaningfully in a
competitive globalised world. These are the very generic graduate skills or
life skills needed for living a meaningful life.
Taking stock of the higher education scene in Kerala, it is crystal clear
that there is a total lacuna in many skills mentioned above among the
graduates and postgraduates passing out of the portals of our higher
education. Oral communication skills, innovation, creativity and versatility
are the areas of high danger. The large mass of ‘unemployables’ are taught
and released by poorly qualified, under motivated, lowly compensated
faculty with inadequate faculty and outmoded curricula. Yet it is the large
majority which is called upon to grapple with the huge task of nation
building. They are called upon to provide good governance, develop future
businesses, build health and educational infrastructure needed for raising the
standard of living and improving the quality of life.
We have more young adults and they feel the need for advanced
education. In comparison to the developed nations, this is an opportunity to
229
be grabbed by the state. As the West struggles to cope with increasingly aged
and decrepit populations due to the low birth rates, we have access to the
demographic dividend. This dividend can be encashed only if the workers
have the education and skills to learn, grow, achieve, innovate and explore.
Hence, there is need for higher education of a quality to prepare this
workforce.
Table 5.17
International students in Indian Universities from important countries from
1990-91 to 2005-06
Countries 1990-91 1995-96 2000-01 2004-05 (up to Jan.31)
Jordan 1506 291 58 92
Oman 8 30 216 216
Iran 370 240 217 245
Bangladesh 399 1244 576 545
Nepal 651 695 821 873
Malaysia 993 857 148 92
Mynmar 000 11 23 27
Thailand 186 197 259 307
Sudan 1521 450 381 301
Kenya 3495 22213 968 548
Total 12899 10087 7791 8145
Source: University news 43(09), February 28 – March 06, 2005.
230
Education literarily means taking out (from Latin word educare) it is
not indoctrination views and ideas or just an imposition of one’s views upon
others. In short, education should not be an inflection. The moment
education becomes infliction, the consequence will be the student
indiscipline, strikes and agitation in the campus. Unfortunately the higher
education in Kerala continues to be dominated by models and value system
of colonial regime, emphises on narrow individualism, unhealthy
competitive styles and mere acquisition of information neglecting national
objectives, skill development and character building and is ineffective in
making students face the challenges of the fast growing world and stand on
their own legs.
The New Trends in Higher Education in Kerala
Universities and colleges in Kerala have now shifted their emphasis
from conventional courses to professional and technical job oriented courses.
Tourism management, hotel management, hospital management, forensic
medicine, marine diversity, convergence media studies, bio informatics,
micro biology, aqua culture, clinical nutrition and dietetics, food science and
quality control, child development, bio technology, MSW, radio diognisis,
computer applications, vedic studies are a few examples of such courses.
The new trends of higher education in Kerala during the last decade
can be listed as follows:
231
There has not been any sizable growth in the number of arts and
science colleges in government as well as private sector during the
period in Kerala.
There has been a significant growth of private aided and private
unaided technical and engineering colleges during the last decade in
Kerala.
The private unaided medical colleges have been licensed and around
seven such colleges are in operation now.
The popularity of graduate and postgraduate programmes in arts,
science, humanities, and commerce has lessened.
There has been a decline in the enrolment of students in the
conventional B.A., B.Sc., B.Com and M.A., M.Sc., M.Com courses
run by our colleges.
Private registration for the conventional degrees in Kerala has been
reduced.
Private unaided institutions in management and professional courses
have been on an increase.
There has been a significant growth in the enrolment of SC/ST
students for graduate and postgraduate courses in colleges.
232
There has been a general awareness regarding the quality of higher
education in Kerala.
The number of higher education instructions under the domain of
IHRD has been increased.
Enrolment of boys in arts, science and commerce colleges has been
reduced drastically.
Technical and job oriented courses have been started by our colleges
and universities.
The importance of sports and games activities have been reduced
significantly. Instead, the accessibility to computer and Internet has
been on rise.
Commodification of education and the establishment of market
mechanism in higher education is increased at an alarming
There has not been any parallel growth in fund allocation and the
infrastructural development to meet the ever increasing demand for
quality higher education.
