Chapter

26 New Global Patterns 1800–1914

Chapter Preview 1

Japan Modernizes

2 Southeast Asia and the Pacific

3 Self-Rule for Canada, Australia, and New Zealand

4 Economic Imperialism in Latin America

5 Impact of Imperialism

Chapter Review and Assessment

Imperialism in Asia, the Pacific, and the Americas, 1900 Industrialized nations competed for control of territories around the world.

CHAPTER EVENTS GLOBAL EVENTS

SECTION 1 Japan Modernizes

Reading Focus

How did discontent in Japanese society and the opening of Japan lead to the Meiji restoration?

What were the main reforms under the Meiji?

How did Japanese military strength promote imperialism?

Vocabulary Diet zaibatsu homogeneous society

Taking Notes

Print out this chart. As you read, fill in the major reforms of the Meiji restoration. The sample has been started for you.

During the late 1800s, Japan opened its doors to foreign influence and became a modern industrial power.

Setting the Scene

In 1853, the United States displayed its new military might, sending a naval force to make Japan open its ports to trade. Japanese leaders debated how to respond. While some resisted giving up their 215-year-old policy of seclusion, others felt that it would be wiser to learn from the foreigners. One Japanese lord pointed out:

“There is a saying that when one is besieged in a castle, to raise the drawbridge is to imprison oneself…. Even though the Shogun's ancestors set up seclusion laws, they left the Dutch and Chinese to act as a bridge…. Might this bridge not now be of advantage to us, … providing us with the means whereby we may for a time avert the outbreak of hostilities and then, after some time has elapsed, gain a complete victory?”

—Ii Naosuke, quoted in Selected Documents on Japanese Foreign Policy

(Beasley)

In the end, Japan chose to abandon its centuries of isolation and to learn from the West. The country swiftly transformed itself into a modern industrial power and then set out on its own imperialist path.

Discontent in Tokugawa Japan

After the Tokugawa shoguns gained power in 1600, they reimposed centralized feudalism, closed Japan to foreigners, and forbade Japanese to travel overseas. The nation's only window on the world was through Nagasaki, where the Dutch were allowed very limited trade.

For more than 200 years, Japan developed in isolation. Although internal commerce expanded, economic changes introduced severe strains in

Japanese society. By the 1800s, shoguns were no longer strong leaders, and corruption was common. Discontent simmered throughout Japan.

Many daimyo suffered financial hardship. Money was needed in a commercial economy, but a daimyo's wealth was in land rather than cash. Daimyo also had the heavy expense of maintaining households in both Edo and their own domains. Lesser samurai were unhappy, too, because they were no longer fighters. Many were bureaucrats. Even though they were noble, they lacked the money to live as well as urban merchants.

Merchants in turn resented their place at the bottom of the social ladder. No matter how rich they were, they had no political power. Peasants, meanwhile, suffered under heavy taxes.

The government responded by trying to revive old ways, emphasizing farming over commerce and praising traditional values. These efforts at reform, however, had scant success. Many groups felt little loyalty to the old system.

Opening Up Japan

While the shogun faced troubles at home, disturbing news reached him from abroad during the 1830s and 1840s. He was alarmed by news of the British victory over China in the Opium War. Even more disturbing was the way in which imperialists had forced China to sign the unequal treaties. Surely, the shogun reasoned, it would not be long before western powers began seeking trading rights in Japan.

External Pressure and Internal Revolt Then, in July 1853, a fleet of well-armed American ships commanded by Commodore Matthew Perry sailed into Tokyo Bay. Perry had a letter from the President of the United States. The letter demanded that Japan open its ports to diplomatic and commercial exchange.

The shogun's advisers debated what to do. As Lord Ii noted, Japan did not have the ability to defend itself against the powerful United States Navy. In the Treaty of Kanagawa in 1854, the shogun agreed to open two Japanese ports to American ships, though not for trade.

The United States soon won trading and other rights, including the right of extraterritoriality and a “most favored nation” clause. European nations demanded and won similar rights. Like the Chinese, the Japanese deeply resented the terms of these unequal treaties, which they found humiliating. Some bitterly criticized the shogun for not taking a strong stand against the foreigners.

Foreign pressure deepened the social and economic unrest. In 1867, discontented daimyo and samurai led a revolt that unseated the shogun and “restored” the 15-year-old emperor to power. He moved from the old imperial capital in Kyoto to the shogun's palace in Edo, which was renamed Tokyo, or “eastern capital.”

In Japan, the tea ceremony was developed to provide a peaceful setting

for social activity. Today, the rituals provide a reminder of the nation's

cultural heritage, as well as an oasis of calm in an otherwise busy

world.

Meiji Restoration The young emperor began a long reign known as the Meiji (may jee) restoration. This period, which lasted from 1868 to 1912, was a major turning point in Japanese history. Meiji means “enlightened rule.” The Meiji reformers, who ruled in the emperor's name, were determined to strengthen Japan. Their goal was summarized in their motto, “A rich country, a strong military.”

The new leaders set out to study western ways, adapt them to Japanese needs, and eventually beat westerners at their own game. In 1871, members of the government traveled overseas to learn about western governments, economies, technology, and customs. The government brought experts from western countries to Japan and sent young samurai to study abroad.

Reforms Under the Meiji

The Meiji reformers faced an enormous task. They were committed to replacing the rigid feudal order with a completely new political and social system and to building a modern industrial economy. Change did not come easily. In the end, however, Japan adapted foreign ideas with amazing speed and success.

Government The reformers wanted to create a strong central government, equal to those of western powers. After studying various European governments, they adapted the German model. In 1889, the emperor issued the Meiji constitution. It set forth the principle that all citizens were equal before the law. Like the German system, however, it gave the emperor autocratic power. A legislature, or Diet, was formed, made up of one elected house and one house appointed by the emperor. Additionally, voting rights were sharply limited.

Japan then established a western-style bureaucracy with separate departments to supervise finance, the army, the navy, and education. To strengthen the military, it turned to western technology and ended the special privilege of samurai. In the past, samurai alone were warriors. In modern Japan, as in the West, all men were subject to military service.

Economic Reforms Meiji leaders made the economy a major priority. They encouraged Japan's business class to adopt western methods. The government set up a banking system, built railroads, improved ports, and organized a telegraph and postal system.

To get industries started, the government typically built factories and then sold them to wealthy business families who developed them further. With such support, business dynasties like the Kawasaki family soon ruled over industrial empires that rivaled those of the Rockefellers in the United States or the Krupps in Germany. These powerful banking and industrial families were known as zaibatsu (zī baht soo).

