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Review of Literature

Chapter - II

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

To get deep insight on conceptual framework, it is very much essentials to

get adequate information on subject knowledge. For this purpose various research

works undertaken by different authors helps the scholar to understand the focal

theme of the research work. To avoid duplication in research work, it is mandatory

to review various literature works contributed by different pioneers in this field.

This review of literature helps to identify the research gap.

1. Venkatram. and Deodhar (1999)1

in their study entitled ―Dynamic

Demand Analysis of India's Domestic Coffee Market‖ highlights that

coffee, although an important commodity in India's agricultural exports,

has faced fluctuating international prices and decreasing unit value

realisation, especially in the post-reform period .Hence, domestic market

for coffee cannot be neglected altogether. This suggests that Coffee Board

may focus efforts on non-price factors rather than price incentives in their

generic coffee promotional campaign.

2. Dorsey (1999)2 in his study entitled ―Agricultural Intensification,

Diversification, and Commercial Production among Smallholder Coffee

Growers in Central Kenya‖ highlights that the research summarized in

this article establishes direct links between the scale, process, and output


18

of agricultural production by examining the dynamics of intensification,

crop diversification, and commercialization. Small farm survey results

from Kirinyaga District, Kenya, show that diversified production provides

smallholders with the opportunity to select a particular crop or crops for

commercial production (such as coffee, French beans, or tomatoes) in

order to increase farm-generated income while meeting increasing

demands for local farm produce and export crops. The study shows that

income per hectare (acre) does not consistently increase with increasing

farm size, regardless of the level of commercialization. Smallholders

operating at the 1.2 to 1.6 hectare (3-4 acre) scale appear to engage in

higher-risk, more diversified, commercial production strategies than those

with less area under production.

3. Carneiro (1999)3 in his study entitled ―Advances in coffee biotechnology‖

highlights that in the last 28 years, important advances have been made in

vitro coffee culture techniques, putting the crop in a position to benefit

from biotechnology. Some systems of plant regeneration have already

been optimised in coffee.

4. Ramirez and Sosa (2000)4

in their study entitled ―Assessing the Financial

Risks of Diversified Coffee Production Systems: An Alternative Non normal

CDF Estimation Approach‖ highlights that recently developed techniques

are adapted and combined for the modeling and simulation of crop yields


19

and prices that can be mutually correlated, exhibit heteroskedasticity or

autocorrelation, and follow non normal probability density functions.

5. Bodein (2001)5 in his study entitled ―Knowledge management, learning and

communication in value chains – A case analysis of the speciality coffee

value chain of FAPECAFES, Ecuador‖ highlights on the theoretical

background of knowledge management in value chains and the application

of the concepts on the case of FAPECAFES (Ecuador).The purpose was to

formulate a better understanding of the role and costs of knowledge

management, learning and communication in value chains and their impact

on farmers‘ ability to integrate successfully into high value markets.

6. Angkasith (2001)6

in his study entitled ―Coffee Production Status and

Potential of Organic Arabica Coffee in Thailand ―highlights that Arabica

coffee is mainly grown in the highlands at approx. 800 m asl. It is wet

processed to give high quality green bean. The Catimor cultivar is

recommended as it is rust resistant. Growing arabica coffee provides cash

income for hill-tribe farmers and reduces the problem of traditional slash-

and-burn shifting agriculture. Both shaded and full sun coffees are grown.

Limiting the use of chemical inputs, including fertilizers and pesticides,

is aimed at reducing water and soil contamination and improved

ecological conditions as well as the health of the farmers.

7. Ngowi (2003)7 in his study entitled ―A study of farmers‘ knowledge,

attitude and experience in the use of pesticides in coffee farming‖


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highlights that pesticides are commonly used to control coffee pests

despite the fact that they have been implicated in a number of poisoning

incidences and ill health. Agricultural extension workers in Tanzania are

unable to provide an adequate service to farmers with regard to safe use of

pesticides because they are not adequately trained in handling, application

(1,2) and health aspects of pesticides (3). Agricultural development policies

in many developing countries emphasize external inputs as means of

increasing food production. This has led to a growth in the use of pesticides,

inorganic fertilizers, etc. and hence a substitution for natural processes and

resources. Usages of synthetic agrochemicals have replaced biological,

cultural, and mechanical methods for controlling pests, weeds and diseases.

It is therefore necessary to make better use of indigenous resources in

sustainable agricultural production and for health maintenance.

8. Mekuria T. et al (2004)8

in their study entitled ―The Status Of Coffee

Production And The Potential For Organic Conversion In Ethiopia

―highlights in an international conference that the collapse of world coffee

prices is contributing to a socio-economic decline affecting an estimate of

125 million people world-wide. The conclusion was drawn that Ethiopia

has the potentials to produce certified organic high quality coffee due to

favourable growing conditions and the high diversity of genetic resources

in Coffee arabica. Conversion to organic coffee production may, however,

result in a significant decrease of crop productivity. A key focal point is


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efficient nutrient management by composting coffee husks/pulps, and

green manuring by mixed planting of suitable legumes.

