Chapter 2

Theories of Human Development

Issues in Human Development

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

Freud (1856-1939)

Sex and aggression influence personality

The Psychoanalytic Perspective

Psychoanalysis unconscious motives and conflicts Techniques to expose and interpret unconscious

tensions

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Id, Ego and Superego

Id - Instinctual nature of humans (anger and sex). - the pleasure

principle

Largely conscious, ego - mediates the demands of id and superego (reality

principle).

Superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience)

Chapter 3 – PersonalityWhich horse is the Id? Superego?

Personality Structure

Freudian slip – a slip of the tongue that reveals an unconscious motive or thought

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Exploring the Unconscious

•Feud asked patients to say whatever came to their mind (free association).

http://ww

w.english.upenn.edu

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Dream Analysis

interpreting the manifest and latent contents of dreams.

The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791)

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

10 inkblots - designed by Hermann Rorschach.

1884-1922

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Thematic Apperception Test(TAT)

Developed by Henry Murray,

Freud’s Psychosexual Development

• Conflict creates anxiety

• Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms

• Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

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• Oral stage - first year of life in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning is the primary conflict. Id dominated.

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• Anal stage - second stage - about 2 years of age, the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict. Ego develops.

– Anal expulsive personality messy, destructive, and hostile.

– Anal retentive personality - neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn.

• Phallic stage - 3 - 6 years of age, in which the child discovers sexual feelings. Superego develops.

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Oedipus Complex

A boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.

Electra complex for the girl’s desire for the father.

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Identification

Through identification their

superego gains strength

incorporating parents’ values.

From the K

. Vandervelde private collection

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• Latency - fourth stage - the sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways.

• Genital – sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets.

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory

• Strengths

– Awareness of unconscious motivation

– Emphasized important early experience

– Neo-Freudians have been influential

• Weaknesses

– Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable

– Not supported by research

When a student asked him what was the significance of his cigar, Freud replied “sometimes a cigar is just a

cigar.”

Erik Erikson (psycho-social theory)

• Most influential neo-Freudian

• Some differences with Freud

– Less emphasis on sexual urges

– More emphasis on rational ego

– More positive and adaptive view of human nature

– Believed development continues through adulthood

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Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson

• Strengths

– Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature

– Interaction of biological & social influences

– Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still most relevant

• Weaknesses

– Sometimes vague and difficult to test

– Does not explain how development comes about

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov

1849-1936 Russian physician/

neurophysiologist studied digestive

secretions

Behavioral Approaches

• Classical Conditioning - a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli.

•

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Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and

naturally--triggers a response

Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response to the

unconditioned stimulussalivation when food is in the mouth

Classical Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association

with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral

conditioned stimulus

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Acquisition

The CS needs to come half a second before

the US to cause acquisition.

Classical Conditioning: An ExampleClassical Conditioning: An Example

Flash of camera (UCS) Blinking (UCR)

Camera (NS) Flash of camera (UCS)

Camera (CS)

Blinking (CR)

causes

+

=

Camera (CS) causes

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“coffee break.”

Applications of Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson(1878-1958)

Brow

n Brothers

Psychology focuses on observable behavior

What do you think about Watson’s John B. Watson’s famous quote?“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they have been doing it for many thousands of years.”

Conditioned emotional response

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Classical Conditioning

Stimulus generalization• After association is forged between CS and

CR, learner often responds to similar stimuli as if they are the original CR.

Stimulus discrimination• Ability to differentiate between a particular CS

and other significantly different stimuli is stimulus differentiation.

Classical Conditioning

Extinction• If the CS is presented time and again without

being accompanied by the US, the association may fade.

• The CR decreases and eventually disappears in a process called extinction.

Spontaneous recovery• With presentation of a CS after a rest period,

the CR may reappear.• The CR was not forgotten, but suppressed

during the extinction.

Behavioral Approaches

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

Operant Behavior - operates (acts) on environmentproduces consequences

Consequences (rewards and punishments)

Reinforcement (reward) increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Punishment decreases the probability

that a behavior will occur.

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Types of Reinforcement

• Positive reinforcement – giving something that the person wants that increases the behavior

• Examples:– Praise– Teacher attention– Rewards

• Negative reinforcement – taking away something that the person does not want that increases the behavior– Taking away chores– Taking away time-out

Types of Punishment

• Positive punishment– giving something that the person does not want that decreases the behavior– Detention– Extra work

• Negative Punishment– taking away something that the person wants that decreases the behavior– Loss of recess– Loss of playing video games

Punishment Problems

•Drawbacks to severe punishment:

– Fear and anxiety

– Lying

– Avoidance

– Modeling of aggression

•5.8 What are some of the problems with using punishment?

•Punishment should be:

– Immediate

– Consistent

– Paired with reinforcement for correct behaviors

Making Punishment More Effective

Behavioral Approaches

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Generalization

Giving the same response to similar situations.

Discrimination

Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.

Extinction

Previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases.

One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it resulting in extinction

bservational learningbservational learning

Learning new behavior by watching a

model behave

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Bandura’s classic Bobo doll experiment (1961)

1925- presentBandura’s Social Cognitive

Theory

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory

• observational learning

– BoBo doll studies

– Model praised or punished or no consequence

– Child learned to imitate rewarded or not punished model

– Vicarious reinforcement

ProductionPoor motor ability inhibits reproduction of the model’s

behavior. Help improve skills.

MotivationWhen given a reinforcement,

modeling increases.

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AttentionStudents are more likely to be attentive to high status

models (teachers).

RetentionStudent retention will be

improved when teachers give logical and clear demonstrations.

4 Processes in Observational Learning

Modeling Violence

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

Social, Cognitive, and Behavioral factors play important roles in learning.

Self-efficacy: The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes.

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Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Personal

Environment Behavior

Reciprocal Determinism

Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses

• Strengths

– Precise and testable theory

– Carefully controlled experiments

– Practical applications across lifespan

• Weaknesses

– Inadequate account of lifespan changes

– Ignored genetic and maturational processes