By the 1890s, industry was booming. With modern machines, silk manufacturing soared. Shipyards, copper and coal mining, and steel making also helped make Japan an industrial powerhouse. As in other industrial countries, the population grew rapidly, and many peasants flocked to the growing cities for work.

Social Change The constitution ended legal distinctions between classes, thus providing the opportunity for more people to become involved in nation-building. The government set up schools and a university. It hired westerners to teach the new generation modern technology.

Despite the reforms, class distinctions survived in Japan as they did in the West. Also, although literacy increased and some women gained an education, women in general were still assigned a secondary role in society.

The reform of the Japanese family system, and women's position in it, became the topic of major debates in the 1870s. Reformers wanted women to become full partners in the process of nation-building and to learn skills that would allow them to live on their own. Although the government agreed to some increases in education for women, it dealt harshly with other attempts at change. After 1898, Japanese women were forbidden any political participation and legally were lumped together with minors.

Amazing Success During the Meiji period, Japan modernized with amazing speed. Its success was due to a number of causes. It was a homogeneous

society—that is, it had a common culture and language that gave it a strong sense of identity. Economic growth during Tokugawa times had set Japan on the road to development. Also, the Japanese had experience in learning from foreign nations, such as China.

Like other people faced with western imperialism, the Japanese were determined to resist foreign rule. In fact, in the 1890s, Japan was strong enough to force western powers to revise the unequal treaties. By then, it was already acquiring its own overseas empire.

Growing Military Strength

As with western industrial powers, Japan's economic needs fed its imperialist desires. A small island nation, Japan lacked many basic resources that were essential for industrial growth. Yet, spurred by nationalism and a strong ambition to equal the West, Japan built an empire. With its modern army and navy, it maneuvered for power in East Asia.

Japan Gains Power In 1894, competition between Japan and China led to the Sino-Japanese War. Although China had greater resources, Japan had benefited from modernization. To the surprise of China and the West, Japan won easily. It used its victory to gain treaty ports in China and control over the island of Taiwan, thus joining the West in the race for empire.

Ten years later, Japan successfully challenged Russia, its rival for power in Korea and Manchuria. During the Russo-Japanese War, Japan's armies defeated Russian troops in Manchuria, and its navy destroyed almost an entire Russian fleet. For the first time in modern history, an Asian power

humbled a European nation. In the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth, Japan gained control of Korea as well as rights in parts of Manchuria. This foothold on the East Asian mainland would fuel its ambitions.

Competition for Korea Imperialist rivalries put the spotlight on Korea. Located at a crossroads of East Asia, the Korean peninsula was a focus of competition among Russia, China, and Japan.

Although Korea had long been influenced by its powerful neighbor, it had its own traditions and government. Like China and Japan, Korea had shut its doors to foreigners. It did, however, maintain relations with China and sometimes with Japan.

By the 1800s, Korea faced pressure from outsiders. As Chinese power declined, Russia expanded into East Asia. Then, as Japan industrialized, it too eyed Korea. In 1876, Japan used its superior power to force Korea to open its ports to Japanese trade. Faced with similar demands from western powers, the “Hermit Kingdom” had to accept unequal treaties.

As Japan extended its influence in Korea, it came into conflict with China, which still saw Korea as a tributary state. After defeating China and then Russia, Japan made Korea a protectorate. In 1910, it annexed Korea outright, absorbing the kingdom into the Japanese empire.

Japan Rules Korea Japan ruled Korea for 35 years. Like western imperialists, the Japanese set out to modernize their newly acquired territory. They built factories, railroads, and communications systems. Development, however, generally benefited Japan. Under Japanese rule, Koreans produced more rice than ever before, but most of it went to Japan.

The Russo-Japanese War

The Russo-Japanese War began and ended on the sea. On February 19, 1904, Japanese torpedo boats made a surprise attack on part of the Russian fleet, near Manchuria. Most of those ships were wiped out.

The rest of the Russian navy was based in the Baltic Sea, more than 10,000 miles away. The Russian ships began a slow 15-month journey around Africa. When they chugged into the waters of East Asia on May 27, 1905, the Japanese navy attacked again. Japan's faster ships and more accurate gunnery forced the Russians to surrender within a single day.

Theme: Economics and TechnologyWhy were the Japanese forces able to defeat their opponents so easily?

The Japanese were as unpopular in Korea as western imperialists were elsewhere. They imposed harsh rule on their colony and deliberately set out to erase the Korean language and identity. Repression bred resentment. And resentment, in turn, nourished a Korean nationalist movement.

Nine years after annexation, a nonviolent protest against the Japanese began on March 1, 1919, and soon spread throughout Korea. The Japanese crushed the uprising and massacred many Koreans. The violence did not discourage people who worked to end Japanese rule. Instead, the March First Movement became a rallying symbol for Korean nationalists.

Looking Ahead

The Koreans would have to wait many years for freedom. By the early 1900s, Japan was the strongest power in Asia. It continued to expand in East Asia during the years that followed, seeking natural resources and territory. In time, Japanese ambitions to control a sphere of influence in the Pacific would put it on a collision course with several western powers, especially Britain and the United States.

SECTION 2 Southeast Asia and the Pacific

Reading Focus

What impact did European colonization have on Southeast Asia?

How did Siam maintain its independence?

How did imperialism spread to the Philippines and other Pacific islands?

Taking Notes

Print out this table. As you read, fill in information on imperialism in Asia and the Pacific. To help you get started, portions of the table have been completed.

Western industrialized powers divided up Southeast Asia in pursuit of raw materials, new markets, and converts to Christianity.

Setting the Scene

A Vietnamese official, Phan Thanh Gian, faced a dilemma in 1867. The French were threatening to invade. As a patriot, Phan Thanh Gian wanted to resist. But as a devoted follower of Confucius, he was obliged “to live in obedience to reason.” And based on the power of the French military, he concluded that the only reasonable course was to surrender. Phan Thanh Gian made his choice with a heavy heart. By avoiding a useless war that would hurt his people, he became a traitor to his king. For that decision, he wrote, “I deserve death.”

Leaders throughout Southeast Asia faced the same dilemma during the Age of Imperialism. As they had in Africa, western industrial powers gobbled up the region in their relentless race for raw materials, new markets, and Christian converts.

