Chapter 15

The Age of European Expansion and the rise of the Absolutist state.

Changing Attitudes

– Exploration and confusion– Exploration and discovery had led to uncertainty and

confusion in Europe- many of the scriptures writings seemed to be contradicted» Sexism, racism, and skepticism emerged into global

society

– The Status of Women – Reformation only reinforced notion that although men and

women were spiritually equal, women were to be subordinate to men

– Marriage seen to fulfill 3 objectives:» Procreation of children» Avoidance of sin» Companionship- not equality within marriage though

– Women’s primary objective was to seek partner for marriage» Ideal wife was obedient, silent, and pious

– Although same sex marriages were present, frowned upon due to lack of scriptural basis

– Men’s roles:» Provide for financial security» Protect the family» Head of household

– Women’s roles:» Household was primary focus» Aid husband’s business» Participate in Charity work» Remain in domestic sphere and was not to venture out into public affairs

– Views of marriage» Catholics viewed marriages as sacramental union that could not be

dissolved» Protestants believed marriage as contract of mutual companionship and

that divorce was permissible» Elizabeth Hardwick- Protestant women who became extremely

successful even in face of 4 marriages

Perception of Beauty» Plump and voluptuous women were adorned» Prostitution remained central part of society» Prostitution and establishment of brothels encouraged by Protestant and

Catholic countries as means to prevent additional sin» Double standard- male promiscuity acceptable, whereas female

promiscuity condemned as evil and immoral» Marriage or religious orders deemed only positive outlets for sexual

repression for women

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ec/Witches_Being_Hanged.jpg

The Great European Witch Hunt

– Witch-hunting: religious hunts for person who had contact with devil

» Belief held in common between upper and lower classes

– Religious wars and resulting insecurities encouraged belief in witches

» B/w 1560-1660, 50k to 100k people executed for witchcraft

– Justifications for witch-hunts

» Rulers proving religious commitment

» Socioeconomic factors- inflation, poor harvests, wars, enclosure system

» Late marriages and unmarried women

» Notion that women more susceptible to evil and had severe sexual appetite

Literature and Art– The Essay: Michel de Montaigne

– Birth of modern Skepticism due to religious conflict over 16th and 17th century» Doubts attainment of certainty; remains cautious and skeptical and withholds

definitive judgment– Michel de Montaigne- renown skeptic of late 16th century

» Developed the essay to express thoughts and ideas» Ideas demonstrate shift in attitudes from dogmatic to secular and skeptic

– Elizabethan and Jacobean Literature– Period under Elizabeth and James I where developments in music, poetry, prose, and

drama» William Shakespeare » King James Bible- Authorized Version of the Bible

– Baroque Art and Music– Baroque- odd shaped, imperfect; considered high pointing 16th century European culture– Baroque Art- “ Catholic Art”

» Concentrated on classical and Christian themes» Religious emotionalism backed by RCC as way to appeal to masses, not elite of

Renaissance era– Peter Paul Reubens- best Baroque painter

» The Horror of Wars» http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/after-peter-paul-rubens-the-horrors-of-war

– Johann Sebastian Bach» Baroque composer

Netherlands

– The Netherlands Under Charles V– Reformation of Church evolved in movement for independence– Emperor Charles V reigned over low countries (below sea level)

including Holland and Belgium» Important cities of commercial exchange b/w Europe and Baltic

– City of Antwerp- harbor could hold 2500 vessels- site of bourse (exchange)

– 17 provinces of Netherlands essentially self-governing; loose federation with loyalty bestowed upon Charles V

– Reformation swept thru Netherlands with translation of Lutheran Bible » Charles V unable to suppress ideas due to freely speaking and

independent atmosphere of a cosmopolitan culture– Charles V (born in Netherlands and who spoke Flemish) abdicated

throne and divided empire in 2» Brother Ferdinand received Austria and HRE» Son Philip II received Spain, Low Countries, Italian possession,

and New World territories

Spanish Empire around 1580

– The Revolt of the Netherlands (1566-1587)– Spread of Calvinism, not Lutheranism, that brought about social and

political problems in Netherlands» Lutheranism upheld condition of status quo- Politically;

