chapter 3 anatomy and physiology
TRANSCRIPT
At the end of this section, the student will be able to:
1. Review the structure, function, activities, and role of cells, tissues, and organs in the body.
2. Identify and describe the structure and roles of each major body system
3. Indicate common surgical procedures that involve each system.
Skeletal Muscular Nervous Endocrine Reproductive Urinary and Excretory Respiratory Digestive Circulatory
They are the basic living unit of life
They vary in size, shape, and function
They are so small, microscopic
Within each cell are still smaller structures
Functions of the cell
Living cells come only from other living cells
Cells reproduce by duplication and division into two new cells
The cell prepares for mitosis. At this
stage, the chromosomes are
not clearly visible.
The chromosomes, pairs of sister
chromatids, condense and become visible.
Meanwhile, the nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.
The centrioles begin moving to
opposite ends of the cell and start
forming the mitotic spindle.
Spindle fibersalign
chromosomes at the cell's
equator, also known as the
metaphase plate.
Sister chromatids separate and
travel to oppositeends.
After new nuclei are formed, the cell
membrane pinches the middle of the cell, gradually
dividing it into two daughter cells.
Nucleus
Interphase
Sister Chromatids
Prophase
Centrioles
Prometaphase
Mitotic Spindle
Metaphase Anaphase
Pinching
Telophase & Cytokinesis
Cell Reproduction The Development of Daughter Cells
Cell membrane: The outer covering of a cell that regulates what enters and leaves it.
Cytoplasm: The lining matter of a cell between the cell membrane and nucleus.
Nucleus: The functional center of a cell that governs activity and heredity.
Each human cell consists of three main parts:
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) : Stores the information needed to build proteins essential to restore cell and also transfers messages about organisms from parent to offspring.
RNA (ribonucleic acid) : Translates the DNA messages, and guides the protein making process.
Chromosomes: comprised of DNA, and pass on the traits of parent cells to new cells.
Tissue: A group of similar cells that perform a specialized function.
The nucleus contains three important components:
A group of similar cells that perform a specialized function. Four types of tissues:
1. Epithelial tissue: Covers body’s external surface (skin) and the linings of body cavities (mouth, ears, nose, throat, etc.
2. Connective Tissue: Provides support, stores energy, and connects other tissues and parts (bones, fat, blood, cartilage)
3. Muscular Tissue: Shortens and contracts. When attached to bone, makes body movement. Also lines the inner walls of organs that contract to help food pass to even pumping blood
4. Nervous Tissue: Communication tissue located throughout the body. When stimulated carries messages back and forth between the brain and spinal cord to every part of the body
Organs: A part of the body containing two or more tissues that function together for a specific purpose.
EXAMPLES Brain Heart Stomach Skin
System: A group of organs that work together to carry out a specific activity
EXAMPLES◦ Musculoskeletal system◦ Nervous system ◦ Endocrine system◦ Reproductive system◦ Urinary and Excretory system◦ Respiratory system◦ Digestive system◦ Circulatory system
Without it, we would be just a big mass of tissue
206 bones in the body
Arranged in an orderly manner
Fastened together by connective tissue: tendons & ligaments
Cranium
Mandible
Clavicle
Humerus
RadiusUlna
CarpalsMetacarpals
Pelvis
Femur
Patella
Fibula
Tibia
TarsalsMetatarsals
Sternum
SkeletalSystem
Scapula
Rib
Phalanges
Phalanges
Maxilla{Skull
Calcaneus
Cervical Vertebrae (first 7 vertebrae)
Thoracic Vertebrae 12(next vertebrae)
Lumbar Vertebra 5(last vertebrae)
Coccyx
The five main functions of the skeletal system are to:
Give the body shape and support Allow movement Protect vital organs Reproduce blood cells Store calcium
Cartilage is a flexible connective tissue that provides framework to the body. Its purposes include:
To support body structures such as the ears and nose
To connect the ribs to the sternum
To serve as a cushion between bones to prevent them from rubbing together at junctures and joints
A joint is any place where two bones meet. Some immovable found in the skull and movable like knee and elbow joints. There are several types of joints:
Gliding Joints (spinal column and neck) Ball and Socket Joints (shoulder and hip) Pivot Joints (palm of the hand where it swivels) Hinge Joints (knees, knuckles and elbows)
The overall covering or lining of a joint is called a synovial
membrane. It secretes or produces a fluid called
synovial fluid to lubricate join surfaces.