Europeans Colonize Southeast Asia

Southeast Asia commanded the sea lanes between India and China and had been influenced by both civilizations. From the 1500s through the 1700s, European merchants gained footholds in the region, but most of the area remained independent. This changed in the 1800s. Westerners—notably the Dutch, British, and French—played off local rivalries and used modern armies and technology to colonize much of Southeast Asia.

During the 1600s, the Dutch East India Company gained control of the fabled riches of the Moluccas, or Spice Islands. They then reached out to dominate the rest of Indonesia. The Dutch expected their Southeast Asian colonies to produce profitable crops of coffee and indigo as well as spices.

In the early 1800s, rulers of Burma (present-day Myanmar) clashed with the British, who were expanding eastward from India. In several wars, the Burmese suffered disastrous defeats. They continued to resist British rule, however, even after Britain annexed Burma in 1886.

The British also pushed south through Malaya. The bustling port of Singapore, on the sea route between the Indian Ocean and the China Sea, grew up at the southern tip of the peninsula. Soon, natural resources and profits from Asian trade flowed through Singapore to enrich Britain.

The French, meanwhile, were building an empire on the Southeast Asian mainland. In the early 1800s, French missionaries began winning converts in what is today Vietnam. The region had long been influenced by Confucian traditions. Vietnamese officials tried to suppress Christianity by killing converts and missionary priests.

As with Burma and the British, the Vietnamese misjudged European power. In the 1860s, the French invaded and seized a chunk of Vietnam. Over the next decades, they added more lands, eventually seizing all of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. The French and other westerners referred to these holdings as French Indochina.

By the 1890s, Europeans controlled most of Southeast Asia. They introduced modern technology and expanded commerce and industry. They set up new enterprises to mine tin and harvest rubber, brought in new crops of corn and cassava, and built harbors and railroads. But these changes benefited Europeans far more than the people of Southeast Asia.

Many Chinese migrated to Southeast Asia to escape hardship and turmoil at home and to benefit from growing economic opportunities. Despite persistent local resentment, these communities of “overseas” Chinese formed vital networks in trade, banking, and other economic activities.

Siam Survives

Sandwiched between British-ruled Burma and French Indochina lay the kingdom of Siam—present-day Thailand. King Mongkut, who ruled from 1851 to 1868, did not underestimate western power. Before inheriting the throne, he had studied foreign languages and read widely on modern science and mathematics. He thus had a greater understanding of the West than many other Asian rulers.

Although Mongkut had to accept some unequal treaties, Siam escaped becoming a European colony. He and his son, Chulalongkorn, set Siam on the road to modernization. They reformed government, modernized the army, and hired western experts to train Thais in the new technology. They abolished slavery and gave women some choice in marriage. As Siam modernized, Chulalongkorn bargained to remove the unequal treaties.

In the end, both Britain and France saw the advantage of making Siam a buffer, or neutral zone, between them. In the early 1900s, they guaranteed its independence.

Imperial Powers in the Pacific

In the 1800s, the industrial powers began to take an interest in the islands of the Pacific.* At first, American, French, and British whaling and sealing ships looked for bases to take on supplies. Missionaries, too, moved into the Pacific region and opened the way for political involvement.

In 1878, the United States secured an unequal treaty from Samoa, gaining rights such as extraterritoriality and a naval station. Other nations gained similar agreements. As their rivalry increased, the United States, Germany, and Britain agreed to a triple protectorate over Samoa.

From the mid-1800s, American sugar growers pressed for power in Hawaii. When the Hawaiian queen Liliuokalani (lee lee oo oh kah lah nee)

tried to reduce foreign influence, American planters overthrew her in 1893. They then asked the United States to annex Hawaii, which it did in 1898. Supporters of annexation argued that if the United States did not take Hawaii, Britain or Japan might do so. The United States and the Philippines

In the 1500s, Spain had seized the Philippines. Catholic missionaries spread Christianity among the Filipinos, and the Catholic Church gained enormous power and wealth. Many Filipinos accused the Church of abusing its position. By the late 1800s, their anger had fueled strong resistance to Spanish rule. Inspired by leaders such as José Rizal, many Filipinos worked to end Spanish control of the islands.

The United States became involved in the fate of the Philippines almost by accident. In 1898, war broke out between Spain and the United States over Cuba's independence from Spain. During the Spanish-American War, American battleships destroyed the Spanish fleet, which was stationed in the Philippines. Seizing the moment, Filipino leaders declared their independence from Spain. Rebel soldiers threw their support into the fight against Spanish troops.

In return for their help, the Filipino rebels had expected the Americans to recognize their independence. The peace settlement with Spain, however, placed the Philippines under American control.

Bitterly disappointed, Filipino nationalists renewed their struggle. From 1899 to 1901, Filipinos led by Emilio Aguinaldo (ah gee nahl doh) battled American forces. Thousands of Americans and hundreds of thousands of Filipinos died. In the end, the Americans crushed the rebellion. The United States set out to modernize the Philippines through education, improved health care, economic reform, and construction of dams, roads, railways, and ports. Additionally, the United States promised Filipinos self-rule some time in the future.

José Rizal 1861–1896

José Rizal was a pacifist and never fought in any battle himself. Still, he inspired other Filipinos to fight for independence from Spain.

Rizal was a talented man. He was a doctor, sculptor, novelist, and philosopher who spoke many languages fluently. He also wrote two novels that criticized Spanish leaders in the Philippines. The books were banned and even burned. The rulers later arrested Rizal as a revolutionary and had him executed by a firing squad. He is still recognized as a martyr of the cause for independence and a national hero.

Theme: Impact of the IndividualWhy does Rizal's life make him a national hero?

Looking Ahead

By 1900, the United States, Britain, France, and Germany had claimed nearly every island in the Pacific. Japan, too, wanted a share of the region. Eventually, it would gain control of German possessions in the Pacific. Japanese territorial expansion would set the stage for a growing rivalry with the United States.

SECTION 3 Self-Rule for Canada, Australia, and New Zealand

Reading Focus

How did Canada achieve self-rule?

How did European settlement change the course of Australian history?

How did New Zealand emerge as an independent nation?

Vocabulary indigenous confederation dominion

Taking Notes

Print out this Venn diagram. As you read, fill in the information on the similarities and differences between the colonial experiences of Canada and those of Australia. To help you get started, some entries have been made.

The British colonies of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand won independence faster and with greater ease than territories in other regions.