The Universities in Kerala are still basically a replica and prototype
model of english universities in the 19th century.
The higher educational system is still dominated by the traditional set
up of rules, regulations, and statutes that offer little scope for quick
233
improvement in its present work-system and the required level of
autonomy and flexibility.
The work culture of our universities and colleges is a static and rigid
mode of functioning that adheres to bureaucratic standards.
The system has little internal urge to accept a change and dynamic
mechanism in an institution that is susceptible to changes.
The level and quality of innovation and research has low social and
educational relevance at time.
Our universities and colleges are often reduced to the level of
examination conducting bodies.
The growing number of institutions and unrestricted qualitative
growth of students, faculty and courses often is not matched with a
suitably qualitative mechanism for improvement and knowledge
advancement.
The absence of innovation and lack of willingness to overcome this
rigidity has crippled the growth of higher educational system in the
state.
The inclination to do mere personal purpose based or narrow-visioned
research has marred the prospects of fundamental and original
research in many cases.
234
Changing Scenario Since the Sixties on Educational Front in Kerala
A microscopic study of the educational scenario since the sixties,
in Kerala, reveals a paradigm shift in interests of the students, teachers,
parents, government, and the society as a whole. The following table
depicts it:
Table 5.18
Changing scanrio in the interest of students and teachers in Kerala
Increased Decreased
Students on rolls
Choice of subjects
Private tuitions
Use of study-guides
Academic dishonesty in invigilation
and examinations
Parental pressure
Mass media influence
Political influence
Peer pressure and competition
Standard in education
Students’ attendance in classes
Students’ respect for teachers
Teachers concern for students
Strict rules and regulations of
boards/universities
Values, respect, and camaraderie
Sense of belongingness
Work ethics
Extra curricular activities
Source: Self Study Report.
235
Table 5.19
Emerging Trends in Policy, Planning and Financing of Higher Education in
Kerala
Conventional System Emerging System
Welfare approach
Public higher education
Public financing
Privat:state-finaanced institutions
Privaste: govern,ment recognised institutions
Private: degree awarding institutions
Private: philanthropy and educational considerations
No fees
Low levels of fees
No student loans
Commercially ineffective loan programmes with no security
High default rates
Scholarly / academic disciplines of study
Formal/full-time education
Selection criteria for heads of institutions and faculty: academic background
Market approach
Mixed and private higher education
Private financing
Privat: self-financing institutions
Privayte institutions requiring no government recognition.
Private: non degree awarding
Private: commercial motives, profit motives
Introduction of fees
High levels of fees
Student loans
Effective/viable loan programmes with security/mortgage
High recovery rates
Self-financing/viable/profitable study
open/distance/part-time education
Selection criteria: expertise in financial/money/resource generation
Source: Self- study Report.
236
Table 5.20
Conflicting Interests of the state and Markets in Higher Education
Dimension State Market
Motivation
Main concern
Area of interests
Duration of interest
Team effort
Research
Time schedule
Nature of universities
Service
Knowledge
Generic
Long-term
Rarely
Publish/Public good
Flexible
Diversity
Profit
Skills
Specific
Short-term
Always
Confidential/Private
good
Rigid
Uniformity
Source: Self-study Report.
237
Table 5.21
Trends towards Private Higher Education in Kerala
Dimension High Public
(Traditional) High Private
(Modern)
Mission/ Purpose
Ownership
Sources of Revenue
Control by government
Norms of Management
Serve as a clear public mission as determined by the state
Publicly owned
Public/Tax payers
High state Control
Academic norms, shared governance, anti-authoritarianism
Mission avowedly both public and private
Public corporation or constitutional entity
Mainly public, but some tuition or cost sharing
Some control by the state
Academic norms, but acceptance of need for effective management
Mainly to respond to students’
private interests
Private non-profit; clear public accountability
Mainly private, but some public assistance to the needy
High degree of autonomy; state control limited to overseeing
Limited adherence to academic norms, high management control
Mission serves private interests of students/clients
Private for profit.
All private, mainly tuition
Almost no control by the state.
Operated like business, norms from business management.
Source: Self-study Report.
