CREDITS: Patrick LoiChapter 1: Prehistoric

5 Themes of History1. Society: people and the way people behaved over time2. Culture: the way people expressed themselves throughout history, ex: art, music, literature, etc. 3. Economics: **Scarcity and Choice4. Science and Technology: Inventions and discoveries that show the progress of mankind.5. Politics: form of governments

Beginnings of Civilization/ Prehistory- Prehistory is the term used to describe the period of time before written records were documented and preserved.

Writing developed about 5,500 years ago. - Prehistory is often controversial because it contradicts the theory of creationism. - An anthropologist studies early human beings and the way societies and cultures originate and are organized. An

archaeologist studies the remains of ancient societies to learn about past life cultures. - In 1977, Mary and Louis Leakey explored the land of Tanzania which is in East Africa for clues about human origins. - Mary and her team found footprints made by creatures called australopithecines. These creatures were the first hominids

or beings that can walk upright.- IMPORTANT NOTES **These footprints are significant because it proved that creatures walked upright and that it set

hominids apart from other animals and the hominids eventually evolved to modern humans. (3.6 million years ago)

Clues about Human Origins- Fossils (preserved remains of once living organisms) and artifacts of culture, (ex: art, remains of their food, clothing,

tools, etc.) help archaeologists learn more about past life. - Radioactive dating is used to determine how old something is by comparing the rates of decay of radioactive carbon

atoms to organic remains up to 50,000 years old. - The potassium-argon method is used to date samples of rocks that are up to 3 billion years old.

Australopithecines and the First Hominids- An American anthropologist named Donald Johnson spotted bones from early hominids in Ethiopia that made up 40% of the skeleton adult female hominid named Lucy. Lucy is the oldest, most complete, best preserved skeleton of any hominid. - Lucy caused controversy because while some scientists believed she was the first of the Homo genus, other believed that there are huge gaps in the fossil record to assume that.- Australopithecines lived from 4 million to 1 million years ago. Most australopithecines range from 3 to 5 feet tall. Their brain size was 1/3 the size of a regular human. - Anthropologist proposed 3 theories to explain how hominids began to walk upright:1. The climate became cooler and drier and the majority of Africa turned into grasslands that replaced the australopithecines’ tropical rain forest habitat. Walking erect allowed them to walk from one area to another. 2. The australopithecines adapted to walk erect to see over the grasslands and spot incoming prey or predators. 3. walking erect allowed the australopithecines to use their hands so they could carry supplies, food, tools and babies. Homo habilis Revolutionized Stone Tools

- The Homo habilis appeared in eastern Africa between 2.5 to 2 million years ago. Habilis means skillful, and Homo habilis means handy man.

- The Homo habilis were found at Olduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania by Mary and Louis Leakey. They found skull fossils that were up to 50% larger than an australopithecine brain.

- **A larger brain may have given the Homo habilis an advantage over other animals for survival and the ability to use stone tools. These tools made of lava rock helped the Homo habilis cut meat and crack open bones.

- The invention of stone tools marks the beginning of the Stone Age, which is divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Era.

Homo erectus and the Discovery of Fire- The Homo erectus meaning “upright man” appeared about 1.6 million years ago.- The Homo erectus male could be as tall as 6 feet and had ¾ the size of the brain as a modern human today.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- **The increased brain size sparked human intelligence, curiosity and emotions and motivated the Homo erectus to leave

Africa and settle in Europe and Asia. Reasons for leaving were to follow sources of food or to learn what was outside of their world.

- **The Homo erectus learned to control and use fire, which helped him cook their food, provide heat and warmth and scare away predators.

Development of Modern Humans- A paleobotanist named Arlette Leroi-Gourhan found pollen grains that were contained in the soil sample of a dead

man’s grave about 60,000 years ago in the Zagros Mountains in Iraq. - **The placing of flowers is significant because it was the first sign of human emotions and belief in the Afterlife. This

act also set the ancients humans apart from other creatures because they had the capacity to mourn for a loved one. - Around 500,000 to 200,000 years ago, the Homo erectus evolved into a new species, the Homo sapiens. The name

sapiens came from wise, as they had an even larger brain and they were almost completely like modern humans. - Scientists also found bones in the Neander Valley in Germany, but the bones are much thicker than a Homo sapiens’.