Setting the Scene

The pattern of imperialism in the British colonies of Australia and New Zealand differed from that in other parts of the world. The indigenous (ihn dihj uh nuhs), or original, inhabitants of these regions were relatively few in number, and white settlers quickly subdued and replaced them. Still, the process of “replacement” was as deadly as it had been in the Americas some 200 years earlier.

These two English-speaking colonies, as well as Canada, won independence faster and with greater ease than England's territories in Africa or Asia. One reason was that they, unlike nonwestern peoples, had cultural roots in western-style government. However, western racial attitudes also played a part. Imperialist nations like Britain felt that whites could govern themselves. Nonwhites in places like India were thought to be incapable of shouldering such responsibility.

Canada Achieves Self-Rule

Canada's first European rulers were the French. When France lost Canada to Britain in 1763, thousands of French-speaking settlers remained. After the American Revolution, an estimated 30,000 or more colonists who had remained loyal to Britain fled to Canada. Unlike the French-speaking Catholics, the newcomers were English-speaking and Protestant.

Native Americans formed another strand of the Canadian heritage. In the 1790s, various Native American people still lived in eastern Canada. Others, in the west and the north, remained largely undisturbed by the movement of white settlers.

The Two Canadas To ease ethnic tensions, Britain passed the Canada Act in 1791. It created two provinces: English-speaking Upper Canada (now Ontario) and French-speaking Lower Canada (now Quebec). Each had its own laws, legislature, and royal governor. French traditions and the

Catholic Church were protected in Lower Canada, while English traditions and laws guided Upper Canada.

During the early 1800s, unrest grew in both colonies. The people of Upper Canada resented the power held by a small British elite. In Lower Canada, too, people felt that British officials ignored their needs. In 1837, discontent flared into rebellion in both Upper and Lower Canada. “Put down the villains who oppress and enslave our country,” cried William Lyon Mackenzie, a leader of the Upper Canada revolt.

The Durham Report The British had learned a lesson from the American Revolution. While they hurried to put down the disorder, they sent an able politician, Lord Durham, to study the causes of the unrest. In 1839, the Durham Report called for the two Canadas to be reunited and given control over their own affairs.

In 1840, Parliament passed the Act of Union, a major step toward self-government. It gave Canada an elected legislature to determine domestic policies. Britain kept control of foreign policy and trade.

Dominion of Canada Like the United States, Canada expanded westward in the 1800s. As the country grew, two Canadians, John Macdonald and George Étienne Cartier, urged confederation, or unification, of all Canada's provinces. Like many Canadians, Macdonald and Cartier feared that the United States might try to dominate Canada. A strong union, they felt, would strengthen the nation against United States ambitions and help Canada develop economically.

Britain finally agreed, passing the British North America Act of 1867, which created the Dominion of Canada. It united four provinces into a dominion, or self-governing nation. Six additional provinces later joined the union.

A Quandary for Quebec

Today, travelers to Canada who visit Quebec often feel that they have entered a different country. The French language and culture are evident everywhere, from traffic signs to radio shows.

Many Quebecers want Quebec to become independent. They believe that the cultural differences between French and English speakers are too deep for them to share the same country. They feel allegiance to Quebec rather than to Canada as a whole.

In 1995, a referendum on secession was held in Quebec. The final vote was almost a tie, with 50.5 percent voting against separation and 49.5 percent supporting the idea. Thus, the stage is set for continuing tension.

Theme: DiversityIn what ways are Quebecers different from citizens of other Canadian provinces?

As a dominion, Canada had its own parliament, modeled on that of Britain. By 1900, Canada had also been granted some control over its own foreign policy. Still, although self-governing, Canada maintained close ties with the British monarchy.

Expansion John Macdonald, Canada's first prime minister, encouraged expansion across the continent. To unite the far-flung regions of Canada, he called for a transcontinental railroad. In 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway opened, linking eastern and western Canada. Wherever the railroad went, settlers followed. It moved people and products, such as timber and manufactured goods, across the country.

As in the United States, westward expansion destroyed the way of life of Native Americans in Canada. Most were forced to sign treaties giving up their lands. Some resisted. Louis Riel led a revolt of the métis, people of mixed Native American and European descent. Many were French-speaking Catholics who accused the government of stealing their land and trying to destroy their language and religion. Government troops put down the uprising and executed Riel.

Immigration In the late 1800s and early 1900s, immigration increased as people flooded into Canada from across Europe and Asia. Newcomers from Germany, Italy, Poland, Russia, Ukraine, China, and Japan enriched Canada economically and culturally.

By 1914, Canada was a flourishing nation. Two issues continued to plague it, however. First, French-speaking Canadians were determined to preserve their separate heritage, making it hard for Canadians to create a single

national identity. Second, the United States exerted a powerful economic and cultural influence that threatened to dominate its neighbor to the north. Both issues have continued to affect Canada to the present day. Europeans in Australia

The Dutch in the 1600s were the first Europeans to reach Australia—the world's smallest continent. In 1770, Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Britain. For a time, however, it remained too distant to attract European settlers.

The First Settlers Like most regions claimed by imperialist powers, Australia had long been inhabited by other people. The first settlers had reached Australia perhaps 50,000 years earlier, probably from Southeast Asia, and spread across the continent. Cut off from the larger world, the Aborigines, as Europeans later called them,* lived in small hunting and food-gathering bands, much as their Stone Age ancestors had. Aborigine groups spoke as many as 250 distinct languages. When white settlers arrived in Australia, the indigenous population suffered disastrously.

A Penal Colony Events halfway around the world in North America and Britain ended Australia's isolation and brought Europeans to the island continent. During the 1700s, Britain had sent convicts to its North American colonies, especially to Georgia. The American Revolution closed that outlet just when the Industrial Revolution was disrupting British society. Prisons in London and other cities were jammed with poor people arrested for crimes such as stealing food or goods to pawn, agitating against the government, or murder.

To fulfill the need for prisons, Britain made Australia into a penal colony. The first ships, carrying about 700 convicts, arrived in Botany Bay, Australia, in 1788. The men, women, and children who survived the grueling eight-month voyage faced more hardships on shore. Many were city dwellers with no farming skills. Under the brutal discipline of soldiers, work gangs cleared land for the settlement.

Among these first arrivals was Matthew Everingham, who at the age of 14 had been sentenced to seven years in Australia for stealing two books. Despite illness and beatings during the course of his sentence, Everingham continued to have hope for the future:

“I have now two years and seven months to remain a convict and then I am at liberty to act as a free-born Englishman ought to…. I am yet but young, only 19. If my health is spared I shall not be one jot the worse for being transported.”