Calvinism encouraged opposition to “illegal” civil authorities– Militant Calvinist faction growing among middle class intellectuals;

work ethic appealed to merchants and financiers– “Reformation” (destruction) of Notre Dame Cathedral in Antwerp

» Lower class Calvinists took out frustration with high grain prices on symbol of privilege and status quo

» Philip II responded by sending out 20k Spanish troops to Pacify Lower countries

» “Council of Blood” established to eliminate political and religious dissidents- 1500 killed

– Civil Wars rages for 10 years from1567-1578 b/w Catholics and Protestants » King Philip II sent nephew Alexander Farnese to once and

forever crush Protestant rebellion» Protestants forced to convert or leave » Netherlands permanently divided religiously

– Union of Utrecht (1581)- declared 7 northern provinces, including Holland, independent from Spain» Southern 10 provinces remained loyal to Spanish Habsburgs» Northern Protestant union asked Elizabeth of England for

assistance against advancing Spanish army– Elizabeth I aids the Protestant cause in Netherlands due to drop in

English woolen exports and fear of Catholic advance that may lead to invasion of England

– Philip II and the Spanish Armada– Philip motivated to re-impose Roman Catholicism on Northern Europe

» Intolerable to religious diversity and the methodology of the inquisition» Used influx of silver from American colonies to finance religious wars to

eradicate Protestantism in Northern Europe» Plotted with Catholic Queen Mary of England to revert island back to

Catholicism» Mary beheaded when plot discovered» Pope promised riches to Philip upon successful invasion of England, that

first called for successful destruction of English Navy– Philip began to organize Armada for invasion of England in 1587

» 130 vessels met 150 English vessels in English Channel in 1588– Defeat of the Spanish Armada- England won decisive victory due to small and

more maneuverable ships, favorable weather, and inadequate Spanish provisions

– Implications of Spanish defeat» Spanish rebuilt fleet» Bigger influx of silver from Americas» War b/w Spanish and English continued» Prevented Philip from pursuing religious unity in Europe» Elizabeth continued financial support for Netherlands» England began to emerge as world’s dominant sea power

– Stalemate in Netherlands» Philip III recognized independence of United Provinces

– Peace of Augsburg had created uneasy political-religious situation in Holy Roman Empire in central Europe» Calvinism proved greater converting force than did Lutheranism, plus

Calvinism not focus of P of Augs., therefore ignored Treaty– Protestant Union (1608)- formed by Protestant princes in reaction to growing

alarm of Calvinism and fear of undermining Peace of Augs.– Catholic League (1609)- formed by Catholic princes

» Both: sought to prevent other faith from making religious (territorial) advances

» Stage set for civil war of religious means: C vs. P– “Defenestration of Prague”- event marked beginning of 30 Years’ war when

religious violence broke out in Bohemia– 4 Phases of 30 Years’ War

» Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)- civil war in Bohemia b/w Protestant and Catholic Leagues; eventually Protestantism eradicated from Bohemia

» Danish Phase (1625-1629)- participation of Danish King Christian IV; Protestants lost again to Catholic forces

» 1629- height of Habsburg power- Edict of Restitution passed where Catholic properties lost to Protestantism restored and only Lutheran faith allowed to practice- not Calvinism

» Swedish Phase (1630-1635)- Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus invaded Germany to support Protestant cause; marked turning point in war in which Protestant forces would ultimately be victorious

» French Phase (1635-1648)- entered war to support Protestant forces due to goal of weakening Habsburg Empire

» French Cardinal Richelieu declared war on Spain and financed Protestants in Germany

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)

Les Grandes Misères de la guerre a.k.a. The miseries and Misfortunes of War by Jacques Callot, 1632.