Their bone structure and muscle density was about 10 to 20% well developed and heavier than people today. This was mainly because they adapted to hard work and needed a stronger build to survive.

- Neanderthals (thal is German for Valley) were different than the Homo sapiens and lived in Europe and Southwest Asia between 200,000 to 30,000 years ago.

- The Neanderthals lived through the Ice Age and lived in caves and temporary shelters made of wood and animal skin. They were also very skilled hunters.

- The Neanderthals actually had emotions and cared for each other when they were handicapped. They had burial rituals because they cared about life and death.

Disappearance of the Neanderthals and Coming of the Cro-Magnons- There were several theories of why the Neanderthals vanished about 30,000 years ago:

1. The Neanderthals evolved into modern humans also known as Homo sapiens sapiens (the doubly wise humans). 2. The Homo sapiens sapiens arrived in Africa about 100,000 years ago and spread across Europe and Asia. The Cro-Magnons (lived between 12,000 to 25,000 years ago) from Europe were able to compete with the Neanderthals and they began to replace the Neanderthals, since the Cro-Magnons were able to live 10 years more than the Neanderthals. The Cro-Magnons also had better communication skills and it gave them an advantage.

Revolution of Human Life: Creation of Technology and Cave Art- Early modern humans devised more efficient ways of making stone blades. They created more than 100 different tools,

such as the spear and the sewing needle. The spear allowed them to hunt from a farther range and the sewing needle allowed them to make close-fitting clothes that protected them in the cold.

- Early modern humans wore jewelry made of seashells, lion teeth and bear claws. They also made small sculptures. - Early modern humans also painted inside cave walls, such as the Cave of Lascaux in France and Altamira (high

lookout) in Spain. De Sautuola and his daughter found the Cave of Altamira in 1879 and were criticized because experts believed that early humans were unable to create works of art.

- Reasons for the cave paintings:1. Early humans believed that paintings had magical powers that gave hunters power over their prey. 2. Paintings were used to teach younger hunters which animals to hunt and which animals to stay away from. They can also be used to identify animals. 3. Paintings were a part of rituals such as a passing or an initiation rite from child to adult.

New Revolution: Agriculture (Neolithic Age)- Factors causing the rise of agriculture:1. Due to climate changes, the warmer temperature left many environments with frequent droughts and the land became more arid. The drier climate soil supported and grew wheat, barley and rye. 2. As population increased, hunters and gatherers found competition, so they needed an alternative way to find food. - The most popular farming location is called the Fertile Crescent which is the area between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea. - **Farming is significant because it led to modern settlements and establishments of communities. Farming laid the foundation for modern life.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- Farming led to civilizations everywhere near bodies of water, such as the Nile River, the Yellow and Yangtze River, and in South and Mesoamerica.

Advantages to farming:- Provides a stable source of food- If a hunter cannot find animals, then they will go hungry- Grains and seeds are easier to store and preserve than meat- Led to settlements and cooperation, trade!- Led to domestication of animals- Led to division of labor; not everyone had to go search for food, others could do one job, while another could do the

work on the farm, led to specialization and art

Disadvantages to Farming:- Farming depended on the weather and climate, if there is a natural disaster and the crops are destroyed, then people go

hungry. - Living together in settlements led to transfer of disease. - Being a hunter, you don’t have to follow the rules of society- You would have more freedom as a hunter and you would learn how to be aware of your environment.

Dates and Time Periods- Existence of Australopithecines and the first hominids: 3.6 million years ago- Homo habilis: 2.5 to 2 million years ago- Homo erectus: 1.6 million years ago- Homo sapiens: 500,000 to 200,000 years ago- Neanderthals: 200,000, disappeared: 30,000- Homo Sapiens sapiens: 100,000 years ago- Cro-Magnons: 25,000 to 12,000 years ago- First Invention of Stone tools: 2.5 million years ago- Invention of Bone Sewing needles: 23,000 years ago- Invention of Farming: 10,000 years ago- Cave paintings: 15,000 to 10,000 years agoDomestication of Animals: ~9,000 years ago

Chapter 2: Beginnings of Civilization in the Fertile Crescent

- The Fertile Crescent contained the area of Jordan River and Mesopotamia (land in between the rivers), which was between the Tigris and Euphrates River. Settled life only existed in areas near water.

