Chapter 17Life in a Multipolar World: The Post-Cold War Era

The States of Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union

The States of Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union

1. Poland achieved stability in the l960s but by 1971 economic problems became unsettling. An effort in 1980 to pay off its foreign debt by increasing food prices resulted in worker protests that gave birth to a labor movement called Solidarity. Concessions were wrung from the government until December 1981 when leaders of Solidarity were arrested. The union was outlawed and the military assumed rule. In 1988 demonstrations broke out and the regime had to concede free parliamentary elections. In April 1990 it was decided that a new president would be freely elected. In December Lech Walesa was chosen president.

2. After the Soviet Union crushed the Hungarian revolution in 1956, it imposed Janos Kadar on the nation. A reformist1 he maintained many of the revolution's economic reforms. In the 1980s, he legalized small private enterprise and slowly moved Hungary away from strict Soviet dominance. Multi-candidate elections were permitted in 1985. Nevertheless, economic difficulties led to Kadar's ouster in 1988. The communist government faced growing dissatisfaction from the populace and began initiating reforms. In 1990 elections brought a coalition government to power which committed Hungary to democracy and a free economy.

3. Although the Czechoslovakian Communist government repressed opposition after the 1968 revolution, dissident movements grew in the 1970s and especially the 1980s. Attempts to suppress demonstrations in 1988 and 1989 led to more demonstrations. Continuing public pressure resulted in the collapse of the Communist government in December 1989. The Czechs and Slovaks could not agree on the makeup of the new state and therefore peacefully agreed to divide the country between the Czech Republic and Slovakia. This was accomplished on January 1, 1993.

4. The iron grip of Nicolae Ceausescu in Romania was broken in 1989 when his plan for rapid urbanization in conjunctionwith a poor economy and food shortages led to the loss of support from the people and the army. He was executed on Christmas Day, 1989. The new government has shown little commitment to democracy. In nearby Bulgaria the Communist party succumbed to anti-government demonstrations in 1989 and in 1990 free elections were held with the old Communist party under the name of the Bulgarian socialist won the election. Likewise, the movement to democracy reached Albania in 1989 when reforms brought free elections in 1991. In Yugoslavia, the death of Josip Tito in 1980 left a vacuum and when the people were caught up in the reform movements the government ended authoritarian socialism in 1990. Serbian (Yugoslavia) objectives in forming a Greater Serbian state have led to war.Question:1. How did the democratic movements of the 1980's destroy communism?

The States of Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union

1. Poland achieved stability in the l960s but by 1971 economic problems became unsettling. An effort in 1980 to pay off its foreign debt by increasing food prices resulted in worker protests that gave birth to a labor movement called Solidarity. Concessions were wrung from the government until December 1981 when leaders of Solidarity were arrested. The union was outlawed and the military assumed rule. In 1988 demonstrations broke out and the regime had to concede free parliamentary elections. In April 1990 it was decided that a new president would be freely elected. In December Lech Walesa was chosen president.

2. After the Soviet Union crushed the Hungarian revolution in 1956, it imposed Janos Kadar on the nation. A reformist1 he maintained many of the revolution's economic reforms. In the 1980s, he legalized small private enterprise and slowly moved Hungary away from strict Soviet dominance. Multi-candidate elections were permitted in 1985. Nevertheless, economic difficulties led to Kadar's ouster in 1988. The communist government faced growing dissatisfaction from the populace and began initiating reforms. In 1990 elections brought a coalition government to power which committed Hungary to democracy and a free economy.

3. Although the Czechoslovakian Communist government repressed opposition after the 1968 revolution, dissident movements grew in the 1970s and especially the 1980s. Attempts to suppress demonstrations in 1988 and 1989 led to more demonstrations. Continuing public pressure resulted in the collapse of the Communist government in December 1989. The Czechs and Slovaks could not agree on the makeup of the new state and therefore peacefully agreed to divide the country between the Czech Republic and Slovakia. This was accomplished on January 1, 1993.

4. The iron grip of Nicolae Ceausescu in Romania was broken in 1989 when his plan for rapid urbanization in conjunctionwith a poor economy and food shortages led to the loss of support from the people and the army. He was executed on Christmas Day, 1989. The new government has shown little commitment to democracy. In nearby Bulgaria the Communist party succumbed to anti-government demonstrations in 1989 and in 1990 free elections were held with the old Communist party under the name of the Bulgarian socialist won the election. Likewise, the movement to democracy reached Albania in 1989 when reforms brought free elections in 1991. In Yugoslavia, the death of Josip Tito in 1980 left a vacuum and when the people were caught up in the reform movements the government ended authoritarian socialism in 1990. Serbian (Yugoslavia) objectives in forming a Greater Serbian state have led to war.Question:1. How did the democratic movements of the 1980's destroy communism?