9. Millardin (2004)9 in his study entitled ―Increasing Profitability for

Farmers Supplying to the International Coffee Market by Improving

Supply Chain Management, including Traceability‖ highlights how coffee

farmers in southern Mexico have achieved increased earnings through

partnership with conservation International, Starbucks Coffee Company

and the United States Agency for International Development. The project

introduced a set of best practices for the farm, post-harvest processing and

the wider landscape to improve coffee quality and environmental

management. Farmers can sell their coffee at premium prices to Starbucks

if they adopt the specified practices. Their earnings have increased, while

project subsidies for providing services have decreased, enabling CI to

plan an exit strategy. The project‘s learning is that five principal factors

sustained increased farmer earnings:(1) Creating brand value from

product attributes that belong to the origin; (2) Building trust and

knowledge by initially providing services directly; (3) Facilitating

efficient inter-firm transactions in the value chain; (4) Stimulating

supporting markets to take over services; (5)Building understanding of

the natural environment‘s value.

10. Segura et al (2004)10

in their study entitled “Farmers‘ Perceptions,

Knowledge, and Management of Coffee Pests and Diseases and Their


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Natural Enemies in Chiapas, Mexico‖ highlights that the Small farmers

perceptions of coffee Coffea arabica L. herbivores and their natural

enemies, how those perceptions relate to held infestation levels, and pest

management practices being implemented by members from two organic

and nonorganic coffee grower organizations in the Soconusco region.

However, a low effectiveness for pest control was commonly perceived,

probably due to a feeling, among the organic farmers, of a low impact of

their pest management extension service, whereas a lack of motivation

was prevalent among the nonorganic farmers, shown by a concern with

their low coffee yields and the emigration of youth.

11. Madhusudan (2005)11

in his study entitled ―The Global Village: Linkages

between International Coffee Markets and Grazing by Livestock in a

South Indian Wildlife Reserve‖ highlights that India's heritage of natural

habitats and wild species is under growing threat from its biomass-

dependent rural peoples and its consumerist urban economy. It has also

been suggested that subsistence use must be accommodated within Indian

wildlife reserves because it caters exclusively to local consumption for

livelihood, whereas commercial use warrants greater restriction because it

furthers profit-based goals of distant interests.

12. Subedi (2005)12

in his study entitled ―Comparative Analysis Of Dry And

Wet Processing Of Coffee With Respect To Quality In Kavre District,

Nepal‖ highlights that coffee is a high value and relatively new cash crop


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grown in the mid-hills of Nepal with an altitude range of 800-1600 m

above sea level providing on-farm employment and income generating

activities for rural poor smallholder farmers. The problem of this research

study was variation in quality of coffee obtained from two processing

method that has affected export market.

13. Rutherford (2006)13

in his study entitled ―Current Knowledge of Coffee

Wilt Disease, a Major Constraint to Coffee Production in Africa‖

highlights that the Coffee is vital to the economy of East and Central

Africa, providing a major source of foreign exchange earnings and, as a

cash crop, supporting the livelihoods of millions involved in cultivation,

processing, marketing, and export.

14. Hartwich et al ( 2007)14

in their study entitled ―Knowledge management

for agricultural innovation: Lessons from networking efforts in the

Bolivian Agricultural Technology System.‖ highlights that the results of

an analysis of adoption of innovations among farmers affiliated to four

agricultural innovation projects in Bolivia that promote different

modalities of knowledge management. In two of the cases, regional

foundations of the Bolivian Agricultural Technology System (SIBTA)

fostered knowledge management and exchange involving multiple-agents

and results show that these are relatively more successful than traditional

technology transfer projects. Results of the analysis at the individual

farmers‘ level demonstrate that the adoption of innovations is determined


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by the knowledge management modalities of the project to which they were

affiliated to as well as by the degree of embededness of the farmer in local

innovation and learning networks.

15. Muleta (2007)15

in his study entitled ―Microbial Inputs in Coffee (Coffea

arabica L.) Production Systems, Southwestern Ethiopia‖ highlights that

arabica coffee is the key cash crop and top mainstay of the Ethiopian

economy and requires sustainable production methods. Southwestern

natural forests, the site of this study, are believed to be the centre of origin

and diversity for Coffea arabica and still harbour wild Arabica coffee that

may serve as an important gene pool for future breeding. Cost reductions,

sustainability and quality improvement are now the major priorities in

coffee production systems and require organic growing of coffee.

16. Mhando et al. (2007)16

in their study entitled ―farmers‘ coping strategies

to a changed coffee market after economic liberalization: the case of

mbinga district in Tanzania‖ highlights that the Mbinga District of

Tanzania is a major coffee production area occupied by the Matengo, who

cultivate food and cash crops. In 1986, the Tanzanian government

introduced Structural Adjustment Programmes, and in 1993, liberalized

the coffee market. As a result, subsidies to agricultural inputs were

abandoned, and the cooperative union that had been responsible for coffee

production and marketing in Mbinga collapsed. At the same time,


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improvements to growing and processing technologies and the entry of

new coffee-producing countries caused overproduction in the global

coffee market; thus, the price of coffee decreased to an unprecedented

level. With the excessive supply, prices remain in stagnation, but the costs

of agricultural inputs continue to rise.

17. DaMatta et al. (2007)17

in their study entitled ―Ecophysiology of coffee

growth and production‖ highlights that after oil, coffee is the most

valuable traded commodity worldwide. In this review some aspects of

coffee growth and development in addition to focusing our attention on

recent advances on the (eco) physiology of production in both Coffea

Arabica and C. canephora, which together account for 99% of the world

coffee bean production.