Sumerians- One of the first civilizations in the Fertile Crescent (made up of Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Iraq.) - Sumer is not a city, state or country, but is made of a variety of city-states. Examples of city-states were Ur,

Kish, Nippur, Lagash, Uruk and more. - Characteristics that made Sumer the first civilization:

- Growth of Cities : Sumer had fairly large cities with populations ranging from ten thousand people to two thousand people. The main difference that separated a city from a village is that a city is the center of trade and industrialization.

- Specialized Workers : A city has different types of people, such as a scribe, schoolmasters, merchants, priests, potters, metalworkers, weavers, and artisans (people who make goods by hand). In old times, everyone had to go obtain food, but as farming developed, so did a surplus of food. This surplus was used to trade and raising food was no longer a full-time job so the free time people had led to specialization.

- Writing : is an essential trait of civilization. The Sumerian’s writing system was called cuneiform, because of the letters’ wedge-like shape. In Latin, Cuneus means wedge, and it is drawn using a stylus, a sharpened weed with a wedge-shaped point. Writing was essential to keep track of city life and accounts for debt. Ideograms are pictures can also be used as signs. There used to be 2,000 different signs 3000 B.C, but as time passed, the amount of signs decreased to 800 and then to 200.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- Advanced Technology : The advancement of technology is another trait of civilization. Some of the

Sumerian’s inventions include the wheel, the plow and sailboats. The Sumerians also used metal tools, (although they were not the first ones to do so) made out of bronze. This era was known as the Bronze Age.

- Complex Institutions : This is also known as patterns of organization such as religion and government. The Sumerians were the first to set up formal governments with officials and laws. Many cities had temples that priests took care of and the priests also kept track of the yearly calendar, managed grain storehouses and organized important rituals.

Inside Look at life within Ur- The city is surrounded by a mud wall. The streets are dusty and unpaved and houses are windowless boxes.

Wealthy people live in two story boxes with an inner courtyard. - There is a board avenue called the city bazaar with merchants that barter with city dwellers. A scribe is

necessary to write down the debts they owe each other.- Down on the main avenue, is a huge temple surrounded by a large wall. This temple has three layers and is

called a ziggurat (mountain of the gods). Priests go to the top of the ziggurat through a flight of mud brick stairs and bring offerings to the gods.

- The Sumerians were polytheists which meant they believed in several different gods. The main gods were of heaven (Anu), air (Enlil) and water (Ea). Minor gods include gods of the sun and moon and lowest gods (Wicked Udugs) are of disease and misfortune. They believed in about 3,000 different gods. They also believed humans were nothing more than servants of the gods. When a god is angry, they cause natural disasters.

- The Sumerian’s conception on death is different because they believed death is a dark gloomy place of no return; where there is only dust and clay.

- From 3000 B.C. to 2000 B.C. the city states of Sumer were constantly at war with each other. The Kish was the mightiest ruler of Mesopotamia, but his power was passed down to almost every city-state.

- Nomadic raiders were envious of the riches of the city and in 2000 B.C. they busted through the gates of the city and destroyed the city-state of Ur.

- The Sumerian society had class systems. The following classes are:o Priests and kings were the highest class. Farmers had to pay tax to the priests, who would use them as

offerings for the gods and maintain the temple. However, a priest does not lead the city during a battle, instead, men who were great commanders and fighters would lead the city, but their power is only limited to the battle itself. Every city had a group of priests and a king, and the main buildings would be the king’s palace and the priests’ temples.

o Upper Middle class would be wealthy merchants and middle class would be ordinary Sumerian people who worked on farms or workshops, such as metalworking.

o The lowest class is made up of slaves that were sold as children or foreigners who were captured in war. These slaves work hard everyday in hopes of achieving freedom.

o Women could be anywhere from a merchant, a farmer, an artisan or a lower class priest. Women were not allowed to be scribes or go to school, but they had more rights back then than now.