—Matthew Everingham, quoted in “Children of the First Fleet,” National

Geographic

Everingham later married another convict, Elizabeth Rimes, and stayed in Australia. Their descendants, like those of other convicts and early settlers, carved out farms. Some prospered in their new homeland.

Into the Outback In the early 1800s, Britain encouraged free citizens to emigrate to Australia by offering them land and tools. As the newcomers occupied coastal lands, they thrust aside or killed the Aborigines. After settlers found that sheepherding was suited to the land and climate, a prosperous wool industry grew up in Australia.

A Convict's Life

Convicts in the Australian penal colonies found that the attitudes of their masters determined the quality of their lives. Here, a son describes his father's life as a shepherd:

“He became a dreadful spectacle … weak and helpless as a child…. After my father had been out in the bush from sunrise to sunset, he had then to retire for repose to the watchbox, 6 feet by 18 inches, with a small bed and one blanket, where he could lie and gaze upon the starry heavens, and where the wind blew in at one end and out of the other, with nothing to ward off the pitiless storm…. Besides this he had to walk four miles [at night] for his rations.”

—John Standfield, quoted in The Fatal Shore (Hughes)

Primary Sources Why did a convict-shepherd have such a terrible life in Australia?

In 1851, a gold rush in eastern Australia brought a population boom. Many gold hunters stayed on to become ranchers and farmers. They pushed into the rugged interior known as the Outback, displacing the Aborigines and carving out huge sheep ranches and wheat farms. By the late 1800s, Australia had won a place in a growing world economy.

Achieving Self-Government Like Canada, Australia was made up of separate colonies scattered around the continent. During the Age of Imperialism, Britain worried about interference from other powers. To counter this threat and to boost development, it responded to Australian demands for self-rule. In 1901, Britain helped the colonies unite into the independent Commonwealth of Australia. The new country kept its ties to Britain by recognizing the British monarch as its head of state.

The Australian constitution drew on both British and American models. Like the United States Constitution, it set up a federal system that limited the power of the central government. As in Britain, Australia's executive is a prime minister chosen by the majority party in Parliament. Unlike Britain and the United States, Australia quickly granted women the right to vote. It also was the first nation to introduce the secret ballot.

New Zealand

Far to the southeast of Australia lies New Zealand. In 1769, Captain Cook claimed its islands for Britain. Missionaries landed there in 1814 to convert the local people, the Maoris, to Christianity.

Maori Struggles Unlike Australia, where the Aborigines were spread thinly across a large continent, the Maoris were concentrated in a smaller area. They were descended from seafaring people who had reached New Zealand from Polynesia in the 1200s. The Maoris were settled farmers. They were also determined to defend their land.

Missionaries were followed by white settlers, who were attracted by the mild climate and good soil. These settlers introduced sheep and cattle and were soon exporting wool, mutton, and beef. In 1840, Britain annexed New Zealand.

As colonists poured in, they took over more and more of the land, leading to fierce wars with the Maoris. Many Maoris died in the struggle. Still more perished from disease, alcoholism, and other misfortunes that followed European colonization.

By the 1870s, resistance crumbled. The Maori population had fallen drastically, from 250,000 to less than 50,000. Only in recent years has the Maori population started to grow once more.

Self-Government Like settlers in Australia and Canada, white New Zealanders sought self-rule. In 1907, they won independence, with their own parliament, prime minister, and elected legislature. They, too, preserved close ties to the British empire.

New Zealand pioneered in several areas of democratic government. In 1893, it became the first nation to give suffrage to women. Later, it was in the forefront of other social reforms, passing laws to guarantee old-age pensions and a minimum wage for all workers.

SECTION 4 Economic Imperialism in Latin America

Reading Focus

What political and economic problems faced new Latin American nations?

How did Mexico struggle for stability?

How did the United States influence Latin America?

Vocabulary regionalism caudillo economic dependence

peonage

Taking Notes

Print out this concept web. As you read, fill in the major problems facing Latin American countries during the 1800s. To help you get started, parts of the diagram have been completed.

The economy of Latin America became dependent on industrialized nations for investment, technology, and manufactured goods.

Setting the Scene

The new technology of the Industrial Revolution allowed European nations to import goods from around the world. Meat, which spoiled easily and traditionally required drying before being transported, could now be shipped across the globe in refrigerated vessels. One observer noted: “Great Britain supplies Brazil with its steam and sailing ships, and paves and repairs its streets, lights its cities with gas, … carries its mail.” These and other developments contributed to the intertwining of nations that might be thousands of miles apart.

During the Age of Imperialism, Latin American nations found their economies increasingly dependent on those of more developed countries. Britain, and later the United States, invested heavily in Latin America.

Lingering Political Problems

Simón Bolívar had hoped to create strong ties among the nations of Latin America. After all, most people shared a common language, religion, and cultural heritage. But feuds among leaders, geographic barriers, and local nationalism shattered that dream of unity. In the end, 20 separate nations emerged.

These new nations wrote constitutions modeled on that of the United States. They set up republics with elected legislatures. During the 1800s, however, most Latin American nations were plagued by revolts, civil war, and dictatorships.

Colonial Legacy Many problems had their origins in colonial rule, as independence barely changed the existing social and political hierarchy. Creoles simply replaced peninsulares as the ruling class. The Roman Catholic Church kept its privileged position and still controlled huge amounts of land.

For most people—mestizos, mulattoes, blacks, and Indians—life did not improve after independence. The new constitutions guaranteed equality

before the law, but deep-rooted inequalities remained. Voting rights were limited. Racial prejudice was widespread, and land remained in the hands of a few. Owners of haciendas ruled their great estates, and the peasants who worked them, like medieval European lords.

Instability With few roads and no tradition of unity, the new nations were weakened by regionalism, loyalty to a local area. Local strongmen, called caudillos, assembled private armies to resist the central government. At times, popular caudillos gained national power. They looted the treasury, ignored the constitution, and ruled as dictators. Power struggles led to frequent revolts that changed little except the name of the leader. In the long run, power remained in the hands of a privileged few who had no desire to share it.

As in Europe, the ruling elite in Latin America were divided between conservatives and liberals. Conservatives defended the old social order, favored press censorship, and strongly supported the Catholic Church. Liberals backed laissez-faire economics, religious toleration, greater access to education, and freedom of the press. Liberals saw themselves as enlightened supporters of progress but often showed little concern for the needs of the majority of the people.