Collapse of the Soviet Union Solidarity in Poland Coalition governments in eastern Europe Berlin Wall comes down, November 1989 Reunification of Germany, 1990 Soviet Empire Crumbles

Kazakhstan erupts, 1986Hard-linersBoris Yeltsin, president of Russian FederationMikhail Gorbachev announces support for a free market economy,

1991 Attempted coup

Russia, Ukraine, and Belorussia form Commonwealth of Independent State

The New Europe

The New Europe

1. The Soviet Union broke up into its fifteen constituent republics in December 1991. The new states included Russia, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkinenistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. They are loosely joined in the Commonwealth of Independent States. Independence unleashed many of the people's frustrations that have turned some states such as Georgia and Azerbaijan into war zones.

2. In East Germany the continued economic slump of the 1980s created popular unrest. Mass demonstrations followed the government's refusal to institute reforms and increasing use of violent repression. Capitulating to popular pressure, the Communist government opened its entire border to the West. Moreover, the Soviet Union declared it would no longer support the leaders of the East German Communist Party. In 1990 East Germany had its first ever free election. That same year Germany was economically and politically united.

3. Czechoslovakia peacefully divided itself into the Czech Republic and Slovakia on January 1, 1993.

4. Yugoslavia fell into violent civil war in 1991.

Questions:1. Why did the breakup of the Soviet Union have an impact on the restructuring of Europe?2. What is the impact upon Europe with the creation of several new nations, especially the former Soviet states?

The New Europe

1. The Soviet Union broke up into its fifteen constituent republics in December 1991. The new states included Russia, Kazakhstan, Kirghizia, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkinenistan, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Moldavia, Ukraine, Belorussia, Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. They are loosely joined in the Commonwealth of Independent States. Independence unleashed many of the people's frustrations that have turned some states such as Georgia and Azerbaijan into war zones.

2. In East Germany the continued economic slump of the 1980s created popular unrest. Mass demonstrations followed the government's refusal to institute reforms and increasing use of violent repression. Capitulating to popular pressure, the Communist government opened its entire border to the West. Moreover, the Soviet Union declared it would no longer support the leaders of the East German Communist Party. In 1990 East Germany had its first ever free election. That same year Germany was economically and politically united.

3. Czechoslovakia peacefully divided itself into the Czech Republic and Slovakia on January 1, 1993.

4. Yugoslavia fell into violent civil war in 1991.

Questions:1. Why did the breakup of the Soviet Union have an impact on the restructuring of Europe?2. What is the impact upon Europe with the creation of several new nations, especially the former Soviet states?

New Economic Alliances and Problems of Russia Consequences of privitization

Disappearance of state subsidies and controls Economic and social dislocations for nations formerly under Soviet

domination Maastricht Treaty

Ethnic Diversity and Conflict Split of Czechoslovakia in 1993 into Czech Republic and Slovakia Yugoslavia falls apart

Ethnic cleansingDayton Accord, 1995

Rise of hate crimes and anti-Semitism Ethnic Wars

Present-Day Africa

Present-Day Africa1. The post-Cold War era in Africa has seen a resurgence of democracy. In Zambia, mounting domestic pressures fueled by economic difficulties forced President Kenneth Kaunda (1964-91) to move away from his one-party state to multiparty democracy. National elections held in October 1991 brought Kaunda's government to an end. Similarly, in Zaire where the military has had an overwhelming influence, demands for political reforms led to the end of one-party rule in 1990. Unfortunately, political and ethnic tensions have led to violence. In Kenya, a single party state existed from 1964 to 1992 under Jomo Kenyata and Daniel arap Moi who controlled the Kenya African National Union. Although President Moi permitted multiparty elections in 1992, he still arrested those who politically attacked him.

2. When Nigeria became independent in 1960, it was a loose confederation of self-governing states. With some 250 ethnic and linguistic groups, it was only a matter of time until there was trouble. In 1966 rioting broke out and the military seized the government. That same year Muslim Hausas in the north massacred predominantly Christian Ibos who were forced to flee east to the region of Biafra. In 1967 Biafra declared its independence. Civil war ensued for the next three years with Biafra surrendering in 1970. Since the 1970s, the government of Nigeria has been characterized by repeated military coups against the civilian government.