Bones are comprised of living tissue, and their strength and hardness come from chemical substances called minerals. It consists of two principle materials:
A hard outer material called cortical or compact bone. Surrounded by the periosteum: a tough membrane that contains bone-forming cells and blood vessels.
The inner section of bone is porous, and is called spongy or cancellous bone. It is filled with material called marrow. A pipeline of blood vessels and nerves runs through the middle of thick bones.
Crainiotomy Anterior Cervical Fusion Posterior Lumbar Interbody Fusion
(PLIF) Open Reduction Internal Fixation
(ORIF) Total Knee Arthroplasty (TKA) Total Hip Arthroplasty (THA)
Surgical procedures that involve the skeletal system include:
More than 600 muscles in the body
Heart muscles contract to pump blood Muscles in digestive tract move food
& fluid through body
Muscles throughout the body produce heat, maintain body’s core temperature.
Muscles: Made up of long, thin cells or fibers that run parallel to one another, bundled together by connective tissue, called fascia. Have the ability to contract and shorten, cause body movements.
Muscular System
There are three types of muscle tissue:
Skeletal Smooth Cardiac
Surgical procedures involving muscular system include:
Fasciotomy Herniorrhaphy Rotator Cuff Repair
Vast communication network. Coordinates and carries messages
between all parts of the body. Enables us to be aware of the
changes in the environment and to react accordingly.
Complex series of nervous tissues, like electrical wiring runs from the brain and spinal cord throughout the entire body.
Functions of the Nervous System include:
Controls all body activities/ allows us to respond to stimuli
Nerve tissue carries electrical messages from brain and spinal cord that signal muscles to contract.
Other actions are more conscious and involve emotion, reason, and memory.
NERVOUS SYSTEMCerebrum
Cerebellum
Spinal Cord
Brain StemCranial Nerves12 pairs
Cervical Nerves8 pairs
Thoracic Nerves12 pairs
Lumbar Nerves5 pairs
Sacral Nerves6 pairs
The Nervous System is composed of two types of cells:
Neurons (also called nerve cells): that carry and transmit information
Neuroglia: support and protect neurons as they work.
The Nervous System is divided into two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System
The Brain:
Main control unit of the CNS
Has more than 100 billion nerve cells
Is a spongy and complex organ
Three membranes surround the brain, and provide nourishment and protection to it:
Pia mater
Arachnoid mater
Dura mater
The brain is divided into three parts:
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Brain Stem
The Sense Organs:
Eyes Ears Nose Tongue Skin
Accessory structures of the nervous system
Special sensory receptors, message-carrying structures
Respond to stimuli from outside the body
Others keep track of the body’s internal environment
Respond to light, sound, taste, chemicals, heat, and pressure
The Eyes: organs of vision.
Produce images by focusing light rays that are interpreted by the brain
The Eyes consist of three layers of tissue:
Sclera
Choroid
Retina
Eye
Choroid
Cornea
Pupil
I ris
Optic Nerve
Sclera
External Ear
Auditory Canal
Ear Drum
Middle EarInner Ear
Ear
The Nose is the organ of smell:
Consists of many sensory receptors or cells
Receptors located in the mucous membranes of the nasal cavity
Sensitive to chemicals carried through the air
Olfactory nerve endings extend to the receptors
Stimulated by different odors
OLFACTORY BULB
BONE
EPITHELIAL CELL
CILIA
NERVE FIBER
Olfaction allows us to identify food,experience sensual pleasures likethe smell of flowers, as well asdetect signs of danger (spoiledfood, chemical hazards).
Smells (odorants) are sensed bythe olfactory epithelium located inthe nasal cavity and first processedby the olfactory bulb. The odorantmust possess certain molecularproperties–it must be water solubleand have high vapor pressure andlow polarity–in order to interactwith the olfactory receptors andproduce signals that can beinterpreted as odor. The olfactorysense is able to distinguish amongan almost infinite number ofchemical compounds.
The mucous lipids assist intransporting the odorantmolecules. Each olfactory receptorneuron has 8-20 cilia that arewhip-like extensions (they markthe beginning of sensorytransduction).
MITRAL CELL
CHEMO-RECEPTORCELL
OLFACTORY RECEPTORS
The Tongue is the organ of taste:
Covered with taste buds, sensory receptors Sense of taste is a chemical sense Chemicals carried by saliva throughout the mouth Taste buds can distinguish 4 kinds of taste:
sweet, sour, bitter, and salty 80 different types of chemical odors Combination of taste and odors produces flavors
TASTE
Open mouth with tongue extended indicating areas that distinguish taste,and inset of each tongue region and their function.