– Peace of Westphalia (1648)- concluded 30 Years’ War» Permanently ended wars over religious conflicts in

Europe» Recognized sovereignty of 300+ German princes; HRE

weakened as Federation weakened power of Habsburgs» Acknowledged independence of United Provinces in

Netherlands» Treaty denied power of Papacy to interfere in German

province affairs» Upheld religious provisions of Augsburg Treaty, including

Calvinism» Northern Germany remained Protestant, as southern

Germany remained Catholic

– Germany After the Thirty Years’ War– 30 Years’ War devastated social and economic landscape of

Germany» Large areas of depopulation- war and plague

– Inflation of Silver from America’s paralyzed European economy

– Large portion of population resorted to small farming and virtual serfdom

Absolutism– Background– Theory behind Absolutism- King’s ruled by divine right, rather than King’s

obeying God’s and man’s law» Furthermore, Kings acquired legislative powers» Established Sovereign rule- power to rule alone and absolutely» Abolished liberties» Secured cooperation of most threatening class- the nobility

– Absolute monarchs differed from medieval one’s in that power not constrained by Church

– Bureaucracies- main centralizing power of King» Career officials appointed by King; primary focus was to serve state and

collect revenue» Contrasted role from medieval Europe in that position was now to serve

state and king, and not to secure personal gain– Permanent Standing Armies- armies maintained in times of peace and war

» Differed from feudal obligations of Medieval Europe where army disbanded after conclusion of war

» Compulsion and secret police often used to regulate daily lives of people– Shortcoming’s of “Modern” Absolute rule

» Did not rule by consent of governed (Enlightened principle)» Did not abide by rule of law- powers not checked by Legislative body» Style of rule would foreshadow 20th century totalitarianism

France– Henry IV (1589-1610)

» Assumed throne in midst of religious civil war, poor harvest, depopulation, economic decline

» People of all classes called for peace, order, and stability; Henry promised a “chicken in every pot”

» Converted to Catholicism, but tried to reconcile religious differences with Huguenots by issuing Edict of Nantes

» Kept France free of war– Protestant Maximilien de Bethune, Duke of Sully, appointed as Chief

minister by Henry» Increased revenue thru indirect taxes on goods and commercial

activities» Advocated overseas trade and internal highway system

– Queen Marie de’ Medici headed govt. for child king Louis XIII (1610-1643)» Appointed Cardinal Richelieu to council of ministers» Largely responsible for the development of French absolutism by

encouraging King to embody the State» Advocated total subordination of all groups and institutions to

monarchy» Eliminated power and influence of nobility- no longer threat to crown» Created intendant system- France divided into 32 districts headed by

intendant who was responsible for local affairs, but ultimately responsible to the king; dual role to enforce orders of King and weaken power of nobility by assuming their traditional roles

» Positions helped centralize power of monarch and create strong and efficient bureaucracy

Cardinal Richelieu at the Siege of La Rochelle against the Huguenots, Henri Motte, 1881.

Duke of Sully Cardinal Richelieu

– Siege of La Rochelle- Northern Protestant town in France with strong economic ties to Protestant England and Northern Europe» Town pacified by Louis XIII due to claim of disallowing Catholic

worship» Pacification demonstrated trend of crown assuming total control

over subjects, and uniting country under Catholicism, although protestants still allowed to practice

– Urban protests and uprisings common- mainly resulted from taxation policies, inflation, or food shortages- or combination» Protests not dealt with swiftly by monarchs for fear of spreading

uprising– Conflict with Habsburg Dynasty

» Richelieu supported efforts of Swedish King to weaken power of Germanic states

– The French Academy» Recognized by Richelieu to improve French dictionary and strive

for intellectual prestige– Richelieu and the problem of revenue

» Richelieu aware that affairs of state dictated by revenues from taxation

» Instituted revenue sharing policy with nobility to secure endless flow of revenue to the crown