18. Devi and Kumar (2008)18

in their study entitled ―Remote sensing and

GIS application for land quality assessment for coffee growing areas of

Karnataka‖ highlights the assessment of land quality was carried out for

coffee-growing areas of Karnataka using satellite image, toposheets and

soil studies. The investigation focused on monitoring soil processes that

control the land quality using satellite data in order to identify the land

qualities that are ideal for coffee-growing; to identify the status of land

qualities of coffee-growing areas using satellite imageries, toposheets and

soil resource maps and to characterise land quality using soil studies in


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selected areas. For optimum utilization of available natural resources on a

sustainable basis, timely and reliable information on soils regarding their

nature, extent and spatial distribution along with their potential and

limitations is very important. The efficiency and accuracy of data are

improved when remote sensing data products such as aerial photographs

and satellite image are used.

19. Neilson (2008)19

in his study entitled ―Environmental Governance in the

Coffee Forests of Kodagu, South India‖ highlights the Place-specific

cultural institutions regulate the relationship between coffee planters and

the natural world in the Kodagu district of the Western Ghats, a global

biodiversity hotspot in South India. Many planters have retained native

trees for shade on their plantations, such that these cultivated areas,

together with formal protected areas and community-managed sacred

groves, constitute a mostly contiguous forested landscape across the

district. The integrity of this broader landscape, and the enrolment of

coffee planters as environmental stewards, is essential if conservation

efforts are to be effective.

20. samba (2009)20

in his study entitled ―Local knowledge about trees and

ecosystem services in coffee plantations in Rubavu and Rutsiro districts,

Rwanda‖ highlights that the research was to gather farmers‘ agro-

ecological knowledge, about trees, their interactions with coffee and other

components of the shaded coffee systems, farming practices and how they


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impacted on coffee production and ecosystem services provision as well

as the surrounding environment. Major findings were; coffee (C. Arabica)

was the main cash crop grown in the study area as well as the country, no

intercropping (food crops) was permitted on coffee farms. Planting trees

on coffee farms was a usual practice for it was inevitable because the area

was hilly; the majority of farmers operated on a small scale and would

hardly afford intensive management of full-sun coffee. Farmers had

detailed knowledge about trees and ecosystems services from the coffee

agro forestry system. Ecosystem services provision largely depended on

the system‘s components. Farmers‘ rationale for selecting coffee shade

trees was mainly based on the tree attributes and their preference differed

between locations.

21. Valkila (2009)21

in his study entitled ―Fair Trade organic coffee

production in Nicaragua — Sustainable development or a poverty trap?‖

highlights the impact of Fair Trade organic coffee production on the

well-being of small-scale farmers in Nicaragu. Fair Trade organic

production raises farmer income when low intensity organic farming is an

alternative to low-intensity conventional farming. However, low-intensity

farming produces very little coffee in the case of the most marginalized

farmers, keeping these farmers in poverty. With higher intensities of

management, the economic advantages of Fair Trade organic production

largely depend on prices in the mainstream market.


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22. ForeroAlvarez and Furio (2010)22

in their study entitled ―Colombian

Farmers ‗Adaptations to New Condition in the World Coffee Market‖

highlights that the recent evolution of Colombian coffee production and a

look at the family farms that currently represent the majority of coffee

grown in Colombia highlights the institutional adjustments that have

optimized benefits from marketing phases controlled by the country and

passed them on to the producers. It also reveals the strategies by which

coffee growers have adjusted their production systems, including

technical and the pursuit of sustainability. As a result of these

adjustments, family farmers have made their production systems

economically viable, although for most the income from them has been

insufficient to raise them above the poverty line.

23. Hartwich, et al. (2010)23

in their study entitled ―Innovation Trajectories in

Honduras‘ Coffee Value Chain. Public and Private Influence on the Use

of New Knowledge and Technology among Coffee Growers‖ highlights

the use of improved coffee production technology schemes among

smallholder coffee producers in three prominent coffee producing regions

in Honduras are presented. The results suggest that there are significant

differences in the way that various providers of knowledge and

technology, especially private buyers and development agencies,

influence the farmers‘ behaviour towards innovation. The influence of

buyers, according to the data, is focused on certification and quality


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aspects, whereas development agents focus on improved agronomic

practices. Farmers who communicate with the extension branch of input

providers tend to be more innovative. These results suggest that

development programs should take more seriously into account the role of

private actors in innovation among agricultural producers and, hence,

design development programs in such a way to allow for collaboration

with these agents.Caleb Gordon et al. (2007)19

in their study entitled

―Biodiversity, profitability, and vegetation structure in a Mexican coffee

agro-ecosystem‖ highlights that the relationships of bird and small

mammal species richness, composition, and abundance to vegetation

structure and economic profitability across a coffee intensification

gradient in central Veracruz, Mexico. The results demonstrate that high-

biodiversity coffee cultivation can be compatible with high profitability, and

has significant potential for conserving biodiversity in coffee-growing

regions, but only as a substitute for low biodiversity coffee cultivation,

not forest.