The Geographical Problems of Sumer- Floods occurred in often in the spring, but then the mud quickly dried out. There was also a drought most of the

time. o Solution: About 3500 to 4000 years ago, the Sumerians obtained water through irrigation ditches that

carried water to their fields. - Sumer is a small region that had no barrier defenses. Nomads from the mountains or deserts would break in and

steal livestock and crops. o Solution: The Sumerians built city walls with mud-bricks to keep out invaders.

- The natural resources in Sumer were limited. Although they had fertile soil and an abundance of reeds, they did not have a good supply of stone, wood and metal. o Solution: The Sumerians built trading networks with people in other regions. The merchants would trade

their grain, cloth and tools for stone and metals. They cleared way for the city’s growth

Babylonian Empire (1st run) Hammurabi

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- In 2000 B.C. a group of nomadic warriors named Amorites that took over Mesopotamia with their king,

Hammurabi, during 1792 to 1750 B.C. He created one of the first empires, which is when a ruler controls other lands.

- Hammurabi created the Hammurabi’s Code which is written laws that would prevent problems and unite diverse groups in his empire. Scribes wrote the laws on stele and the code contained 3,500 lines of cuneiform characters. The code also lists 282 specific laws.

- The code focuses on contracts, inheritances, leases, perjury, debts, thefts, crime, and mainly on marriage, family and property. The code mainly deals with principle of retaliation, which is an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. Women and lower class men were affected differently than wealthier and higher class people.

- The Babylonian empire fell after two centuries it started to nomadic warriors. The Fertile Crescent broke into smaller kingdoms.

The Phoenicians

- The Phoenicians built a variety of wealthy cities on present day Lebanon during 1100 B.C. They were the most powerful traders and merchants around the Mediterranean Sea.

- The Phoenicians obtained their wealth through finding snails on their island city of Tyre. These snails could produce a rich purple dye, but it took 60,000 snails to get one pound of dye. Only royalty were able to afford this dye. Cedar trees were also an abundant resource, but they lacked other resources.

- The Phoenicians were dependent on trade to obtain wine, weapons, slaves, cloth, glass, metals, and ivory. They competed with other Phoenician city-state ports such as Byblos and Sidon for business that came to the ports.

- The Phoenicians were expert sailors, as they sailed to parts of Europe and Africa. - The Phoenicians set up about 300 colonies on Mediterranean coast. - The Phoenicians invented the alphabet because they believed cuneiform was too much cumbersome. They

needed a simplified way of writing. It first started at 900 B.C. and at first it started with 22 letters. It was called the alphabet because of the first two letters in it. **This is significant because it was much simpler than cuneiform and more people could master it. This led to the modern day alphabet.

The Jewish Civilization

- The Jews were a small group of people who lived in Southwest Asia. Around 2,000 B.C. a group of travelers left Ur. The travelers were Abraham, his wife Sarah and their family. They arrived at a strip of land called Canaan (later Palestine) near the Mediterranean Sea.

- The Jews only believed in one god, and they introduced the idea of monotheism. According to their Bible, God was the ruler of the universe.

- During 1650 B.C. rough times drove the Jews from Canaan to Egypt, where the Egyptians eventually made the Jews their slaves.

- Sometime around 1300 and 1200 B.C. the Jews fled from Egypt and a man named Moses led them out of slavery. He was one of the great leaders of Jewish history.

- The Jews journeyed to the Sinai Peninsula, where Moses went up the Sinai Mountain to speak with God. He came down with two stone tablets with the Ten Commandments of the Bible. These commandments were the basis of Judaism. The Jews believed these laws formed a covenant (or promise) with God and he demanded high standards of moral conduct. This relationship with God set Judaism apart from other religions.

- The Jews believed they needed someone to lead them into victory with the Canaanites that were already living in the area. From 1020 to 922 B.C. the Jews had three kings, Saul, David and Solomon and they led their kingdom of Israel and the capital Jerusalem.

- Solomon wanted to build a temple to honor God, but in 922 B.C when he died, the kingdom split in two and the Jews in the north revolted.

- Prophets were “God’s messengers” to the Jews and warned that God will punish them if they do something wrong. This emphasis on proper conduct was called ethical monotheism.

- Due to the lack of tin in the area, Hittites, people living in the Asian Minor learned how to smelt iron. Iron is harder than bronze and it is a much common metal, but making iron required higher temperatures. From 1200 to 700 B.C. was known as the Iron Age.