3. In the Horn of Africa, the end of the Cold War also brought decreased foreign aid to desperately poor countries. Ethiopia was proclaimed a communist-socialist state in 1977 following the deposing of Emperor Haile Selassi (1917-74). Rebel activity began in 1991 when the Soviets cut off aid. A separatist guerrilla organization also took control of the province of Eritrea. In 1993, Eritrea's independence was recognized. Order was returned to Ethiopia in 1995 with general elections. The following year, sixty-eight leaders of the former military government were put on trial for genocide and crimes against humanity. The situation was even worse in nearby Somalia, where independence was soon followed by a military coup and close relations with the Soviet Union. In 1977, it supported rebels in Ethiopia. This brought an eight-month war that left the Somali army destroyed. The government fell in January 1991 when the president fled the country. Somalia was left in the hands of clan-based guerrilla groups. Attempts to restore order repeatedly have failed and several cease-fires have collapsed. An attempt by the United States to protect delivery of food to the starving people in 1992-93 resulted in an ambush of American troops and soon after the anarchistic country was abandoned by the Americans.

4. The violence in South Africa centers around race. Apartheid ("separatehood") was formalized in 1948 and was designed to keep the Bantu, Coloured, Asian and white societies separate by posing a number of restrictions on the non-white population. Such practices brought world criticism and racial tensions. Strikes and demonstrations against the government in 1960 culminated in the Sharpeville Massacre where sixty-nine people were killed by a panicky police force. That same year the African National Congress was outlawed. By 1961, the ANC and the Pan-Africanist Congress, both operating underground, turned to the use of sabotage. It was a charge of sabotage in 1964 that brought Nelson Mandela a sentence of life imprisonment. In 1989, F.W. de Klerk became the leader of the Nationalist Party and began rapid reform. He lifted the ban on the ANC and released Mandela (27 1/2 years in jail). Negotiations between the government and the ANC commenced, resulting in an agreement in 1993 that minority parties could participate in government for five years after the end of white rule. In the meantime, parliament scrapped apartheid laws relating to property ownership and did away with classifying South Africans at birth by race. Elections were held in 1994 with Mandela achieving an overwhelming victory.

5. Difficulties in Algeria began in December 1991 when the first parliamentary elections in the country were won by the militant Islamic fundamentalist party, Islamic Salvation Front. Under pressure from senior army commanders, the electoral process was cancelled. Civil war ensued resulting in at least 60,000 civilians being killed by terrorists.

Question: 1. Why has there been a resort to violence in so many of the countries of Africa?

Present-Day Africa1. The post-Cold War era in Africa has seen a resurgence of democracy. In Zambia, mounting domestic pressures fueled by economic difficulties forced President Kenneth Kaunda (1964-91) to move away from his one-party state to multiparty democracy. National elections held in October 1991 brought Kaunda's government to an end. Similarly, in Zaire where the military has had an overwhelming influence, demands for political reforms led to the end of one-party rule in 1990. Unfortunately, political and ethnic tensions have led to violence. In Kenya, a single party state existed from 1964 to 1992 under Jomo Kenyata and Daniel arap Moi who controlled the Kenya African National Union. Although President Moi permitted multiparty elections in 1992, he still arrested those who politically attacked him.

2. When Nigeria became independent in 1960, it was a loose confederation of self-governing states. With some 250 ethnic and linguistic groups, it was only a matter of time until there was trouble. In 1966 rioting broke out and the military seized the government. That same year Muslim Hausas in the north massacred predominantly Christian Ibos who were forced to flee east to the region of Biafra. In 1967 Biafra declared its independence. Civil war ensued for the next three years with Biafra surrendering in 1970. Since the 1970s, the government of Nigeria has been characterized by repeated military coups against the civilian government.

3. In the Horn of Africa, the end of the Cold War also brought decreased foreign aid to desperately poor countries. Ethiopia was proclaimed a communist-socialist state in 1977 following the deposing of Emperor Haile Selassi (1917-74). Rebel activity began in 1991 when the Soviets cut off aid. A separatist guerrilla organization also took control of the province of Eritrea. In 1993, Eritrea's independence was recognized. Order was returned to Ethiopia in 1995 with general elections. The following year, sixty-eight leaders of the former military government were put on trial for genocide and crimes against humanity. The situation was even worse in nearby Somalia, where independence was soon followed by a military coup and close relations with the Soviet Union. In 1977, it supported rebels in Ethiopia. This brought an eight-month war that left the Somali army destroyed. The government fell in January 1991 when the president fled the country. Somalia was left in the hands of clan-based guerrilla groups. Attempts to restore order repeatedly have failed and several cease-fires have collapsed. An attempt by the United States to protect delivery of food to the starving people in 1992-93 resulted in an ambush of American troops and soon after the anarchistic country was abandoned by the Americans.