24. Sereke-Brhan (2010)24

in his study entitled ―Lessons for Africa from the

Ethiopian Fine Coffee Initiative‖ highlights that the initiative to register

trademark for Ethiopia‘s fine coffees was launched in2004. What seemed

a quiet progression of actions by the Ethiopian Intellectual Property

Office quickly grew to command international media attention? Opinions


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differed as to whether rightful claim could be exercised over an

agricultural product that happened to be growing in a particular location.

25. Tiwari (2010)25

in his study entitled ―Agricultural Policy Review For

Coffee Promotion In Nepal‖ highlights that coffee is one of the important

cash generative crops in the mid hills of Nepal. Coffee, being an

important high value crops, is mostly grown in marginal areas with

minimum use of improved technologies. In line with the focus of

agricultural policies, the concerned organizations have not taken adequate

initiatives for the promotion of coffee cultivation. In Nepal majority of

coffee is wet processed, which is considered best method for good quality

coffee. However, there is lack of updated manpower and improved

technologies towork in this regard. As a result of which, quality of

Nepalese coffee is below international standard. Around 65 percent of

Nepalese coffee is exported and the rest amount is processed and supplied

in the domestic market. Majority of coffee is exported through personal

contact of traders rather than institutionalized marketing channel.

Therefore, there is gap between what policies have stated and what

actually implemented in the real fields for the promotion of coffee.

26. Smith (2010)26

in his study entitled ―The Evolution Of Coffee Markets For

Sustainable Development: A Honduran Cooperative‘s Experience With Fair

Trade‖ explores the barriers coffee farmers of Cooperativa Copan in

Western Honduras face in effectively participating in the Fair Trade


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market, as well as the opportunities Fair Trade offers in improving the

conditions of these farmers and the environment. It also highlights the

political and economic relationships that constitute the global coffee

industry and the many links between points of production and

consumption along the coffee value chain. Fair Trade has become an

important alternative trade strategy in the world economy as it confronts the

power inequalities and exploitations within the North-South trade relations.

27. Ambinakudige (2011)27

in his study entitled ―National Parks, coffee and

NTFPs: the livelihood capabilities of Adivasis in Kodagu, India‖

highlights how a small farmer faces the difficulties of her lively hood.

Her husband goes for daily wages in the estate like pruning. The only

problem being they do not own land.

28. Frascareli et al. (2011)28

in their study entitled ―Effect of process conditions

on the microencapsulation of coffee oil by spray drying ―highlights that

Microencapsulation is a good alternative to transform liquid food

flavorings‘, such as coffee oil, into stable and free-flowing powders.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of process conditions

on the microencapsulation of coffee oil by spray drying, using gum

Arabic as encapsulating agent. At this temperature, pure oil presented

higher lipid oxidation than encapsulated, confirming the protective effect

of microencapsulation on the oxidative stability of this product.


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29. Duku et al (2011)29

in their study entitled ―Bio-char production potential

in Ghana—A review ―highlights that Bio-char is being promoted for its

potential to improve soil properties, crop productivity and carbon

sequestration in soil. Obstacles that may hinder rapid adoption of bio-char

production systems include technology and production costs, and

feedstock availability. It is concluded that the large availability of

biomass resources in Ghana gives a great potential for bio-char

production in the country.

30. Munyuli (2011)30

in his study entitled ―Farmers perceptions of

pollinators‘ importance in coffee production in Uganda‖ highlights that

Coffee (Coffea canephora) is the principal cash crop and the country‘s

largest agricultural foreign revenue earner in Uganda. Previous surveys

confirmed that coffee grown in central Uganda was largely depending on

bee pollination to set fruit set. Despite its high contribution to the

economics of agricultural sector in Uganda and despite its great

dependency to bees for fruit set, it is not clear if small-scale farmers are

aware of the importance of managing farm- landscapes for pollination

services conservation to increase coffee yield. The main hypothesis was

that small-scale coffee growers were not aware of the relevance of

pollination services for coffee production. Farmers‘ surveys were

conducted in coffee-banana farming systems in central Uganda. It was

found in this study that more than 90% of interviewed farmers were not


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aware of the role played by bees in coffee yield increase. Farmers were

not willing to manage their lands to protect pollination services,

particularly because they considered pollination service as an unsolicited

―free service‖, or as a ―public good‖.

31. Murthy and Naidu (2011)31

in their study entitled ―Improvement of

Robusta Coffee Fermentation with Microbial Enzymes‖ highlights that

Pectinase was produced by solid- state fermentation utilizing coffee pulp

with Aspergillus niger CFR 305. This is the first report on treatment of

the pectinase produced by coffee pulp and application of the same on

demucilage of coffee pulp indicating waste recycle with value addition

and is also economical for coffee industry.

32. Cerdán (2011)32

in his study entitled ―Local knowledge about how

ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation are related top

productivity in coffee agro forestry‖ highlights that the potential for tree

components of coffee agro forestry systems to provide ecosystem services

is increasingly recognized in certification schemes and direct payments

for environmental services. Management practices are a key factor in the

amount and quality of ecosystem services provided.

33. Anteneh et al. (2011)33

in their study entitled ―Factors Affecting Coffee

Farmers Market Outlet Choice. The Case of Sidama Zone, Ethiopia‖

highlights that Access to market in the form of different channels for


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coffee farmers is crucial for exploiting the potential of coffee production

to contribute to increased cash income of rural households.