The Assyrian Empire

CREDITS: Patrick Loi

- The Assyrians came from northern Mesopotamia and they were tough fighters because their villages have been repeatedly attacked by barbarians. The Assyrians were the most disciplined army and took control of Syria, Palestine, and Babylonia from 850 to 650 B.C.

- To prevent rebellions, they uprooted conquered people from their homelands and sending the captives to another part of their empire.

- Nineveh was their capital and it resided on the Tigris River. It also had the largest library. Their army was nearly invincible, but their power resided on their king, Assurbanipal. When he died, the capital fell in several years. The city was destroyed by opposing armies combined, the Medes and Chaldeans.

The Babylonian Empire (2nd Run)

- Around 600 B.C. after 1000 years of Hammurabi ruling there, Babylon was the center of an empire. The Chaldeans made Babylon their empire.

- The Chaldean King, Nebuchadnezzar ruled from 605 to 562 B.C. The palace and especially the gardens were amazing.

- The highest building in Babylon was a seven layered ziggurat that was over 300 feet tall. Priests observed the stars through the top of the ziggurat. The rise of a new constellation marked the beginning of a new month. The 12 constellations were called zodiacs and priests say the stars are connected to human destiny. They also observed the phases of a moon and how each half phase took about 2 weeks. Their observations formed the basis of astrology and astronomy.

- The Chaldeans conquered Jerusalem, and captured about 15,000 Jews to be sold as slaves. The Jews still held fast to their religion even apart from their homeland.

- After Nebuchadnezzar died, the Babylonian empire fell and that was the last Mesopotamian Empire.

The Persian Empire

- On 550 B.C, the Persians spread their rule from the Indus River to the Nile River and the Black Sea. They built their empire based on tolerance and wise government. Cyrus, the Persian king defeated neighborhood kingdoms in Iran and between 550 to 539 B.C., Cyrus conquered all of the Fertile Crescent and the Asia Minor.

- Cyrus actually conquered kingdoms through kindness and generosity and they did not burn any temples down. All the Babylonian people in 539 B.C. showed respect for Cyrus and he allowed the Jews to go back to Jerusalem in 538 B.C.

- Cyrus died in 530 B.C. and then his son Cambyses took over the empire and took over Egypt. After ruling eight years, Cambyses died as well.

- Darius, Cambyses’ bodyguard member, along with soldiers known as the Ten Thousand Immortals won the throne. He extended the kingdom to India and Afghanistan.

- Darius divided the empire to 20 provinces and they practiced their own religion and culture. Although Darius was tolerant, he put a governor, satrap in each province to collect tax and become the “king’s eyes and ears”.

- Darius also used an excellent road system called the Royal Road of the Persian Empire that extended from Susa, the Persian Capital to Sardis in the Asia Minor.

- Darius also manufactured metal coins and the wider use of money helped make trade easier. - The Persian Empire lasted for about 200 years, despite the political order and tolerance they have brought. Their

ideas of preserving different cultures and roads, coinage and standardized weights and measures encouraged development in their empire. Commerce and Culture flourished.

- Persepolis was the city that symbolized Persian Culture. It was built on the Iranian plateau. It was the source of royal power that held the vast empire together. There it was written and recorded the history of the empires that rose and fell in Southeast Asia.

Zoroaster- Zoroaster was a Persian prophet that lived around 600 B.C. He believed in a person’s soul, there are two armies,

Ahura-Mazda (god of truth and light) and Ahriman (god of darkness and evil). This belief in heaven and hell was different than the Sumerian’s belief in the afterlife, because a person’s choice controlled their fate.

Chapter 3: Ancient Egypt

CREDITS: Patrick Loi

King Tut: Tutankhamon’s tomb was found in November 26, 1922 in the Valley of the Kings by British archaeologist, Howard Carter. The king died when he was 17, and he reigned from 1347 B.C to 1339 B.C. (9 years). King Tut is most famous because his tomb was virtually undisturbed while other tombs have been raided.

Life in Egypt- Egyptian civilization lasted from 3100 B.C. to 322 B.C.- **The Nile River is the source of life for civilization in Egypt. - Geography of the Nile: The longest river in the world is 4,100 miles and the source of the river comes from Lake

Victoria. Near the north of the river, there are many deltas and cataracts.- The Nile provided transportation, source of water and its annual flooding in October that left the land near it with

a rich deposit of soil. **Many settlements were made around the Nile because of its reliable source of water for agriculture and living.