The Economics of Dependence

Under colonial rule, mercantilist policies made Latin America economically dependent on Spain and Portugal. Colonies sent raw materials such as sugar, cotton, or precious metals to the parent country and had to buy manufactured goods from them. Strict laws kept colonists from trading with other countries or building local industries that might compete with the parent country.

After independence, this pattern changed very little. The new republics did adopt free trade, welcoming all comers. Britain and the United States rushed into the new markets, replacing Spain as the chief trading partners with Latin American nations. But the region remained as economically dependent as before.

Economic dependence occurs when less-developed nations export raw materials and commodities to industrial nations and import manufactured goods, capital, and technological know-how. The relationship is unequal because the more developed—and wealthier—nation can control prices and the terms of trade.

Foreign Influence In the 1800s, foreign goods flooded Latin America, creating large profits for foreigners and for a handful of local business people. Foreign investment, which could yield enormous profits, was often accompanied by interference. Investors from Britain, the United States, and other nations might pressure their own governments to take action if political events or reform movements in a Latin American country seemed to threaten their interests.

Economic Growth After 1850, some Latin American economies did grow. With foreign capital, they were able to develop mining and agriculture. Chile exported copper and nitrates, and Argentina expanded livestock and wheat production. Brazil exported coffee and rubber as well as sugar. By the early 1900s, both Venezuela and Mexico were developing important oil industries.

Throughout the region, foreigners invested in modern ports and railroads to carry goods from the interior to coastal cities. As in the United States,

Imitating European Fashions

The wealthy in Brazil in the late 1800s regarded European goods and culture as superior to their own. Here, a Brazilian writer describes how the elite of his country copied British ways:

“At that time … Brazil did not manufacture a yard of silk, a shoe, a spool of thread; everything was imported…. Men's clothing for a tropical climate was made of English wool suitable for life in the unheated homes of an English winter. I asked myself: how did they stand the heat? The ladies when they took off their shoes at home used slippers of heavy wool, as if they were in Siberia…. Except for the poor, I never saw in the Pernambuco [his hometown] of my time anyone dressed in light clothing.”

—Gilbert Amado, História da Minha Infância

European immigrants poured into Latin America. The newcomers helped to promote economic activity, and a small middle class emerged.

Thanks to trade, investment, technology, and migration, Latin American nations moved into the world economy. Yet development was limited. The tiny elite at the top benefited from the economic upturn, but very little trickled down to the masses of people at the bottom. The poor earned too little to buy consumer goods. Without a strong demand, many industries failed to develop.

Primary Sources Why did the elite in Pernambuco dress so impractically?

Mexico's Struggle for Stability

During the 1800s, each Latin American country followed its own course. In this section, we will explore the experiences of Mexico as an example of the challenges facing Latin American nations.

Large landowners, army leaders, and the Catholic Church dominated Mexican politics. However, bitter battles between conservatives and liberals led to revolts and the rise of dictators. Deep social divisions separated wealthy creoles from mestizos and Indians who lived in desperate poverty.

Santa Anna and War Between 1833 and 1855, an ambitious and cunning caudillo, Antonio López de Santa Anna, gained and lost power many times. At first, he posed as a liberal reformer. Soon, however, he reversed his stand and crushed efforts at reform.

In Mexico's northern territory of Texas, discontent grew. Settlers from the United States and other countries began an independence movement. In 1835, American settlers and some Mexicans in Texas revolted. The next year they set up an independent republic. In 1845, the United States annexed Texas. Mexicans saw this act as a declaration of war. In the fighting that followed, the United States invaded and defeated Mexico. In the treaty ending the war, Mexico lost almost half its territory. This defeat shook the creole ruling class and triggered new violence between conservatives and liberals.

La Reforma In 1855, Benito Juárez (wahr ehz) and other liberals seized power and opened an era of reform known as La Reforma. Juárez, a Zapotec Indian, offered hope to the oppressed people of Mexico. He and his fellow reformers revised the Mexican constitution to strip the military of power and end the special privileges of the Church. They ordered the Church to sell unused lands to peasants.

Although conservatives resisted La Reforma and unleashed a civil war, Juárez was elected president in 1861. He used his new office to expand reforms. His opponents turned to Europe for help. In 1863, Napoleon III sent troops to Mexico and set up Austrian archduke Maximilian as emperor.

For four years, Juárez led Mexicans in battle against conservative and French forces. When France withdrew its troops, Maximilian was captured and shot. In 1867, Juárez was returned to power. Although he tried to renew reform, opponents resisted. Juárez, who died in office in 1872, never achieved all the reforms he envisioned. He did, however, help unite Mexico, bring mestizos into political life, and separate church and state.

Growth and Oppression After Juárez died, General Porfirio Díaz, a hero of the war against the French, gained power. From 1876 to 1880 and 1884 to 1911, he ruled as a dictator. In the name of “Order and Progress,” he strengthened the army, local police, and central government. Any opposition was brutally crushed.

Under his harsh rule, Mexico made impressive economic advances. It built railroads, increased foreign trade, developed some industry, and expanded mining. Growth, however, had a high cost. Capital for development came from foreign investors, to whom Díaz granted special rights. He also let wealthy landowners buy up Indian lands.

The rich prospered, but most Mexicans remained poor. Many Indians and mestizos fell into peonage to their employers. In the peonage system, hacienda owners would give workers advances on their wages and require them to stay on the hacienda until they had paid back what they owed. Wages remained low, and workers were rarely able to repay the hacienda owner. Many children died in infancy. Others worked 12-hour days and never learned to read or write.

In the early 1900s, pressure mounted for real change. Middle-class Mexicans demanded democracy. Urban and rural workers joined protests and strikes. In 1910, Mexico plunged into revolution. It was the first true social revolution in Latin America.

The Influence of the United States

As nations like Mexico tried to build stable governments, a neighboring republic, the United States, was expanding across North America. At first, the young republics in the Western Hemisphere looked favorably on each other. Bolívar praised the United States as a “model of political virtues and moral enlightenment.” In time, however, Latin American nations felt threatened by the “Colossus of the North,” the giant power that cast its shadow over the entire hemisphere.

The Monroe Doctrine In the 1820s, Spain plotted to recover its American colonies. Britain opposed any move that might close the door to trade with Latin America. It asked the United States to join it in a statement opposing any new colonization of the Americas.