4. The violence in South Africa centers around race. Apartheid ("separatehood") was formalized in 1948 and was designed to keep the Bantu, Coloured, Asian and white societies separate by posing a number of restrictions on the non-white population. Such practices brought world criticism and racial tensions. Strikes and demonstrations against the government in 1960 culminated in the Sharpeville Massacre where sixty-nine people were killed by a panicky police force. That same year the African National Congress was outlawed. By 1961, the ANC and the Pan-Africanist Congress, both operating underground, turned to the use of sabotage. It was a charge of sabotage in 1964 that brought Nelson Mandela a sentence of life imprisonment. In 1989, F.W. de Klerk became the leader of the Nationalist Party and began rapid reform. He lifted the ban on the ANC and released Mandela (27 1/2 years in jail). Negotiations between the government and the ANC commenced, resulting in an agreement in 1993 that minority parties could participate in government for five years after the end of white rule. In the meantime, parliament scrapped apartheid laws relating to property ownership and did away with classifying South Africans at birth by race. Elections were held in 1994 with Mandela achieving an overwhelming victory.

5. Difficulties in Algeria began in December 1991 when the first parliamentary elections in the country were won by the militant Islamic fundamentalist party, Islamic Salvation Front. Under pressure from senior army commanders, the electoral process was cancelled. Civil war ensued resulting in at least 60,000 civilians being killed by terrorists.

Question: 1. Why has there been a resort to violence in so many of the countries of Africa?

Israel and Arab Neighbors, 1947-1994

Israel and Arab Neighbors, 1947-1994

1. After World War II, pressure increased to fulfill the Zionist call for a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine. Delay brought violence, especially the Haganah which had acquired weapons. Unable to keep the situation under control, in early 1947 Britain requested a special session of the U.N. General Assembly to consider the problem. A U.N. report recommended partition to form territory for Jews and Arabs; Jerusalem and Bethlehem to be internationalized; and that Arab and Jewish states become independent only when they sign before October 1, 1948, a ten year pact of economic union. The plan also called for the British mandate to end May 15 and troops evacuated before August 1. The proposal touched off a civil war between the Zionist military organizations and an Arab liberation army augmented by Iraqi Egyptian, and Palestinian Arab units. On May 14, 1948, the establishment of the Jewish state was proclaimed in Tel Aviv. The Arab League refused to recognize Israel and on May 15th war began. The United Nations brought about an armistice between Israel and Egypt in February 1949. Jordan and Syria agreed to an armistice in April. By this time, Israeli forces had captured some of the land assigned to the Arabs while Egypt held the Gaza Strip and Jordan controlled the West Bank. Jordan annexed its territory in 1950.

2. In late October 1956 an Anglo-French-Israeli agreement was signed to attack the Suez Canal which had been nationalized by the Egyptians. Shortly thereafter the allies struck and by November 7 the Sinai as well as Sharm al-Shaykh was occupied by Israel. When world criticism forced Britain and France to surrender the seized canal, Israel refused to give up the Gaza Strip and Sharm al-Shaykh. In March 1957 Israel withdrew from both positions.

4. Syria, fearing an Israeli attack, concluded in May 1967 a mutual defense act with Egypt. Concentration of Egyptian forces east of the canal brought an Israeli surprise attack on June 5. Within six days Israel occupied the Gaza Strip, Sinai east of the Suez Canal, all of Jordan west of the Jordan River including East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights. A cease fire was then agreed upon.

5. On October 6, 1973, (Yom Kippur) Egypt and Syria made a surprise attack on Israel but ultimately failed. Disengagement came in January 1974. Five years later as a consequence of the Camp David Accords, the state of war between Israel and Egypt ended and Israel began returning the Sinai to Egypt.

6. Exacerbated by terrorist attack from Lebanon, in June 1982 Israel invaded for the purpose of creating a forty kilometer buffer zone. At the close of 1987, a resistance movement called Intifada was initiated by Palestinian women.

