chapter 2 patterns of crime
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Chapter 2 Patterns of Crime. Frank Schmalleger PowerPoint presentation created by Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D. History of Crime Statistics. Gathering of crime statistics relatively new phenomenon Inferences based on statistical demographics date back 200 years Thomas Robert Malthus - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Chapter 2Patterns of Crime
Frank Schmalleger
PowerPoint presentation created by
Ellen G. Cohn, Ph.D.
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
All Rights Reserved.2
History of Crime Statistics Gathering of crime statistics relatively new phenomenon
Inferences based on statistical demographics date back 200 years Thomas Robert Malthus
Economist who published an essay in 1798 claiming that as the earth’s population grew, it would lead to competition locally and internationally for limited resources.
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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History of Crime Statistics Andre Michel Guerry (1802-1866)
Calculated per capita crime rates in France in early 1800s
Adolphe Quetelet (1796-1864) Statistical analysis of crime in
Europe. Wanted to see if crime varied by climate, age, and gender.
Thermic law – crime varies with seasons and climate
Led to development of statistical school
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Crime Statistics Today National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) Conducted by Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS)
Criminal Victimization in the United States
Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program Conducted by Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Crime in the United States
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) Collected by FBI
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Programmatic Problems with Available DataBJS and FBI information differ significantly, not strictly comparable
Examine crime problem from different perspectives
Procedural and methodological differences
Definitions vary between agencies, none based on state or federal statutes
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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The UCR Program Crime Index
Provided crime rate to be compared over time and across locations
Expressed as:X number of offenses per 100,000 people
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Part I/Index CrimesViolent Crimes
Murder Rape Robbery Aggravated assault
Property Crimes Burglary Larceny Motor vehicle theft
Arson
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Cleared Crimes Cleared/solved crimes:
Arrest made Exceptionally Cleared: Perpetrator known but arrest not possible
Clearance rate: Proportion of reported/discovered crimes within given offense category that are cleared
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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UCR Problems UCR is a reporting program
Only includes crimes known to police
Seriously underestimates true nature of crime in the U.S.
Dark figure of crime
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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UCR ProblemsReasons for failure to report crime (e.g., rape)
Fear of perpetrator Shame Fear of not being believed Fear of further participation in the criminal justice system
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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NIBRS Funded in part by Federal Crime Identification Technology Act of 1998
Still being phased in Most important feature is incident-driven nature Collects detailed data on circumstances surrounding each criminal incident
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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NIBRS Crime definitions revised
46 Group A offenses in 22 crime categories
11 Group B offense categories (collect arrest data only)
Reports more detailed than UCR program
Include information about offense, parties involved, property (if any)
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Hate Crimes Hate/bias crimes:
Crimes motivated by religious, ethnic, racial, or sexual orientation prejudice, or by bias against persons with disabilities
Collection mandated by Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990
In 2003, there were 7,489 reported incidents of hate crimes.
52.5% were motivated by racial bias, 16.4% by religious bias, 16.4% by sexual orientation, and 14.2% by ethnicity or national origin.
Crimes of violence represented 63.3% of hate crimes. Murder accounted for only .1% of reported hate crimes.
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Hate Crimes Hate groups
KKK, Aryan Nations, National Alliance, etc.
Existed for many years Most hate crimes not committed by hate groups
Majority of hate crimes are committed by teens, primarily white males, acting alone or in groups
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Data Gathering Under the NCVS NCVS began in 1972
Information obtained through interviews Includes information on unreported crimes
More accurate measure of incidence of crime in U.S.