Bitter Sour Sweet Salty
The Skin is the largest body organ:
Nerve endings at and below its surface Acts as an important sensory organ Touch receptors near the skin’s surface
allows us to distinguish textures Also responds to heat, cold, and moisture Further below skin’s surface are receptors,
respond to touch and pressure Sense of pain stimulates nerves and sends
messages of potential danger to the brain
Surgical procedures involving the nervous system:
Craniotomy Carpal Tunnel Repair Ulnar Nerve Transposition Cataract Extraction Corneal Transplant Bilateral Myringotomy with Tubes, (BMT) Stapedectomy Tympanoplasty Split-thickness Skin Graft (STSG)
Changes in body activities are set in motion by the hormones or secretions produced by the glands of the endocrine system. For example:
◦Muscles tensing◦Heartbeat quickening◦Breathing rhythm changes
The Endocrine System influences functions of metabolism, growth, and personality
Endocrine System
Adrenal GlandsRelease adrenalin thatincreases heart rate andphysical strength. Alsoenhance the ability tothink and respondquickly in emergencysituations.
Thyroid GlandHelps regulate the rate ofmetabolism and maintainthe body's levels ofcalcium and phosphorus.
TestesProduce the hormone,testosterone, that stimulatesthe development of masculinecharacteristics.
Pituitary GlandHelps control the activities of allendocrine glands. Also stimulatesskeletal and body growth, developmentof sex organs, regulation of bloodpressure, the reproductive process, andmuscle development.
PancreasProduces insulin whichreduces the level ofsugar in thebloodstream andglucagon which canincrease the blood'ssugar level.
OvariesProduce two hormones,estrogen which is responsiblefor the development of femalecharacteristics andprogesterone, which togetherwith estrogen, regulates themenstrual cycle.
Important information about the endocrine system:
Endocrine glands that produce hormones are not necessarily next to the organs they control.
The nervous system and endocrine system work together.
Endocrine glands are located throughout the body.
Some glands of the endocrine system secrete more then one hormone.
The major glands of the endocrine system include:
Pituitary gland: small, pea-shaped Thyroid gland: located at the base of the
neck Parathyroid gland: four pea-shaped
glands Adrenal glands: release adrenalin Pancreas: located just below the stomach
The pancreas has 2 primary hormones that it produces:
1. Insulin: which reduces the level of sugar in the blood stream
2. Glucagon: which can increase the blood’s sugar level
The ovaries (female sex glands) produce 2 hormones: estrogen and progesterone
The testes (male sex glands) produce the hormone: testosterone
Surgical procedures involving the endocrine system include:
Thyroidectomy
Oophorectomy
Orchiectomy
The male sex cell is produced by the male reproductive system called sperm
The female sex cell (egg) is called ovum and produced by the female reproductive system
Both sperm and ovum contain rod-shaped structures called chromosomes
The male reproductive system: Testes Scrotum Epididymus Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Ejaculatory duct Semen Urethra Penis Prostate gland
MALE REPRODUCTI VE SYSTEM
Bladder
Prostategland
Vas Deferens
Urethra
Penis
Testes
Scrotum
The female reproductive system:
Vagina Uterus Endometrium Fallopian tubes Fimbriae Ovaries
FEMALE REPRODUCTI VE SYSTEM
Surgical procedures involving the reproductive system include:
Orchiectomy Orchiopexy Transurethral Resection of the Prostate (TURP) Radical Prostatectomy Hysterectomy Bilateral Salpingoophorectomy Endometrial Ablation Dilatation & Curettage (D & C) Ectopic Pregnancy Pelviscopy Tubal Ligation
The urinary system provides “pollution control” by eliminating body waste and blood is filtered by the urinary system.