7. The first major breakthrough between Israel and the Palestinians came in 1993 when the Palestinian Liberation Organization and Israel reached an agreement calling for Palestinian autonomy in selected areas of Israel in return for PLO recognition of the legitimacy of the Israeli state. Implementing the agreement has been difficult as radicals from both sides want it to fail. Ultimately, in November 1995 the disagreement cost Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin his life when he was assassinated. Nevertheless, the agreement resulted in limited Palestinian autonomy in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank town of Jericho.

8. A second Palestinian-Israeli agreement in October 1995 gave the Palestinians direct control of six West Bank towns, partial control over Hebron, civil authority over 440 West Bank villages, and executive and legislative authority. The latter is exercised through a legislative council.

9. In October 1994, Israel concluded peace with Jordan.

Questions:1. Why did problems develop between the Arabs and the Jews?2. What attempts have been made to resolve the problems? Why has success been so elusive?

Israel and Arab Neighbors, 1947-1994

1. After World War II, pressure increased to fulfill the Zionist call for a Jewish commonwealth in Palestine. Delay brought violence, especially the Haganah which had acquired weapons. Unable to keep the situation under control, in early 1947 Britain requested a special session of the U.N. General Assembly to consider the problem. A U.N. report recommended partition to form territory for Jews and Arabs; Jerusalem and Bethlehem to be internationalized; and that Arab and Jewish states become independent only when they sign before October 1, 1948, a ten year pact of economic union. The plan also called for the British mandate to end May 15 and troops evacuated before August 1. The proposal touched off a civil war between the Zionist military organizations and an Arab liberation army augmented by Iraqi Egyptian, and Palestinian Arab units. On May 14, 1948, the establishment of the Jewish state was proclaimed in Tel Aviv. The Arab League refused to recognize Israel and on May 15th war began. The United Nations brought about an armistice between Israel and Egypt in February 1949. Jordan and Syria agreed to an armistice in April. By this time, Israeli forces had captured some of the land assigned to the Arabs while Egypt held the Gaza Strip and Jordan controlled the West Bank. Jordan annexed its territory in 1950.

2. In late October 1956 an Anglo-French-Israeli agreement was signed to attack the Suez Canal which had been nationalized by the Egyptians. Shortly thereafter the allies struck and by November 7 the Sinai as well as Sharm al-Shaykh was occupied by Israel. When world criticism forced Britain and France to surrender the seized canal, Israel refused to give up the Gaza Strip and Sharm al-Shaykh. In March 1957 Israel withdrew from both positions.

4. Syria, fearing an Israeli attack, concluded in May 1967 a mutual defense act with Egypt. Concentration of Egyptian forces east of the canal brought an Israeli surprise attack on June 5. Within six days Israel occupied the Gaza Strip, Sinai east of the Suez Canal, all of Jordan west of the Jordan River including East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights. A cease fire was then agreed upon.

5. On October 6, 1973, (Yom Kippur) Egypt and Syria made a surprise attack on Israel but ultimately failed. Disengagement came in January 1974. Five years later as a consequence of the Camp David Accords, the state of war between Israel and Egypt ended and Israel began returning the Sinai to Egypt.

6. Exacerbated by terrorist attack from Lebanon, in June 1982 Israel invaded for the purpose of creating a forty kilometer buffer zone. At the close of 1987, a resistance movement called Intifada was initiated by Palestinian women.

7. The first major breakthrough between Israel and the Palestinians came in 1993 when the Palestinian Liberation Organization and Israel reached an agreement calling for Palestinian autonomy in selected areas of Israel in return for PLO recognition of the legitimacy of the Israeli state. Implementing the agreement has been difficult as radicals from both sides want it to fail. Ultimately, in November 1995 the disagreement cost Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin his life when he was assassinated. Nevertheless, the agreement resulted in limited Palestinian autonomy in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank town of Jericho.

8. A second Palestinian-Israeli agreement in October 1995 gave the Palestinians direct control of six West Bank towns, partial control over Hebron, civil authority over 440 West Bank villages, and executive and legislative authority. The latter is exercised through a legislative council.

9. In October 1994, Israel concluded peace with Jordan.

Questions:1. Why did problems develop between the Arabs and the Jews?2. What attempts have been made to resolve the problems? Why has success been so elusive?