- The agriculture and settlements were known as the Gift of the Nile. - All year round, the people were focused on the flood, planting, harvesting, flood, plant, harvest, year after year. - The Egyptians worshipped the Nile as a god which secured their well being. However, if the Nile flooded too

much or too little, thousands of people might starve. - Unlike the Fertile Crescent, Egypt did not suffer from war, as the deserts surrounding the Nile protected the

civilizations from serious attacks or invasions. - Each of the agricultural villages was called nomes and they each had their own rituals, gods and leader. - Small connections with Mesopotamia may have led to parts of Mesopotamian culture appearing in Egyptian

culture, such as the idea of writing. - In 3200 B.C., Egypt was divided into 2 kingdoms, with a king with a red crown and a king with a white crown. In

3100 B.C, the king of Upper Egypt, Menes united the kingdoms of Egypt. He wore a double crown with red and white.

The Egyptian Old Kingdom- The kingdom of Egypt was ruled by a dynasty, which is a family of rulers. Egypt had 31 dynasties in 2800 years.

At times, fighting broke out, and some invasions took place, and then followed by a time of misery. Then a new dynasty ruled. This cycle of prosperity and ruin was repeated often.

- During the time of the Third Dynasty was called the Old Kingdom. This period lasted from 2660 to 2180 B.C. The capital was in Memphis.

- During this time, pharaohs were Egypt’s kings. The pharaohs were in charge of Egypt’s religion, government, and army. However, people treated the pharaohs as gods who controlled natural phenomenons, such as the Nile flooding, crops growing, sun rising, etc. No one would dare to disrespect the pharaoh.

- Egyptians believed in immortality for the pharaoh. Even after death, they believed that his spirit, known as his ka would help watch over and govern Egypt. The pharaohs were buried with all their possessions and necessities they needed to live on in the afterlife. They were also buried with many gold and jewelries.

- Pharaoh’s ka would need to refresh itself, so the pharaoh’s body would be made into a mummy. In the Old Kingdom, pharaohs were buried in chambers within a pyramid.

- People were usually stunned on how ancient people were able to build such a structure such as a pyramid. Many people believed that slaves or peasants who were paid worked on the pyramids. About 80 pyramids still stand in Egypt, but many have been raided by robbers.

- Troubles occurred near the end of the Old Kingdom. A change in climate caused the Nile to flood not as much, and crops died. Many people blamed the pharaohs who were in charge of the Nile. Civil wars broke out.

The Egyptian Middle Kingdom- Order was restored in the Middle Kingdom, which lasted from 2080 to 1640 B.C. Farming, trading and art was

revived. The capital moved from Memphis to Thebes. - The pharaohs started projects for the public good. The dug canals from the Nile to the Red Sea to increase trade.

They built dikes to channel the Nile’s flood waters for farming. Harvests were plentiful and everyone was able to be fed.

- Common people were also believed to live in the afterlife, and everyone prepared for burials for their eternal souls.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- Civil wars broke out, leaving Egypt vulnerable against attacks from invaders. Asian Nomads called Hyksos ruled

Egypt from 1640 to 1570 B.C. - The Egyptians learned how to make bronze, wage war from horse drawn carriages, shoot arrows from a new kind

of bow and learned new techniques for spinning and weaving. - Queen Ahhotep and Kamose helped drive the Hyksos out of Egypt around 1600 B.C

The Egyptian New Kingdom- This kingdom lasted from 1570 to 1075 B.C. The kingdom was wealthier and powerful than before, but in art and

architecture, it was not as creative. - The Egyptians decided to become an empire to prevent more invasions. The Eighteenth Dynasty (1570-1365

B.C.) became conquerors. They also added a blue crown in addition to the former white and red crown.- Queen Hatshepsut was the ruler of Egypt around 1478. She encouraged trade instead of war, and she died

mysterious after ruling for 22 years. - Thutmose III was the successor of his stepmother and he conducted several invasions that expanded the Egyptian

Empire from Palestine and Syria to the Fourth Cataract and Nubia. Egypt has never commanded so much power before Thutmose III.