34. Ponte (2011)34

in his study entitled ―Behind the Coffee Crisis‖ highlights

that the complex web of factors that are behind the current crisis in the

global coffee market. Although there has been wide coverage in the press

of tumbling prices for 'green' coffee and their repercussions on rural

livelihoods in producing countries, not much has been said on the

long-term changes that have taken place in the global coffee marketing

chain. This has resulted in the widespread belief that the coffee crisis is

simply about oversupply.

35. Cerdán (2011)35

in his study entitled ―Local knowledge about how

ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation are related top

productivity in coffee agro forestry ―highlights in his research paper that

the potential for tree components of coffee agro forestry systems to

provide ecosystem services is increasingly recognized in certification

schemes and direct payments for environmental services. There is

relatively abundant information about ecosystem services provision

within coffee agro forestry systems, but comparatively scant information

about how farmers manage their plantations, the factors influencing their

farming practices and the extent to which farmers' local knowledge - as

opposed to global scientific understanding.


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36. Mugo et al. (2011)36

in their study entitled ―The insect pests of coffee and

their distribution in Kenya‖ highlights that Coffee insect pests constrain

the production of anticipated high coffee yield and quality.

37. Donovan and Jason (2011)37

in their study entitled‖ Value chain

development for addressing rural poverty: asset building by smallholder

coffee producers and cooperatives in Nicaragua‖ showed that how large

pre-existing endowments of human and social capital provided a solid

foundation for rapid asset accumulation during the assessment period.

However, longer-term interventions that focused on building Soppexcca‘s

physical and financial capitals and improving Soppexcca‘s service offer

for its members were carried out exclusively by NGOs. NGO support

allowed Soppexcca to build infrastructure for coffee processing, build its

technical assistance program for quality enhancement, and expand its

credit services for members. Despite major gains in assets during the

assessment period, however, Soppexcca remained highly vulnerable to

asset erosion from both internal and external shocks.

38. Thangaswamy et al. (2011)38

in their study entitled ―Endoglucanase

Production By Bacillus amyloliquefaciens Using Coffee Pulp As Substrate

In Solid State Fermentat ion‖ highlights that, endoglucanase was produced

from coffee pulp waste by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens MTCC610.

From this findings coffee pulp waste is an abundant solid waste at coffee


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processing industries, it has the potential substrate for endoglucanase

production.

39. Dowdall (2012)39

in his study entitled ―Small Farmer Market Knowledge

and Specialty Coffee Commodity Chains in Western Highlands

Guatemala‖ highlights that for producers motivated by their new status as

self-employed, landowning, capitalist coffee growers, specialty coffee

presents an opportunity to proactively change the way they participate in

the international market. Now responsible for determining their own path,

many producers have jumped at the chance to enhance the value of their

product and participate in the new ―fair trade‖ market. But recent trends

in the international coffee price have led many producers to wonder why

their efforts to produce a certified Fair Trade and organic product are not

generating the price advantage they had anticipated.

40. Alejandra et al. (2012)40

in their study entitled ―Cooperation in coffee

markets: the case of Vietnam and Colombia ―highlights the purpose of

presenting a cross-country study comparing Colombia and Vietnam, two

of the major coffee exporting countries in the world, in terms of their

infrastructures, the roles of external shocks, technology adoption at

different stages of production, added value, positioning in both domestic

and global markets, internationalization patterns, marketing and branding

innovations, regulatory frameworks, and policy environments .This also

explores other aspects linked to production, and marketing strategies that


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open niche markets such as specialty coffees, and socially, labour and

environmentally-responsible trade. Furthermore, it identifies opportunities

of cooperation and competition between these two countries.

41. Harris et al. (2012)41

in their study entitled ― Modeling Annual Coffee .

42. Avelino et al. (2012)42

in their study entitled ―Landscape context and

scale differentially impact coffee leaf rust, coffee berry borer, and coffee

root-knot nematodes‖ highlights that crop pest and disease incidences at

plot scale vary as a result of landscape effects. Two main effects can be

distinguished. First, landscape context provides habitats of variable

quality for pests, pathogens, and beneficial and vector organisms. Second,

the movements of these organisms are dependent on the connectivity

status of the landscape. It was propose to fragmenting coffee plots with

forest corridors to control coffee berry borer movements between coffee

plots without favouring coffee leaf rust dispersal.

43. Megerssa et al. (2012)43

in their study entitled ―Knowledge and Attitude

of Small holder Coffee Producing Farmers to Coffee Quality:

The Case of Oromiya and South Nations Nationalities and Peoples

Regional States, Ethiopia ―highlights that in time bound when nobody

was sure how Coffee arabica is originally discovered, farmers in Ethiopia

have been growing quality coffee in the untamed forests of Kaffa and

Buno areas. Variables like, market distance, distance to washing stations,


38

frequency of training and actors‘ efforts to improve quality were

important to influence coffee quality. Similarly of the 12 items selected

items for comparison in attitude scale, primary actors involved in quality

improvement, awareness of quality trend, skill and knowledge of farmers

were important items that affected coffee quality.The finding has also

indicated farmers had virtually low information regarding quality beans they

produced and their social, institutional, economical and psychological factors

differ across the study areas and among respondents. These necessitated

strengthening linkages among institutions so as to popularize the already

available technologies.