» Ex. Of Limited. Not Absolute monarch

Louis XIII

– Fronde- French civil wars from 1648-1653 that resulted from class antagonisms; poor detestation of nobility; noble detestation of King and decreasing power and influence» Events surrounding Fronde demonstrated 3 concepts of French

monarchical rule:» Cooperation needed with local elite to maintain order and

support- tax exemptions common» French economy disrupted by conflict» Events influenced future of Louis XIV’s rule over France- fear of

nobility and lack of order would shape the crown of Louis XIV– The Absolute Monarch of Louis XIV (1643-1713)- The “Sun

King”– Longest reign of European monarch and height of French absolutism– Devout Catholic, believed that King had to obey God’s laws as well

as rule for good of people– Collaborated with nobility to complete centralization

» French absolutism not a modern concept as nobility continuously played role in political affairs

– Built Palace of Versailles- hallmark of rule where all nobles required to live for part of the year» Composed of state rooms and Hall of Mirrors» Louis used architecture to wow people, both French and foreign

visitors, at size, detail, and power exhibited by French monarch– Language- French replacing Latin as language of state, politics, and

intellectualism» French Language was hallmark of cosmopolitan European

society

Louis XIV

– Louis and the nobility» Nobility excluded from all councils; he indulged them in life of

extravagance and grandeur to preoccupy their political influence and secure the power of the state

» By 1685- France was strongest and most centralized nation in Europe

» Bureaucratic position filled with members from bourgeois- less political threat to king and no need to share power

» Estates General (France’s Legislative Body) never called- nobility left without means of unity or ability challenge power

» Louis never named 1st advisor due to unordinary power and influence Richelieu

» Louis also utilized secret police, spies, and terror to maintain power

– Financial and Economic Management Under Louis XIV: Colbert

– Financial matters became #1 problem of Louis XIV- due to expanding bureaucracy, construction of Versailles, and war» Louis’ ability to tax dependent upon approval of Provincial

estates, not legislative body» Inefficient tax collection system stifled revenues» Furthermore, nobility and large portion of bourgeoisie tax

exempt (1st and 2nd Estates), leaving tax burden on peasants (3rd Estate)

– Jean-Baptiste Colbert named controller of general finances to solve France’s financial ills

» Applied mercantilist strategies to French economy- govt regulates economic activities; focused on accumulation of wealth, especially limited resources such as gold

» Favorable balance of trade necessary to French economy- export (sell) more than import (buy); goal- make France self-sufficient and export nation

» advocated state support for industry (subsidization)

» Set standards for production, encouraged growth of guilds, infrastructure improvements and establishing tariffs

» Created merchant marine to transport French goods

» Impact of Colbert’s policies:

» Economic boom of French woolen and textile industry

» Commercial classes prospered

» Peasants face continual hardship- bad harvests, heavy taxation

– The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes– Law ordered destruction of Protestant churches, closing of

schools, Catholic baptisms for Huguenots – Why did Louis XIV choose to persecute and threaten stability

that had been achieved with protestant population?» French monarchy never intended religious toleration to

be permanent» Louis sought to pursue “1 king, 1 faith”- tried to alleviate

any divisions within state» Religious toleration not a popular policy- decision to

revoke edict popular among nobility» Unfortunately, decision led to forced immigration of

Huguenot craftsmen, soldiers, and business peoples to more welcoming Protestant nations- England- minor economic impact on French economy

– French Classicism– Definition- the era of art and literature during the Reign of

Louis XIV» Push towards classical antiquity; work closely resembled

Italian Renaissance» Official style of Louis’ court in art and music

Versailles palace

– Louis XIV’s Wars– Kept France at war for 33 of 54 years in rule- pursued role of

conqueror- noble title for leaders– Standing army (paid by state) expanded from 25k in 1635 to

250k by 1660» Appointed Marquis de Louvois as secretary of state for

war» Utilized dragooning, conscription, and lottery to build

army, as well as hiring foreign mercenaries» Army developed strict training regiment, had standardized

uniforms and weapons, – Louis invaded Netherlands to gain control of important

commercial cities in 1667 and parts of HRE in 1681» Wars of 1680’s and 1690’s realized no territorial gains