President James Monroe, however, wanted to avoid any “entangling alliance” with Britain. Acting alone, in 1823 he issued the Monroe Doctrine. “The American continents,” it declared, “are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers.” The United States lacked the military power to enforce the doctrine. But knowledge that Britain was willing to use its strong navy to support the doctrine discouraged European interference. For more than a century, the Monroe Doctrine would be the key to United States policy in the Americas.

Expansion As a result of the war with Mexico, in 1848 the United States acquired the thinly populated regions of northern Mexico, including the Colorado River valley and California. The victory fed dreams of future expansion. Before the century had ended, the United States controlled much of North America and was becoming involved in overseas conflicts.

For decades, Cuban patriots had battled to free their island from Spanish rule. As they began to make headway, the United States joined their cause, declaring war on Spain in 1898. The brief Spanish-American War ended in a crushing defeat for Spain.

In the peace treaty ending the war, the United States acquired Puerto Rico in the Caribbean and the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific. Cuba was granted independence, but in 1901 the United States forced Cubans to add

The Monroe Doctrine in Action

The statement of President Monroe has been interpreted many different ways since 1823. In 1845, President Polk used the doctrine to lay claim to all of the disputed Oregon territory and also to warn European powers not to interfere in the Mexican War of 1846–1848. In the early 1900s, President Theodore Roosevelt claimed that the Monroe Doctrine gave the United States the right to exercise an “international police power.”

In 1939, the interpretation of the doctrine was narrowed. President Franklin Roosevelt declared that the doctrine

the Platt Amendment to their constitution. It gave the United States naval bases in Cuba and the right to intervene in Cuban affairs.

Intervention American investments in Latin America soared in the early 1900s. Citing the need to protect those investments, in 1904 the United States issued the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. Under this policy, the United States claimed “international police power” in the Western Hemisphere. When the Dominican Republic failed to pay its foreign debts, the United States sent in troops. It collected customs duties, paid off the debts, and remained there for years.

only warranted opposition to European interference in the Western Hemisphere, not to United States interference in the affairs of other countries.

Theme: Global InteractionWhy would presidents interpret the Monroe Doctrine differently at different times?

In the next decades, the United States sent troops to Cuba, Haiti, Mexico, Honduras, Nicaragua, and other countries in Central America and the Caribbean. Like European powers in Africa and Asia, the United States intervened in the Caribbean to protect American lives and investments.

Panama Canal From the late 1800s, the United States had wanted to build a canal across Central America. A canal would let the American fleet move swiftly between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and protect its coastlines on either side of the continent. It would also greatly reduce the cost of trade between the two oceans.

Panama, however, belonged to Colombia, which refused to sell the United States land for the canal. In 1903, the United States backed a revolt by Panamanians against Colombia. The Panamanians quickly won independence and gave the United States land to build the canal.

The Panama Canal opened in 1914. It was an engineering marvel that boosted trade and shipping worldwide. To people in Latin America, however, the canal was another example of “Yankee imperialism.” In those years, nationalist feeling in the hemisphere was often expressed as anti-Americanism. (In 1978, the United States agreed to a series of treaties that would grant Panama control over the Canal Zone by the year 2000.)

French Failure in Panama

In 1879, even before the United States envisioned a canal in Panama, Frenchman Ferdinand de Lesseps dreamed of completing the engineering achievement for the honor of his country. He had built the Suez Canal in Egypt, but disease and disaster plagued him in Panama. As fast as De Lesseps could send engineers and construction workers to Panama, they died of malaria, yellow fever, and snakebite. Asked one magazine, “Is De Lesseps a canal digger or a grave digger?”

High costs drove his company into bankruptcy within 10 years. It would take another 25 years before American engineers successfully completed the canal.

Theme: Geography and History What problems did De Lesseps face in Panama that he had not confronted in Egypt?

SECTION 5 Impact of Imperialism

Reading Focus

How did imperialism lead to new economic patterns?

What was the cultural impact of imperialism?

How did new political tensions develop as the result of imperialism?

Taking Notes

Print out this concept web. As you read, fill in the information on the impact of imperialism on the different cultures. To help you get started, parts of the diagram have been completed.

Imperialism brought both benefits and challenges to every region of the world.

Setting the Scene

In 1900, Rudyard Kipling was among the most popular writers in the English-speaking world. Kipling was born in British-ruled India and, after being educated in England, returned to India as a journalist for a number of years. His stories and poems often glorified imperialism or presented it as a romantic adventure.

Like most British imperialists, Kipling emphasized the differences between what he saw as “exotic” India and his own English culture. In one famous poem, however, he recounted a dramatic clash between equals: a gallant Afghan chief and a heroic British officer. Though enemies, the two men respect each other and act with great nobility and courage. The poem begins and ends with these lines:

“Oh, East is East, and West is West; and never the twain shall meet, Till Earth and Sky stand presently at God's great Judgment Seat; But there is neither East nor West, Border, nor Breed, nor Birth, When two strong men stand face to face, though they come from the ends of the Earth!”

—Rudyard Kipling, “The Ballad of East and West”

The Age of Imperialism brought confrontations between differing cultures “from the ends of the Earth.” By 1900, western nations had unfurled their flags over much of the globe. That expansion set off radical changes that reshaped the lives of subject people from Africa to Southeast Asia and the Pacific. For their western rulers, too, imperialism would bring about dramatic economic, political, and cultural changes.

New Economic Patterns

During the Age of Imperialism, a truly global economy emerged. It was dominated by the industrialized nations of the West, especially the United States, Britain, France, and Germany. From these nations, machine-made goods, investment capital, and technology flowed to the rest of the world. In return, the people of Africa, Asia, and Latin America provided agricultural goods, natural resources, and cheap labor. Most profits from this global exchange went to the industrialized nations.

The demands of the new world economy disrupted traditional local economies in Africa and Asia. As in Europe before the Industrial Revolution, most people on these continents grew and produced goods by hand for local use. Under colonial rule, they were forced to supply products such as rubber, copper, and coffee needed by the industrial world.

Money Economy Western capitalists developed plantations and mines but relied on a steady supply of local labor to work them. At the same time, colonial rulers introduced a money economy that replaced the old barter system that existed in some countries. To cover the expense of governing their colonies, colonial authorities imposed heavy taxes on their subjects. The only way that people could earn money to pay the taxes was by working on plantations, in mines, or on projects such as railroad building.