Conflict and Change in West Asia and Africa Israeli-Palestinian-Arab Conflict

British withdraw from Palestine, 1948On going conflict between Arabs and Israel

Egypt under Gamal Abdul NasserSuez Canal ConflictSix Day War, 1967

Emergence of Palestine Liberation Organization Anwar Sadat of Egypt launches war to gain the Sinai Peninsula, 1973 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, 1982 Intifada Declaration of Principles, 1993

Crises in the Persian Gulf Region Iran Iraq

Invasion of Kuwait, 1990United Nations coalition force defeats Iraq, January 1991Kurd and Shi’i uprisings

South Africa Apartheid Bantustans African National Congress Nelson Mandela Frederick de Klerk

Popular demonstrations at Tiananmen Square, Spring 1989

Democracy march in Guilin in 1989, with “Give me liberty or give me death.”

Challenges of the Post Cold War World Ongoing struggle for democracy

Struggle for Gender and Social Equality Children Women

Threat of militant religious movements Indigenous people

Technological and Economic Challenges Gulf between industrialized nations and poor agricultural

nations Availability of capital Rapid urbanization

Global Population Growth

Global Population Growth

1. At the beginning of the twentieth century the world's population was about 1.6 billion people, with two-thirds of these living in Asia. The next largest population was found in Europe (including Russia) with 400 million. The rest of the world was sparsely populated with 81 million in North America, 63 million in Latin America, 118 million in Africa, and 6 million in Australasia and Oceana. About 90 percent lived on less than 10 percent of the land (this remains so today). At the end of the twentieth century, Asia still has the largest population with 3.3 billion, followed by Europe with 508 million, North America, 297 million; Latin America, 508 million; the former Soviet Union, 293 million; Africa, 750 million; and Oceana, 29 million.

2. By the opening of the twenty-first century the world population will be over six billion people. It is estimated that the annual growth rate is 1.4%, with a birth rate of 23/1000 people. The death rate is 9/1000 live births. Infant mortality is 60/1000 live births. Life expectancy of the total world population in 1999 is 61 for males and 64 for women.

3. The earth's surface is only 29.2% land (196.93 million square miles). In land usage only 10% is arable with 1% used for permanent crops. The remainder of the land consists of 24% meadows and pastures, 31% forests and woodlands, and 34% with a variety of usages (including urbanization).

4. The world's most populous countries in 1997 were: (1) China, 1.2 billion; (2) India, 967 million; (3) the United States, 268 million; (4) Indonesia, 209 million; (5) Brazil, 164 million; (6) Russia, 148 million; (7) Pakistan, 132 million; (8) Japan, 125 million; (9) Bangladesh, 125 million; and (10) Nigeria, 107 million.

Questions:1. Explain the factors that have contributed to the population explosion in the twentieth century2. What are the implications of population growth for future generations?

Global Population Growth

1. At the beginning of the twentieth century the world's population was about 1.6 billion people, with two-thirds of these living in Asia. The next largest population was found in Europe (including Russia) with 400 million. The rest of the world was sparsely populated with 81 million in North America, 63 million in Latin America, 118 million in Africa, and 6 million in Australasia and Oceana. About 90 percent lived on less than 10 percent of the land (this remains so today). At the end of the twentieth century, Asia still has the largest population with 3.3 billion, followed by Europe with 508 million, North America, 297 million; Latin America, 508 million; the former Soviet Union, 293 million; Africa, 750 million; and Oceana, 29 million.

2. By the opening of the twenty-first century the world population will be over six billion people. It is estimated that the annual growth rate is 1.4%, with a birth rate of 23/1000 people. The death rate is 9/1000 live births. Infant mortality is 60/1000 live births. Life expectancy of the total world population in 1999 is 61 for males and 64 for women.

3. The earth's surface is only 29.2% land (196.93 million square miles). In land usage only 10% is arable with 1% used for permanent crops. The remainder of the land consists of 24% meadows and pastures, 31% forests and woodlands, and 34% with a variety of usages (including urbanization).

4. The world's most populous countries in 1997 were: (1) China, 1.2 billion; (2) India, 967 million; (3) the United States, 268 million; (4) Indonesia, 209 million; (5) Brazil, 164 million; (6) Russia, 148 million; (7) Pakistan, 132 million; (8) Japan, 125 million; (9) Bangladesh, 125 million; and (10) Nigeria, 107 million.

Questions:1. Explain the factors that have contributed to the population explosion in the twentieth century2. What are the implications of population growth for future generations?

Traditional African house

African women in colorful dress. Djibouti, on the Red Sea

Call for global redistribution of wealth Western assistance Formation of national cartels Government projects

Environmental Challenges Population explosion Finite resources De-forrestation

Cultural Interaction World communication Religious zealousness Popular culture

Rich and poor in Bombay. Slum housing, with upscale apartments in background