– Difficulty of supporting 200k man army fighting ion different theatres» Widespread peasant revolts in 1690’s due to tax burden

to support war effort, coupled by bad harvests, famine, and high price of grain (20% of population died b/w 1688-1694)

– War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713)» Result of territorial disputes and succession to Spanish throne» Upon death of Charles II of Spain, Spanish crown and empire to

pass to Phillip V- Louis XIV’s grandson; Louis XIV quickly assumed lands

» Marked union of French and Spanish crowns- upset balance of power in Europe

» Grand Alliance- English, Dutch, Austrians, and Prussians formed military alliance against Louis to oppose succession- claimed goal was to restore balance of power in Europe , although real goal was to check France’s commercial power overseas

– Peace of Utrecht (1713)- concluded war of Spanish succession» Louis’ grandson allowed to become Spanish King, although no

union b/w 2 crowns allowed» France surrendered New Foundland and Nova Scotia to England» Balance of power principle restored to European affairs» Treaty marked decline of Spanish empire and French

expansionism, but growth of British empire– Impact of Louis’ War

» French treasury near exhaustion» More offices sold to tax exempt- furthering class distinctions and

tax basis

The Decline if Absolutist Spain in the 17th century

– Spanish achieved absolutism by end of 16th century» Established bureaucracy, standing army, national taxes

(servicios)» Importation of silver bullion basis of Spanish mercantilist

economy- imported from Mexico and Peru– Factors leading to demise of Spanish Power

» Lack of trade with colonies- colonies increasingly trading with English and Dutch, as well as developing own local industries

» Decrease in flow of silver from American mines resulted in devaluation of currency and cancellation of national debts

» Inflation cut size of middle class and Spanish products too expensive to compete in international market

» Weak succession of Spanish kings» Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)- Wars with France resulted in loss

of territory and marked end of Spain as great power– Cervantes’ Don Quixote tells story of idealistic but impractical man

and his dreams- represented 16th century Spain

Dutch Republic– United Provinces of the Netherlands- won independence form Spain and

secured sovereignty from Peace of Westphalia» Each province ruled by oligarchy of wealthy merchants called regents» Developed States General- federal assembly» Created foreign policy» Appointed stadholder- chief representative/executive for each province

– Holland- emerged as most affluent and power province» Capital established within Holland- The Hague

– Dutch republic resembled Confederation- loose alliance with little power– Power of republic vested in strong economy– Practiced religious toleration– Liberal society- ex. Amsterdam– Fishing- emerged as cornerstone of Dutch economy

» Led to emergence of shipbuilding industry– Dutch East India Company- formed in 1602

» Joint stock co. established that would eventually dominate trade in SE Asia

– 17th century- Dutch highest standard of living in Europe» Wages, food surplus, spice trade

Constitutionalism– Background

– Constitutionalism- limitation of government power by written law- Constitution» Implies balance of power b/w King and subjects» Govt. must respect and abide by written laws» People seek protection for individual liberties

– Constitutionalism may be written or unwritten laws, and may take the form of democracy or monarchy

– The Decline of Royal Absolutism in England (1603-1649)– Elizabeth I- provided model for effective monarch

» Shrewd leader- able to manipulate parliament, strict management of finances

– James I (1613-1625)- cousin to Elizabeth and successor to throne» King of Scotland for 35 years, shared many of Elizabeth’s traits» Wrote “The Trew Law of Free Monarchy”» Monarch’s rule by divine right, and only need to answer to God» Rebellion worst form of political crime» Implied King’s power surpasses individual liberties- Stuart theory

of absolutism

» House of Commons would respond to James’ claims by controlling the purse; continuously moving towards sovereignty from crown

– Economic prosperity in the 16th and 17th centuries allowed for greater social mobility due to opportunities of capitalist economy» Increasing wealth brought expanded knowledge and demand for

more political power within H of C– Religious Issues

– Rise of Puritanism- more religiously zealous group of Calvinists» GOAL: to further reforms in Church of England (Anglican

