Chapter 4: Gender Development, Gender Roles, and Gender Identity

Chapter 4 OutlinePrenatal Development: X and Y Make the

DifferenceSexual Differentiation in the WombAtypical Sexual Differentiation: Not Always

Just X and YGender Roles and Gender Traits

Girls Act Like Girls, Boys Act Like BoysAre Gender Roles Innate?Studying Gender

Chapter 4 Outline (Cont.)Gender Role Theory

Evolutionary Theory: Adapting to Our Environment

Social Learning Theory: Learning from Our Environment

Cognitive Development Theory: Age-State Learning

Gender Schema Theory: Our Cultural Maps

Chapter 4 Outline (Cont.)Varieties of Gender

Masculinity: The HunterFemininity: The NurturerAndrogyny: Feminine and MasculineTransgenderism: Living as the Other SexTranssexualism: When Gender and Biology

Don’t AgreeThird Genders: Other Cultures, Other OptionsAsexualism: The Genetics but Not the Sex

Chapter 4 Outline (Cont.)Gender Role Socialization from Infancy

through Old AgeChildhood: Learning by PlayingAdolescence: Practice Being Female or MaleAdulthood: Careers and FamiliesThe Senior YearsDifferent but Not Less Than

Gender and SexGender – refers to behavioral,

psychological, and social characteristics of men and women

Sex – refers to the biological aspects of being male or female

Both nature and nurture are important in forming genderCase study: Dr. John Money and

Brenda/Bruce

Prenatal Development: X and Y Make the Difference

Humans reproduce sexually and are made to be sexual beings

Each parent supplies a gamete, each with half of the genetic information (23 chromosomes), including a sex chromosomeMale: sperm (X or Y)Female: egg/ovum (X)

Prenatal Development: X and Y Make the Difference (Cont.)

Fertilization Haploid egg + Haploid sperm = Diploid

zygoteSex is determined at conceptionDevelopment of female or male sexual

characteristics, usuallySome developmental variations

Sexual Differentiation in the WombGestation: 9 months4-6 weeks: gonads begin to develop and

sexual differentiation starts 1-2 weeks laterSex chromosomes control development of:

internal sex organsexternal sex organsthe embryo’s hormonal environmentthe brain’s sexual differentiation

Internal Sex Organs5th – 6th week: primitive gonads form7th – 8th week: gonads become testes with Y

chromosome and the SRY gene10th-11th week: gonads become ovaries

with absence of Y chromosome and SRY gene, and possibly the presence of ovarian hormones

“Default setting” is female

Internal Sex Organs (Cont.)10th-11th week: primitive duct systems

appearMüllerian duct (female)Wolffian duct (male)

Their further development is hormonally controlled by the gonads

Internal Sex Organs (Cont.)Female embryos:

Lack male hormones and Wolffian duct degenerates

Müllerian duct forms: uterus, inner third of vagina

Male embryos:Müllerian inhibiting factor regresses the

Müllerian ductTestosterone stimulates the Wolffian duct

Figure 4.1 Development of the male and female internal reproductive systems from the undifferentiated stage. We discuss these specific structures more in Chapters 5 and 6.

External Sex OrgansHomologous organs: developed from the

same prenatal tissue8th week: tubercle differentiates

Female: female hormones from mother and placenta promote development into female external genitalia

Male: androgen secreted by the testes stimulate development into male external genitalia

Figure 4.2 Development of the male and female external genitalia from the undifferentiated genital tubercle.

Hormonal Development and Influences

Ovaries produce:Estrogen: female sexual characteristics Progesterone: menstrual cycle and

pregnancyTestes produce:

Androgens: development of male-typical characteristics

Brain DifferentiationHormones affect the development of the brainThe brain regulates secretion of hormones

Atypical Sexual Differentiation: Not Always Just X and Y

Atypical sexual differentiation can occur with irregularities in:Sex chromosomesSex hormonesMaternal hormone exposure

Sex Chromosome DisordersOver 70 sex chromosome abnormalitiesExtra or missing sex chromosomes3 most common:

Klinefelter’s syndromeTurner’s syndromeXYY/XXX

Klinefelter’s SyndromeXXY – egg contained an extra X1/700 live male birthsDevelops male genitalia, but not fullyTall, feminized bodyLow testosterone levels; low in sexual

desiresGynecomastiaInfertileTestosterone therapy

Turner’s SyndromeXO – egg has no sex chromosome1/2500 live female birthsOvaries aren’t fully developed

AmenorrheaInfertile

Short statureImmature breast developmentMental retardationEstrogen and progesterone therapy

XYY Syndrome / Triple X SyndromeXYY or XXX – sperm contains an extra sex

chromosome, or egg has an extra XMay be normal male (XYY) or normal

female (XXX)May have slight mental retardation and/or

fertility problems

Hormonal IrregularitiesHermaphrodite – born with fully developed

testes and ovaries; extremely rarePseudohermaphrodite – external genitals

appear on some level similar to both sexesCongenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS)

Congenital Adrenal HyperplasiaXX exposed to a lot of androgen prenatally

during sexual differentiation1/10,000 to 18,000 girlsAdrenal glands in the embryo may produce

too much androgen, or the mother takes male hormones or a male hormone agonist

Internally and genetically a femaleCorrective surgery, drugs

Androgen-Insensitivity SyndromeXY – the body doesn’t respond to

testosterone that is produced by the testes1/20,000 boysNo internal reproductive structure except

2 undescended testesShallow “vagina”Breasts developDo not menstruate; infertileNo surgery recommended without consent

Gender Roles and Gender TraitsGender stereotypes greatly influence our

thoughts and interactionsGender roles – culturally defined behaviors,

attitudes, emotions, traits, mannerisms, appearances, and occupations that are appropriate for females and males

Gender traits – biologically determined differences between males and females

Masculinity and FemininityIdeal cluster of traits that society

attributes to each genderChanges with society, and varies from

culture to cultureLess gender role stereotyping in African

Americans and Northern U.S.