44. Syariefet et al. (2012)44

in their study entitled ―Smallholder Coffee

Processing Design Using Wet Technology Based On Clean Production‖

highlights that wet processing for red coffee berry is intended to improve

smallholder coffee quality despite produce wastewater that can pollute the

environment. In order to minimize and prevent wastewater generated

from processing, then it should be designed coffee processing based on

water minimization as part of clean production.

45. Darvishi and Indira (2013)45

in their study entitled ―An Analysis Of

Changing Pattern In Area, Production And Productivity Of Coffee And

Tea In India‖ highlights that the plantation crops are high value

commercial crops with greater economic importance and play a vital role


39

in Indian economy. It is the source of livelihood for millions of small and

marginal farmers and provides employment for millions of plantation

workers. The export earnings from plantation crops like coffee and tea

played a significant role in financing Indian development. Plantation

sector has plays an important role in the socio-economic development of

the Indian regions. Being export oriented crops; changes in the trade

policies affect the production of these crops much more than any other

crops. Trade liberalization polices adopted in India with the introduction

of New Economic Policies has greater impact on the area, production and

productivity of these crops.

46. Gathura (2013)46

in his study entitled ― Factors affecting Small-Scale

Coffee Production in Githunguri District, Kenya‖ highlights that to

determine the factors affecting small scale coffee production in Kenya.

The establishments under study were small-scale coffee farms in

Githunguri District. It was to determine whether marketing factors,

finances, government policies and physical and human resources affect

coffee production in Githunguri District. The research established that

marketing factors, finances, government policies and physical and human

resources greatly affected coffee production. The study recommended that

the government should encourage coffee production by formulating

favorable marketing factors and other policies and provide finances to


40

small scale coffee producers. Producers on the other hand should strive to

provide conducive working environment to their workers so as to sustain

them in their farms. This will help to improve coffee yields and quality.

47. Kucel et al. (2013)47

in their study entitled ―Status and Current Research

Strategies for Management of the Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus

hampei Ferr) in Africa‖ highlights that Coffee production in Africa has

largely stagnated over the past two decades. While the continent had

attained a production level of 19.5 million 60kg bags of coffee in 1997,

production in 2008 was only 17.5 million 60kg. This stagnation has been

attributed to a number of factors including poor management practices and

losses due to damage by insect pests and diseases (Musoli et al., 2001).

While considerable efforts have been made by research institutions in many

African countries to address the problem, control recommendations have

principally relied on cultural methods that are on their own inadequate and

cumbersome for peasant farmers to apply with due diligence.

48. Karthigaiselvan and Maran (2013)48

in their study entitled ―Production

And Marketing Of Coffee In TamilNadu ―highlights that the research

study was conducted with an objective to understand the related issues of

cultivation and marketing of coffee in TamilNadu. TamilNadu has a great

potential of coffee production and coffee drinker/addicted. In our


41

TamilNadu state most of peoples are used in variety of coffee, Instant

Coffee, and piece of leaf.

49. Thang et al. (2013)49

in their study entitled ―Knowledge Creation And

Green Entrepreneurship: A Study Of Two Vietnamese Green Firms‖

highlights that to understanding and practice of knowledge-based

management in Vietnam by studying two Vietnamese agricultural

companies. It provides illustrative examples of how knowledge-based

management, pursuing a vision that fosters creativity and innovation by

employees, could ultimately fulfill the profitability objective of the business

and at the same time add value to the community‘s quality of life. Using the

SECI model as the parameter for analysis it is found that knowledge creation

processes were affected by a combination of leadership, teamwork and

corporate culture, and human resource management.

50. Akinbamowo (2013)50

in his study entitled ―A review of government

policy on agricultural mechanization in Nigeria‖ highlights that

performance of the previous Nigerian Government policy on agriculture

with specific consideration for components of the policies that concern

the agricultural mechanization subsector. Available secondary data

indicated that the existing policy framework have hitherto not adequately

supported the growth of the sector. The paper concluded by providing fresh


42

focus areas that will make a new policy to be more vibrant and supportive of

an efficient multi-spectral agricultural production in the country.

51. Drunday and Pacin (2013)51

in their study entitled ―Occurrence of

Ochratoxin A in coffee beans, ground roasted coffee and soluble coffee

and method validation ―highlights that to determine the occurrence of

Ochratoxin A (OTA) in coffee beans, ground roasted coffee and soluble

coffee, which is imported by Argentina and manufactured in this country

and also to perform a single laboratory validation for the analysis of OTA.

Validation was done with certified reference material and with spiked

samples. Certified material showed 104% of toxin recovery in the case of

roasted coffee and 100% for green coffee. Spiked samples with levels from

1.98 to 10.18 mg/kg for soluble coffee had an average recovery rate of

79.4%. The limits of detection and quantification in coffee were 0.02 mg/kg

and 0.05 mg/kg respectively. A good correlation (r ¼ 0.9989) was found

for this method. The results showed that a high percentage (69%) of the

coffee was contaminated with OTA at different levels. The median

obtained for green coffee was 2.7 mg/kg, for ground roasted coffee was

0.24 mg/kg and 0.43 mg/kg for soluble coffee. A possible exposure

assessment was evaluated.