Church) to purify it of catholic elements– Charles I- dissolved Parliament from 1629 to 1640 over growing

mistrust» Enacted tax legislation that proved disastrous to country

– Long Parliament- served from 1640-1660- enacted legislation that limited the power of the monarch in retaliation for actions and policies of James I and Charles I» Called by Charles due to need for war with Scotland» Triennial Act- king compelled to summon Parliament every 3

years– English conflict with the Irish

» Dated back to Henry II’s invasion of Ireland in 1171- English mercilessly ruled the Irish

» Irish remained Catholic during English Reformation– English Civil War (1642-1649)- was sovereignty of England to remain

with King or Parliament» Resulted from King’s request for army to fend off Scotts and

attack Ireland» War ended with execution of Charles I

Puritanical Absolutism in England: Cromwell and the Protectorate

– Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan- maintains that political power derived from people, who transfer it to the monarch by contract» King exercises absolute power, but does not rule by divine right-

unpopular view– English Commonwealth/Republic established following execution of Charles I

in 1649» Oliver Cromwell and army controlled England by defeating King’s forces» Protectorate established- rule by military dictatorship from 1653-1658

– New Constitution drafted called Instrument of Government» Invested executive power in Cromwell and council of state» Provided for triennial parliaments and gave them the sole power to tax

– Cromwell destroyed constitution and ruled by military dictatorship following constant disputes» Divided England into 12 military districts» Established quasi-martial law

– Cromwell favored religious toleration for Protestant faiths– Maintained strict censorship of the press and suppressed Irish– Favored strict mercantilist policy with colonies

» Navigation Act of 1651- required English goods to be transported on English ships

» Reduce colonial trade with competing European nations– With Cromwell’s death in 1658, English returned to order and stability of

monarchy

Charles I

German print depicting Charles I's decapitation

Restoration– Restoration of 1660- restored English monarchy under Charles II (1660-1685)

» Restored Parliament and Anglican Church without Puritan influence– 2 Problems left unresolved by Restoration:

» Treatment of Puritans, Catholics, and dissenters» Nature of relationship b/w King and Parliament

– Response of Charles II to both issues:» Left religious matters to Parliament- enacted Test Act for suffrage rights» Sought better working relationship b/w King and Parliament» Establishment of Cabal- precursor to cabinet and ministry positions» King sought to secure revenues from Parliament- but they refused

– Secret Plot- Louis XIV agreed to pay Charles II 200k lbs in return to relax laws against Catholics, re-catholicize England, and for eventual conversion of Charles to Catholicism» Plot revealed and anti-Catholic and anti-French sentiment swept over England» Charles had no heir to throne, just Catholic cousin James- fear of Catholic

dynasty» Charles dissolved Parliament with their attempt to deny succession of Catholic

monarchyJames II succeeded Charles II as King of England (1685-1688)» Filled govt positions with Catholic supporters» Issued religious toleration for all to win over support of Protestant population» James, wife, and son (future Catholic Heir to throne) forced to flee England for

France when conspirators sought restoration of Protestant monarchy

James II

Constitutional Monarchy– The Glorious Revolution (1688)- restoration of Protestant crown in England

under William and Mary» Glorious = bloodless revolution, destruction of divine right monarchy,

established balance of power b/w Parliament and King– William and Mary assumed throne when agreed to Bill of Rights

» Parliamentary laws could not be suspended by Crown» Parliament to be called every 3 years» Parliamentary debates to be free of monarchical interference» No standing army in times of peace» Religious toleration for non-Protestants » Future monarchs to be Protestant

– John Locke’s Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)» Government’s are established to secure people’s natural rights’ life,

liberty, and property» People have the right to overthrow tyrannical govt if govt fails to secure

people’s natural rights (social contract theory)– Revolution ushered in era of Constitutional monarchy, not democracy in

England– Evolution of English Cabinet System- ministers approved by H of C

» Sir Robert Walpole- developed idea that cabinet responsible to H of C» Considered to be England’s “first prime minister”» Cabinet members hold legislative and executive power