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Data Gathering Under the NCVS Data collected by U.S. Census Bureau 42,000 households, 76,000 people Interviews at six-month intervals for three years
Anyone 12 years or older included
Gathers information on victims and crimes
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Crimes Included in NCVSViolent Crimes
Rape Personal robbery Aggravated and simple assault
Property Crimes Household burglar Personal and household theft
Motor vehicle theft
Does not include murder, arson, crimes against businesses, or crimes against children under 12
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Critique of the NCVS Possible overreporting
Definitions of crime do not correspond to federal or state statutes
Recent changes in the NCVS make it hard to compare earlier findings with current data
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Major Crime Shifts Early 1940s – sharp decrease in crime (WWII)
1960s – 1990s – dramatic increase in crime Post-WWII baby-boomers entered crime-prone years
Increased reporting and data collection Disruption of 1960s
1991 – 2003 – decrease in crime Baby-boomers aging out of crime Stricter laws, expanded justice system Economic expansion Changing demographics, family planning
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Next Crime Cycle? May be on verge of new cycle of
increased crime Possible causes
Economic uncertainty, increased unemployment
Growing teen population More ex-cons back on the street More gang influence Copycat crimes Social disorganization after natural
disasters
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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The Crime Problem Do crime rates accurately measure
extent of crime problem in US? Official rates suggest crime decreasing Rates only based on small group of
crimes Do not include drug offenses
Correctional population might give better picture of the crime problem
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Crime in World ContextViolent crime rate in US much
higher than in other industrial democracies
Elliott Currie argues that the drop in crime is a “falling-off from an extraordinary peak”
Levels of violence in US still unreasonably high
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Criminality Index Criminality index – actual extent of the crime problem
Latent crime rate – rate of crime calculated on basis of crimes likely to be committed by those incapacitated by the system
Criminality index = actual crime rate + latent crime rate
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Criminal HomicideHomicide versus murder: Homicide: willful killing of
one human being by another
Murder : criminal/unlawful homicide, killing without legal justification or excuse
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Criminal HomicideTypes of murder: First-degree – planned, premeditated
Second-degree – crime of passion Third-degree - negligent homicide, involuntary manslaughter
Felony murder – killing during the commission of another felony
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Forcible RapeUCR/NIBRS – three categories Forcible rape Statutory rape Attempted forcible rape
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Forcible RapeOther types of rape: Spousal rape Gang rape Date rape Same-sex rape
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Forcible RapeMotivation of rapists: Contemporary thought sees rape as a crime of power
Rapists demean victims to feel powerful, important
Some scholars returning to emphasis on sexual gratification as cause of rape
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Robbery UCR/NIBRS definitionThe unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is in the immediate possession of another force or threat of force and/or by putting the victim in fear
NCVS definition also includes attempts
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Robbery Highway/street robbery
Strong-arm robbery
Armed robbery
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Assault Aggravated assault:
The unlawful attack by one person upon another for the purpose of inflicting severe or aggravated bodily injury
Simple assault:Attack without a weapon resulting either in minor injury or in undetermined injury requiring less than two days of hospitalization
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Burglary UCR/NIBRS definition
The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or a theft
Use of force not required Categories of burglary
Forcible entry Attempted forcible entry Unlawful entry without force
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Larceny UCR/NIBRS:
The unlawful taking, carrying, leading, or riding away by stealth of property, other than a motor vehicle, from the possession or constructive possession of another
NCVS – two categories Household larceny Personal larceny
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Motor Vehicle Theft UCR/NIBRS - theft or attempted
theft of a motor vehicle
Carjacking - stealing an occupied car
Usually involves a weapon Victim frequently injured or
killed
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Arson Arson (UCR/NIBRS):
Any willful or malicious burning or attempt to burn, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling house, public building, motor vehicle or aircraft, personal property of another
Not reported by NCVS
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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ArsonMotivations for arson: Thrill-seekers Vandals Pyromaniacs Arson for vengeance Vanity pyromaniacs Conceal other crimes Defrauding insurance companies –
most common motivation
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Part II Offenses Less serious offenses
Many are misdemeanors
UCR only collects arrest data
Includes victimless or “social order” crimes
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Other Sources of Data Crime Awareness and Campus Security
Act of 1990 Requires colleges/universities to report
campus crime statistics Campus Sexual Assault Victims’ Bill of
Rights Amends 1990 Act Requires schools to develop policies to
deal with sexual assault on campus Campus Security Statistics web site
Created by 1998 amendment
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Unreported Crime Dark figure of crime:
Unreported crimes not found in official crime statistics
Self-report surveys provide information on this Anonymous respondents Report on crimes they have committed
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Problems with Self-Report Surveys Subjects usually young people
Questions often focus on petty crimes
Typically focus on juvenile delinquency
No guarantee of respondent accuracy
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Social Dimensions of Crime Aspects of crime and victimization as they relate to socially significant attributes by which groups are defined and according to which individuals are assigned group membership
Key social dimensions Gender Ethnicity/race Age Income/wealth Profession Social class/social standing
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Correlations Connection or association observed
to exist between two measurable variables
Positive Negative
Correlation does not imply causation
Spurious correlations
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Age and Crime Age is negatively related to
crime Desistance phenomenon –most forms
of criminality decrease with age Elderly may be involved in crime
Less likely to commit street crime Generally commit crimes requiring
special skills, knowledge
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Gender and CrimeGender is called “the best single
predictor of criminality” Most crime committed by men Rate of female criminality has
changed little over time Women also victimized less
frequently than men (except for rape and spousal abuse)
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Race and Crime Apparent link between crime and race Race-based disparities in arrests,
incarceration Differential treatment by justice
system? William Wilbanks – Myth of a Racist
Criminal Justice System Race/crime relationship is a source
of divisiveness in American society Has led to increased fear of crime
among African-Americans
Criminology Today, 5th edFrank Schmalleger
© 2009 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458.
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Social Class and Crime Prior to 1960, correlation between
social class and crime assumed Self-report studies in 1960s found
rates of self-reported crime consistent across social classes
Class/crime relationship may be result of discretionary practices within justice system
Recent research supports class/crime relationship