- The Egyptians and the Hittite empire were considered equal around 1300 B.C. and they made a treaty for eternal peace and brotherhood.

- Rulers of the New Kingdom built their tombs under desert cliffs to prevent being robbed. - Ramses II was Egypt’s last great pharaoh, and he ruled from 1279 to 1212 B.C. He was also a great builder, as he

built massive temples and statues. - After 1200 B.C the Egyptian empire slowly declined. Other strong civilizations rebelled against Egypt and more

invasions took place. Both the Egyptian and Hittite empire fell to mysterious enemies called the People of the Sea.

- After, Nubian Kingdoms and the Persian Empire took control of Egypt. The Egyptian empire never recovered.

Egypt’s Way of Life- For 3000 years, Egypt had countless dynasties, but daily life barely changed. This is because daily customs and

patterns of life have been passed on from one generation to another. - Everyone, even nobles served the pharaohs. Most of them were governors, generals, tax collectors, officials, and

priests. Women had more rights In Egyptian culture, as they can own and trade property as well as propose marriage and divorce.

- The only way people would rise in social class is through army positions or be government officials. A soldier who showed courage in battle gets cash reward called the “gold of valor” and might become an officer. They would also receive land, servants and livestock. In order to have a high position in government, they must know how to read and write.

- Life of Nobles : Nobles lived in open courtyards and the family members wore golden ornaments and jewelry. They had servants to bring them food.

- Life of Peasants : Little is known about peasants because their lives were not important to be recorded. The peasants’ lives mainly include planting, cultivating, and harvesting. They would sometimes work on some of the pharaoh’s recent projects. However, peasants had enough food and they sometimes celebrated after a successful harvest.

- Life of Slaves : Slaves were brought to Egypt after their land has been conquered by the Egyptian empire. Most slaves performed common services to wealthy masters, but others had to work in gold mines.

- Egyptian religion : Egyptians followed the idea of maat, which is the idea of truth, justice, right, and order. The idea of maat influenced everyone’s behavior, even the pharaoh’s.

- Egyptians believed that when they die, their soul is judged by Osiris the god of the dead. If someone committed bad deeds or crimes, then their heart would be eaten by the Devourer of Souls. But if the soul is pure and honest, then it shall live forever.

- Egyptians believed their priests could influence gods with their magic, and therefore, sometimes priests had more power than gods. People believed priests had magical chants to protect people from trouble. Many of these prayers are in the book of the dead which is buried with the dead person.

- Around 1375 B.C. a pharaoh named Akhenaton challenged the power of the priests by being polytheistic. He worshipped the sun as one god, Aton and ordered to close all temples that worship other gods.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- When he died in 1362 B.C. the priests regained their power and people returned to worshipping their favorite

gods.

Accomplishments of Egypt- Writing: Egyptians used a form of writing called hieroglyphics, coming from Greek words, Hieros and Glyphe,

meaning “sacred writing”. After Egypt’s decline, the ability to read and write Hieroglyphics was lost, until Jean Francois Champollion broke the code.

- The Egyptians invented a surface of writing called papyrus, which is a tall stalk of reed that grew in deltas. Modern day paper came from papyrus.

- The Egyptians also invented a number system for addition, subtraction and counting. However this system was difficult for writing numbers over 100, as they required many symbols to express that number.

- The Egyptians invented a method of surveying land and measuring areas. This was required because the flooding of the Nile would erase the boundaries of land, and they had to be redrawn. This led to modern day geometry.

- The Egyptians needed a calendar system to decide when crops should be grown and harvested. They relied on the star Sirius, which would appear right before the flood. It took 365 days for the star to show up again. The 365 days was later divided to today’s solar calendar.

- Egypt had many medical advances such as checking for a person’s pulse and mending broken bones, wounds and dealing with fever.