Urine is a water solution consisting of various waste substances
Color from excreted bile pigments
Average adult excretes between 1000cc-1800cc of urine during a 24-hour period
URI NARY SYSTEM
Kidney
Ureters
Bladder
Uretha
Kidney (Cross-section)
Organs of the urinary system in both sexes include:
Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra: male: 20cm long, female: 4cm long
The excretory system removes toxic (poisonous) waste substances:
Kidneys
Lungs
Liver
Skin
Surgical procedures involving the urinary system include:
Nephrectomy
Lithotripsy
Cystoscopy
The respiratory system supplies the body with oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide that forms as a result of the body
using oxygen in the blood
RESPI RATORY SYSTEM
Deoxygenated bloodfrom the heart
BronchiolesOxygenated blood
to the heart
Alveoli - site of gas exchange
Respiratory System
Lungs
Nasal Cavity
Mouth
Pharnyx
Trachea
Exchange of gases is accomplished automatically as one breathes in a two step process:
1. Inspiration (inhaling air into the lungs)
2. Expiration (exhaling air from the lungs)
Air contains impurities such as dirt, dust, and microorganisms, and these are filtered out by the respiratory system
The primary organs of the respiratory system are:
Nose
Pharynx
Trachea
Lungs
More About the Lungs:
Right lung consists of three lobes Left lung consists of two lobes (room
for heart) Located in thoracic cavity Covered by thin membrane, pleura Protected by skeletal rib cage and
sternum Diaphragm, muscle located below the
lungs, causes chest cavity to expand
Surgical procedures involving the respiratory system include:
Thoracotomy Thoracoscopy Pneumonectomy Tracheotomy Laryngectomy Bronchoscopy Septoplasty
The digestive system converts food into energy for the body. The human body requires 6 basic categories of nutrients:
1. Proteins2. Carbohydrates3. Fats4. Water5. Minerals6. Vitamins
Digestion breaks food down mechanically and chemically
Pathway that food takes through the digestive system is called the alimentary canal
Alimentary canal is approximately 30 ft. Consists of:◦Mouth◦Esophagus◦Stomach◦Small intestine◦Large intestine◦Rectum◦Anus
Pancreasproducesdigestiveenzymes andassists with fatdigestion.
Stomachstores andbreaks downingested foodinto chyme.
Gall Bladderstores bile, whichaids in digestion.
Digestive System
Salivary Glandscreate mucus to softenfood and aid in digestion
SmallI ntestine(duodenum,jejunum, and ilium)digestscarbohydrates, fats,and proteins andabsorbs nutrients
LargeI ntestineabsorbs water,electrolytes and salts.
MouthChews food to make it easierto pass through theesophagus (swallow).
EsophagusMoves food tothe stomach.
Liverproduces bileneeded fordigestion.
The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive system
The salivary, gastric, and intestinal glands are accessory structures to the digestive system
Review of the components of the alimentary canal:
Mouth Esophagus Stomach Small intestines Large intestine Rectum Anus
Close look at 3 Important digestive organs:
1. Pancreas2. Liver3. Gallbladder
Surgical procedures involving the digestive system include:
AppendectomyParotidectomyGastrectomyGastric BypassCholecystectomyLaparoscopic CholecystectomyColectomy
The circulatory system is the body’s primary transportation network. Delivers nutrients and oxygen to body cell, and carries away carbon dioxide and other harmful waste products from them
Accomplished as blood is pumped through 64,000 miles of blood vessels in the body
The lymphatic system is a subsidiary of the circulatory system, and it serves a vital role in the body’s defense against disease:
Consists of a series of tiny vessels, throughout body
Large numbers of lymph nodes, filter bacteria and other harmful material out of the lymph
Tonsils are one type of a lymph node Sentinel lymph nodes are frequently identified
during cancer surgery
Lymphatic Glands of the Neck
Parotid LymphaticNode
Superior DeepCervical Node
Submaxillary Node
SuboccipitalLymphatic Node
Posterior AuricularNode
Inferior DeepCervical Node
Lymphatic System
Blood is a type of connective tissue fluid that moves throughout the circulatory, system and transports many important substances:
Contains an average of five to seven liters of blood
Blood is made up of 55% of plasma Red blood cells structures rich in
hemoglobin, pick up oxygen in the lungs, transport to all over the body
Red blood cells produced in the bone marrow, life span of 120 days
White blood cells attack, destroy, and digest disease-producing organisms
Platelets traps blood cells and plasma that will harden and clot
Arteries carry blood away from the heart
Veins carry blood back towards the heart
Capillaries tiny vessels connections between veins and arteries
Circulatory System
Arteries carry blood awayfrom the heart.
Veins carry blood backtowards the heart.
The heart is the muscular organ about the size of a fist that pumps five liters of blood through the body every minute:
Four hollow chambers A thick tissue wall Upper chambers atria Lower chambers ventricles
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricleMitral valve
Left ventricle
I nterventricular septum
Papillary muscle
Right atrium
Chordae tendonae
Superior Vena Cava
Pulmonary valve
Aorta
Pulmonary Artery
Heart
Left atrium
Surgical procedures involving the circulatory system include:
Tonsillectomy Adenoidectomy Arteriovenous Abdominal Aortic Aneurysmectomy Hemorrhoidectomy CABG Carotid Endarterectomy