Families were disrupted as men left their homes and villages to work in distant mines or cities. In southern and eastern Africa, especially, many men became migrant workers. Their departure shattered families and undermined village life as women were left alone to grow food and support their children. In other parts of the world, such as Japan and Latin America, sons were kept at home to farm while daughters were sent to cities to find work as domestics or in the growing textile industry.

Economic Dependency Mass-produced goods from the industrialized world further disrupted traditional economies. India, for example, was seen by Britain as a great market for its goods. It flooded the subcontinent with cheap, factory-made cloth. The British textile industry flourished. Indian weavers who produced cloth by hand, however, could not compete and were ruined. Elsewhere, too, artisan-run businesses and handicraft industries were destroyed.

Local economies that had once been self-sufficient became dependent on the industrial powers, which bought their raw materials and supplied them with manufactured goods. When the demand and prices for crops or minerals were high, colonies prospered. When demand and prices fell, people suffered. In addition, because many workers were producing export crops rather than food for local consumption, famines occurred in lands that had once fed themselves.

Modernization Colonial rule did bring some economic benefits. Westerners laid the groundwork for modern banking systems. They introduced new technology and built modern communication and transportation networks. Capitalists invested huge sums in railroad building to boost the export economy. Railroads linked plantations and mines to ports, which developers also modernized.

From China to Chile, some local leaders and business people benefited from the new economic system. Countries like Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, for example, used export profits to develop industry, buy modern farm equipment, and promote growth.

Cultural Impact

Like many other peoples in history, Europeans were convinced of their own superiority. During the Age of Imperialism, they also believed that they had a mission to “civilize” the world. Cecil Rhodes, a leading promoter of British imperialism, declared: “The more of the world we inhabit the better it is for the human race…. If there be a God, I think what he would like me to do is to paint as much of the map of Africa British red as possible.”

Westernization As westerners conquered other lands, they pressed subject people to accept “modern” ways. By this, they meant western ideas, government, technology, and culture. Thus, during the Age of Imperialism, modernization and westernization came to be seen as one and the same.*

Many nonwesterners, especially in conquered lands, came to accept a belief in western superiority. The overwhelming successes of the western imperialist nations sapped people's confidence in their own leaders and cultures. To share in the material advantages offered by western society, business and professional people and others who had contact with westerners learned western languages, wore western clothing, adopted western manners, and embraced many western ways.

Cecil

Rhodes

1853–1902

Cecil Rhodes arrived in South Africa at age 17, determined to make his fortune. He got off to a slow start. His first venture, a cotton-farming project, failed. Then Rhodes turned to diamond and gold mining. By the age of 40, he had become one of the richest men in the world.

However, money was not his real interest. “For its own sake I do not care for money,” he once wrote. “I want the power.” Rhodes strongly supported British imperialism in Africa. He helped Britain extend its African empire by 1,000,000 square miles and had an entire British colony named after himself—Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). Rhodes also helped promote the policy of the separation of races in southern Africa.

Theme: Impact of the IndividualHow was Cecil Rhodes's desire for power illustrated by his actions?

In French colonies, local rulers kept their titles while real power was

held by colonial officials. In this photo, a French colonial governor

(left) meets with the king of Laos (right).

Other nonwesterners, however, had great misgivings about abandoning their own age-old traditions. They greatly resented—and often strongly resisted—western efforts to force new ways on them.

The new imperialism spread western culture around the world. Still, many regions were able to escape much of its influence. In remote areas of Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, many farming villagers and nomadic herders had virtually no contact with westerners. As a result, their lives continued with relatively few changes.

Schools and Hospitals Western culture was often spread by missionaries who built schools and hospitals. They taught children basic literacy and trained young men for jobs in colonial governments.

Western medicine brought many benefits. Missionaries introduced medical breakthroughs such as vaccines and modern methods of hygiene that saved lives. At the same time, the success of modern medicine drew people away from traditional herbalists and local healers, who sometimes possessed useful knowledge of the medicinal value of plants.

Religion Imperialism enabled missionaries to spread their Christian faith across the globe. They had great success in some areas. In southern Africa, for example, Christianity became widespread, although Africans generally adapted its teachings and beliefs to their own traditions. In regions where other world religions or belief systems such as Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism were deeply rooted, Christian missionaries won fewer converts.

Old and New Ways The pressure to westernize forced colonized people to reevaluate their traditions. In Asia, for example, people were proud of their ancient civilizations. On the other hand, they did work to discourage some customs, such as sati in India or footbinding in China, which they now saw as harmful. In the end, many nonwestern cultures created a complex blend of old and new ways.

As people moved into cities that had become westernized, many still felt the pull of the past. “People come to the city because they want to live like Europeans,” admitted one Nigerian, “but we still feel close to our village and always go back to visit it.”

Impact on Western Culture Western cultures changed, too, during the Age of Imperialism. The Columbian Exchange that had begun in 1492 picked up speed in the 1800s. Westerners drank coffee from Brazil and tea from Sri Lanka. They ate bananas from Honduras and pineapples from Hawaii. Their factories turned out products made from rubber harvested on plantations in Southeast Asia or South America.

Archaeologists and historians slowly unearthed evidence about ancient civilizations previously unknown to the West. Westerners who studied Hindu and Buddhist texts, Chinese histories, or Japanese poetry realized that they had much to learn from other civilizations. The arts of Japan, Persia, Africa, and Southeast Asia influenced western sculptors and painters. Western manufacturers also copied designs from other lands, launching fashions for Egyptian furniture, Japanese kimonos, and Chinese embroidery screens.

New Political Tensions

Imperialism had global political consequences, as you have seen. Europeans claimed and conquered large empires in Africa and Asia. They disrupted traditional political units such as tribes and small kingdoms. Often, they united rival peoples under a single government, imposing stability and order where local conflicts had raged for centuries.

By the early 1900s, however, resistance to imperialism was taking a new course. In Africa and Asia, western-educated elites were organizing nationalist movements to end colonial rule.

At the same time, the competition for imperial power was fueling tensions among western nations. In the Sudan in 1898, British forces expanding south from Egypt and French forces pushing east from West Africa met at Fashoda. An armed clash was barely avoided.

Elsewhere, the British and Russians played a cat-and-mouse game in Central Asia. The Great Powers—Germany, Britain, France, and Russia—tried to thwart one another's ambitions in Ottoman lands. More than once, Germany and France teetered on the brink of war over Morocco in North Africa. In 1914 and again in 1939, imperialist ambitions would contribute to the outbreak of two shattering world wars.