52. Indira (2014)52

in his study entitled ―Impact of Trade Liberalization on

Indian Coffee Exports‖ highlights that the decade of 1990‘s has opened


43

the door in India for Liberalization. The dilemma of India to become

liberalized in external trade in 1980 was clarified when India got

liberalized in 1991. Today India has crossed two decades of accelerating

liberalization. Though the wind of liberalization brought many reforms,

the agriculture sector remained quiet untouched for a very long time.

The irony was that the reform failed to glance, that sector of workforce

which supported as the largest share in the country. But the increasing

economic integration of Indian economy with the global process has

brought significant challenges and changes at the door of the agriculture

sector. The reform dragged out most of the restriction on both import and

export of agriculture products. The quantitative restrictions on agriculture

import were removed, import licensing for all product were abolished

(but with certain criteria), the canalising agencies was greatly reduced.

By getting certain changes a strong feeling was emerged in the country

not to keep the agriculture sector outside the purview of direct reform.

Quantitative restrictions on imports are being phased out and exports are

also being liberalized. Both agricultural exports as well as imports are

now permitted through private trade, except for a few commodities. There

is lot of anxiety, interest and apprehension about the impact that the trade

liberalization may have on producers, consumers and the economy.


44

CONCLUDING REMARKS

It has been noticed that the review of literature on knowledge management

in coffee cultivation gives an idea on extensive and diverse works on coffee

cultivation. It facilitates the understanding of various structural and non structural

variables that determine the cultivation of coffee among small growers.

The survey of the existing literature indicates that so far no specific work has been

carried out to evaluate the knowledge management of coffee growers among small

growers. Hence, this was identified as research gap in this area. In order to fulfil

the research gap, the researcher has chosen this particular area as his research topic

and hence, this study. Further, this study is intended to be an eye opener for the

coffee growers living in Yercaud to enhance their knowledge in coffee cultivation

with modern methods and pesticides control. The present study will help the

policymakers of coffee board and coffee growers.


45

END NOTE

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India‘s Domestic Coffee Market, IIMA Working Paper.

Briyan Dorsey (1999), Agricultural Intensification, Diversification, and Commercial

Production among Smallholder Coffee Growers in Central Kenya, Economic

Geography, Vol. 75, No. 2 (April, 1999), PP. 178-195.

Maria Filomena Carneiro (1999), Advances in coffee biotechnology AgroBiotechNet

1999, Vol. 1 January, ABN 006

Octavio A. Ramirez and Romeo Sosa (2000), in his study entitled Assessing the

Financial Risks of Diversified Coffee Production Systems: An Alternative

Non normal CDF Estimation Approach Journal of Agricultural and Resource

Economics 25(1):267-285 Copyright 2000 Western Agricultural Economics

Association

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value chains – A case analysis of the specialty coffee value chain of

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Coffee in Thailand, Paper presented at the First Asian Regional Round-table

on Sustainable, Organic and Speciality Coffee Production, Processing and

Marketing, 26-28, (February, 2001), Chiang Mai, Thailand.


46

Ngowi A.V.F. (2003), A study of farmers knowledge, attitude and experience in the

use of pesticides in coffee farming, African newsletter on occupational health

and safety, Vol.13, (2003), PP. 62-64.

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(October, 5-7, 2004).

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International Coffee Market by Improving Supply Chain Management, including

Traceability, United States Agency for International Development, (2004).

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Perceptions, Knowledge, and Management of Coffee Pests and Diseases and

Their Natural Enemies in Chiapas, Mexico, Entomological Society of

America, Vol 97 No.5, (2004) PP.1492-1499.

Madhusudan (2005), The Global Village: Linkages between International Coffee

Markets and Grazing by Livestock in a South Indian Wildlife Reserve,

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Raghu Nath Subedi (2010),Comparative Analysis Of Dry And Wet Processing Of

Coffee With Respect To Quality In Kavre District, Nepal, Larenstein

University of Professional Education and Research, (2010), PP.1-11.


47

Mike A. Rutherford (2006), Current Knowledge of Coffee Wilt Disease, a Major

Constraint to Coffee Production in Africa, The American Phytopathological

Society, Vol.96 No.6 (2006) .

Frank Hartwich, Mario Monge Pérez, Luis Ampuero Ramos and José Luis Soto

(2007), Knowledge management for agricultural innovation: lessons from

networking efforts in the Bolivian Agricultural Technology System, Knowledge

Management for Development Journal, Vol.3, No.2, (2007) PP.21-37.

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Muleta, Uppsala Tryck: SLU Service/Repro, Uppsala 2007.

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coffee market after economic liberalization: the case of Mbinga district in

Tanzania, African study Monographs, Vol 36, (March 2007) PP.39-56.

Fábio M. DaMatta; Cláudio P. Ronchi; Moacyr Maestri; Raimundo S. Barros (2007)

Eco physiology of coffee growth and production Braz. J. Plant Physiol.

vol.19 no.4 Londrina Oct./Dec. 2007.

Shalima G. M., Devi, K. S. Anil Kumar (2008), Remote sensing and GIS

application for land quality assessment for coffee growing areas of Karnataka

Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing March 2008, Volume 36,

Issue 1, pp 89-97.


http://link.springer.com/search?facet-author=%22G.+M.+Shalima+Devi%22

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48

Jeff Neilson 2008 in his study entitled ―Environmental Governance in the Coffee

Forests of Kodagu, South India‖ Transforming Cultures eJournal, Vol. 3 No 1,

(February, 2008).