The “Is” and “Ought” dichotomy of the higher education in Kerala is
given in the following Table:
238
Table 5.22
The “Is” and “Ought” dichotomy of higher education in Kerala.
Present Status
Future Changes
1 More emphasis on deliberation of information.
It is at present a teaching centred system
It is more concerned with the mode knowledge delivery system.
It is a system confined to a static and rigid mode of learning.
The present system stresses more on what is delivered.
The system stresses on limited and close package of learning.
It is streamlined with emphasis on exam based having no concept of continuity.
It concentrates more on present needs of learners.
1 The emphasis is on knowing about knowledge and its source.
It will be learning oriented system.
It will pay attention to qualitative aspects of knowledge.
It will offer more flexible system of learning.
The future system will stress on why and whether knowledge is rightly delivered or not?
The new age education promotes a culture of free and liberal system of learning
It will be knowledge based and will offer opportunity without any barriers.
The coming system promotes and motivates fundamental and innovative ideas.
239
Figure 5.8
Features of Education in the New Age
Open and flexible system
Realistic broad based and futuristic visionary dreams of learning
Edutainment and
infotainment
New knowledge with a personal touch and need based and utility
oriented
Learning centred. More emphasis on
insight and and knowledge thanmere
information collection
Direct and easy access to every
learner
Education in
the 21st century
240
Education is given a central place in human development. Education
is not only an input in the formation of human capital, but also a basis tool of
all round progress. Education should empower the vast majority of the
population in their struggle against deprivation.
Table 5.23
Proportion of literate persons in population, Kerala and India during the census periods 1981-2001
Year Persons Males Females
Kerala India Kerala India Kerala India
1981 81.6 43.6 87.7 56.4 75.7 29.8
1991 89.8 52.2 93.6 64.1 86.1 39.3
2001 90.9 65.2 94.2 75.6 87.9 54.0
Source: Human Development Report, 2005, Kerala.
A comparison with all India figures shows that the difference between
male and female achievement levels is much narrower in Kerala than in
India as a whole. This trend in high profile literacy of Kerala has been
acclaimed and appreciated the world over. It is our unavoidable duty to keep
the trend. Let the gods own country be the beacon of light to the rest of the
country in terms of literacy and the standard of higher education
241
References
1. Khalil Gibran, “The Prophet”.
2. The UNESCO Report, 1996, “Learning: the Treasure Within”, Paris.
3. Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram,
Feb.2006.p.314.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid. P. 315.
6. Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of
Kerala.
7. Primary.
8. Ibid.
9. Primary.
10. Primary.
11. Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram,
Feb.2006.p.319.
12. Primary.
13. Report, AICTE, 2004-05. New Delhi, India.
14. Primary.
15. Primary.
16. Primary.
17. Institute of Human Resources Development, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala,
2006.
18. Planning Board Data, 2005-06, Kerala.
19. Directorate of Employment, 2006, Government of Kerala.
20. Ibid.
21. Pratiba Khanna, “Changing Sceneries of Higher Education: Challenges to
Quality Assurance and Sustenance” University News, 43 (07), Feb. 14-20,
2005, Vol.43, p.4.
242
1 Khalil Gibran, “The Prophet”. 2 The UNESCO Report, 1996, “Learning: the Treasure Within”, Paris. 3 Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram, Feb.2006.p.314. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. P. 315. 6 Directorate of Collegiate Education, Thiruvananthapuram, Government of Kerala. 7 Primary. 8 Ibid. 9 Primary. 10 Primary. 11 11. Economic Review, 2006, Kerala State Planning Board, Thiruvanathapuram, Feb.2006.p.319. 12 Primary. 13 Report, AICTE, 2004-05. New Delhi, India. 14 Primary. 15 Primary. 16 Primary. 17 Institute of Human Resources Development, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, 2006. 18 Planning Board Data, 2005-06, Kerala. 19 Directorate of Employment, 2006, Government of Kerala. 20 Ibid. 21 Pratiba Khanna, “Changing Sceneries of Higher Education: Challenges to Quality Assurance and
Sustenance” University News, 43 (07), Feb. 14-20, 2005, Vol.43, p.4.