Are Gender Roles Innate?Behaviors are complex and typically

interactions of nature and nurtureCultures can vary widely in their definition

of male and female, and transcend seeming traitsTchambuli

Biological differences: body size, strength, muscle to fat ratio, maturation, brain form and function, “heartiness”

Are Gender Roles Innate? (Cont.)Maternal instinct and surrogate motheringPlay behavior in 3- to 6-year oldsGender differences are easier to publish,

but research has begun to look at gender similarities

Gender Role TheoryA variety of theorists and positions

Evolutionary biology: gender differences are due to adapting to our environment

Social learning: learn gender roles from society, our environment

Cognitive development: universal stages for understanding and utilizing gender

Gender Role Theory (Cont.)Gender schema: cognitive structures

organize “gender,” influenced by cultureGender hierarchy: men are the standard and

their traits are valued more by societyChodorow’s developmental: psychoanalytic

background; boys separate from mom by devaluing females; girls can love mom as a heterosexual and idealize father’s qualities

Gender Role Theory (Cont.)Ortner’s culture/nature: masculinity is

associated with culture, femininity with nature; culture encompasses nature

MacKinnon’s dominance: men use gender to dominate; it is not a biological or social issue

Varieties of GenderSex typing – thought processes that split

the world into female and male categoriesGreatly influences our thoughts and

behaviorsMasculinity and femininity are

independent traits

Masculinity: The HunterRights of passage in many societiesContradictions in the male role:

Provide, but don’t solely focus on careerBe sexually successful, but not degrading to

womenBe strong and stable, but be emotionally

availableDo not be dependent on a woman

Men have a less flexible role than women

Femininity: The NurturerTypically viewed as the opposite of

masculinityCharacterized by beauty, empathy,

concern, softness, modestyContradictions in the female role:

Job fulfillment, but stay at home with kidsNot just for looks, but use makeup/be thinOpportunities are available, on men’s terms

Androgyny: Feminine and Masculine

Rate high in femininity and masculinityFlexibility in behaviorsThis concept may be reinforcing gender roles

Transgenderism: Living as the Other Sex

10-15% of the populationLive the other gender’s role, full/part-timeHappy as their biological sex, but

psychosocially pleasured dressing as the other sex

Relaxing and peaceful to cross-dressBilly Tipton

Billy Tipton was a well-known jazz musician who was discovered to be a female when he died in 1989.

Transsexualism: When Gender and Biology Don’t Agree

Feel their gender identity does not match their biological sex (Gender Dysphoria)

“Trapped” in the wrong bodyMore males than females experience thisSex reassignment surgery involves a long

process: psychological counseling, live as the other sex, hormones, multiple surgeriesM2F: realistic results, orgasmF2M: experimental stages

Gender Identity Disorder: Jessica

Third Genders: Other Cultures, Other Options

Some cultures have a third gender categoryNative American berdacheOman xanˉ ýthIndian hijraThai kathoeyHawaiian aikaneTahitian mahu

Asexualism: The Genetics but Not the Sex

Born without any sexual organs (no biological gender)

Has a genetic gender (XX or XY)Typically assigned gender as a child and

given hormones

Gender Role Socialization From Babyhood Through Old Age

ChildhoodAdolescenceAdulthoodSenior Years

Childhood: Learning by PlayingChildren are greatly defined by their

genderName, clothing, decorations, toysTreatment by parents, teachers, othersModel behavior of same gender individualsRewarded for stereotypical behavior,

punished for nonstereotypical behavior (especially boys)

Homosocial play beginning 2½ to 3 years old

Perceiving Gender Roles: Ages 0-2

Perceiving Gender Roles: Ages 2-5

Adolescence: Practice Being Female or Male

Trying roles to determine what it is to be a man or woman

Difficult time for transgendered, homosexual, bisexual youth

Perceiving Gender Roles: Ages 5-11

Adulthood: Careers and Families“Breadwinner” is a prized part of being maleWomen pursue careers out of desire and

necessity, yet hold primary responsibility for home life – more than men with the same occupation

Women and Family LifePrimary satisfaction/identity should be as

wife and motherModern thought also insists on a career

outside of the homeOften feel guilt for not adequately meeting

both demands

Which Is the Real Me? One Woman With Many Hats

Men and Family LifeFathers spend less time with their infants

than mothersStay-at-home dads are becoming more

common, but social pressure suggests they should be in the work force and labels them as “unemployed”

The Senior YearsFemale with typical wife/mother role may

experience “empty nest syndrome”Adjustment required at retirement if a

large part of identity was related to workMore relaxed gender roles

Different, But Not Less Than: Toward Gender Equality

Society has the ability to alter the gender roles to be less judging and rigid