Ruth Nansamba (2009), Local knowledge about trees and ecosystem services in

coffee plantations in Rubavu and Rutsiro districts, Rwanda, Bangor

University, Wales, (September 2009).

Joni Valkila (2009), Fair Trade organic coffee production in Nicaragua — Sustainable

development or a poverty trap, Ecological Economics,Vol.3 (2009), PP.1-8.

Frank Hartwich, Ingrid From, Gustavo Romero (2010), Innovation Trajectories in

Honduras Coffee Value Chain. Public and Private Influence on the Use of

New Knowledge and Technology among Coffee Growers, International

Journal on Food System dynamics,Vol.3, (2010), PP.237-251.

Jaime Forero Alvarez, Victoria J. Furio (2010), Colombian Farmers ‗Adaptions to

New Condition in the World Coffee Market, Latin American Perspectives,

Globalization, Neoliberalism, And The Latin American Coffee Societies

Vol. 37, No. 2, (March 2010), PP. 93-110.

Heran Sereke-Brhan (2010), Lessons for Africa from the Ethiopian Fine Coffee

Initiative, Boston University The Frederick S.Paradee Center for the study of

the Longer-Ranger Future, The Pardee Papers, No. 11, (July 2010).


49

Kul Prasad Tiwari (2010), Agricultural Policy Review For Coffee Promotion In Nepal,

The Journal of Agriculture and Environment Vol:11, Jun.2010, PP.138-147.

Erin Sue Smith (2010), The Evolution Of Coffee Markets For Sustainable

Development: A Honduran Cooperative‘s Experience With Fair Trade,

California State University, Chico, (Spring, 2010), PP. xiv.

Shrinidhi Ambinakudige (2011), in his study entitled ― National Parks, coffee and

NTFPs: the livelihood capabilities of Adivasis in Kodagu, India‖ Journal of

Political Ecology Vol. 18, (2011).

Frascareli, E.C. Silva, V.M. Tonon, R.V. Hubinger M.D. in their study entitled ―Effect

of process conditions on the microencapsulation of coffee oil by spray drying,

Elsevir journel food and bioproducts processing,Vol.90 (2012), PP.413–424.

Moses Hensley Duku, Sai Gu, Essel Ben Hagan(2011), Bio-char production

potential in Ghana—A review, M.H. Duku et al. Renewable and Sustainable

Energy, Vol.15, Issue 1(2011), ISSN 1364-0321.

Théodore Munyuli (2011) Farmers perceptions of pollinators‘ importance in coffee

production in Uganda‖ Earth & Environmental Sciences Journal

Vol.2 No.3, August 2011.

Pushpa S. Murthy and M. Madhava Naidu (2011), in his study entitled

―Improvement of Robusta Coffee Fermentation with Microbial Enzymes‖

European Journal of Applied Sciences 3 (4): 130-139, 2011 ISSN 2079-

2077© IDOSI Publications, 2011.


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50

Arlos Roberto Cerdán (2011), Local knowledge about how ecosystem services and

biodiversity conservation are related top productivity in coffee agro-forestry,

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Vol. 36, No. 46/47 (Nov. 24-30, 2001), PP. 4410-4417

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their distribution in Kenya, international journal of science and nature, Vol 2

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asset building by smallholder coffee producers and cooperatives in

Nicaragua, University of London Ph.D. thesis (2011) PP.3-5.


51

Thangaswamy, Selvankumar, Muthusamygovarthanan And Munisamy Govindaraju

(2011), Endoglucanase Production By Bacillus Amyloliquefaciens

Using Coffee Pulp As Substrate In Solid State Fermentation International

Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, Vol.2 No3, September 2011,

ISSN 0975 -6299.

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Commodity Chains in Western Highlands Guatemala, Florida International

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Business and Social Research, Volume 2, (December 2012), PP.175-185.

Jacques Avelino, Ali Romero-Gurdián, Héctor F. Cruz-Cuellar and Fabrice

A. J. Declerck (2012), Landscape context and scale differentially impact

coffee leaf rust, coffee berry borer, and coffee root-knot nematodes,

Vol. 22, No. 2 (March, 2012), PP. 584-596.


52

Berhanu Megerssa, Getachew Welde Michael, Derese Teshome (2012), Knowledge

and Attitude of Small holder Coffee Producing Farmers to Coffee Quality:

The Case of Oromiya and South Nations Nationalities and Peoples Regional

States, Ethiopia, Applied Science Technology, Vol. 3, No.2, (2012), PP. 31-44

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and Sri Mulato (2012), Smallholder Coffee

Processing Design Using Wet Technology Based On Clean Production

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Area, Production And Productivity Of Coffee And Tea In India International

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Strategies for Management of the Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei

Ferr) in Africa, National Crop Resources Research Institute, Uganda. (2008).


53

Karthigaiselvan and Maran, B (2013), Production And Marketing of Coffee In

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mechanization in Nigeria, Academic Journals, Vol.5(8), (September, 2013),

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and Social Sciences ISSN: 2278-6236 Vol. 3 | No. 4 | April 2014.


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