Glossary - Cataract: bends or meanders in a river that causes rapids, blocking the passage of boats. - Delta: A broad triangular marshy region at the mouth of a river. - Dynasty: A series of rulers from a single family. Egypt had 31 different dynasties.- Pharaoh: A king of Egypt who was considered a god. People believed the pharaoh was in charge of making the

sun rise, the Nile flood and crops grow. The pharaoh was the leader of government and religion. - Ka : the pharaoh’s eternal spirit that would help to continue to govern Egypt during the afterlife.- Pyramid: an immense structure used a burial tomb by pharaohs. It contains all the necessities a pharaoh needs to

live in the afterlife, such as pictures of food, family and their possessions. - Maat: the idea of goodness that included justice, right, truth and order.- Hieroglyphics: a form of Egyptian writing based on pictorial characters for words and sounds. - Papyrus: a reed that grows in a marshy delta in the Nile river region.

Important People or Significance - Hyksos : Asian nomads who conquered Egypt and ruled from 1640 B.C. to 1570 B.C. Hyksos means “rulers of the

uplands.”- Ahhotep : A queen who helped to restore Egypt’s power by driving the Hyksos out. She took over when her

husband died. The inscription says on her, “She pacified Upper Egypt and cast out its rebels.” - Kamose : He was the next pharaoh that won a great victory against the Hyksos. He drove the Hyksos out of Egypt

across the Sinai Peninsula into Palestine.- Hatshepsut : A strong female ruler that declared herself pharaoh around 1478 B.C. She encouraged trade instead of

war and she ruled for 22 years. - Thutmose III : The step-son of Hatshepsut. He ruled from 1450 B.C to 1425 B.C. He conducted several invasions

to Palestine and Syria and made Egypt a mighty empire. - Ramses II : Egypt’s last great pharaoh ruled fro 67 years from 1279 B.C. to 1212 B.C. He lived until the age of 99

and had 150 children. He also built massive temples and the empire of Egypt fell apart after his death. - Peoples of the Sea : Invaders that destroyed the Egyptian Empire. They were mysterious enemies that led to the

downfall of the Egyptian and Hittite kingdom. - Champollion : A young Frenchman that became fascinated by hieroglyphics and in 1822, he cracked the code of

hieroglyphics. -

Basic Reminders!!!- EGYPT’S CIVILIZATION REVOLVED ON THE NILE RIVER!- PEOPLE WORSHIPPED THE NILE AND THEIR PHAROAHS AS GODS- PYRAMIDS WERE BUILT AS BURIAL SITES FOR PHAROAHS

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- EGYPT’S HISTORY IS DIVIDED INTO 3 SECTIONS, OLD, MIDDLE AND NEW. (read above sections for

more info)- EGYPT HAD A CLASS SYSTEM WITH PRIESTS BEING THE WEALTHIEST AND PEASANTS BEING

THE LOWEST.

Chapter 4: Ancient India and China

India- India is made up of present day India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh.- India is a subcontinent which is a large region that is part of a continent, but is separated from the rest of the

continent in a certain way. India is separated from the rest of Asia, through the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. - India’s fertile plain was formed by the Indus River and the Ganges River. This plain is the rich heart land of India. - Southern central India, such is known as the Deccan Plateau has harsh lands, while near the coasts, there are wet

climates and lush land. - India’s climate and culture is influenced by monsoons, winds which brings dry climates to one season and wet

heavy rainfalls in another season.

Life in the Indus Valley Civilization- India’s largest cities were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. They had a population about 30,000. - Each city had grid-like streets and the walls were made out of oven fire bricks. The careful planning showed that

they had a strong central government.- Each city had shops, a storehouse and Mohenjo-Daro had a bathhouse. - Houses had mazelike door alleyways, inner courtyards, bathing rooms, and a garbage disposal system. Some

houses were even two to three stories high. - For a living, many people grew wheat, barley, rice and cotton. They also domesticated animals such as cattle,

sheep, goats, pigs, fowls, cats, and even elephants. - Trade was also an important part of their economy. Clay seals that merchants used to mark shipments were found

in Mesopotamia, meaning that they may have exchanged goods and ideas. - Crafting was also important. Archaeologists found kilns for pottery, vats for dying cloths, different kinds of

metals, gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and even children’s toys made out of clay. - Around 1750 B.C. the city of Mohenjo-Daro began to decay. The reasons were:

o The Indus River changed its course and it no longer fertilized the fields and cities. o The people and cattle overgrazed the land and the natural resources ran out. o Injuries on skeletons show that the people of Mohenjo-Daro had been attacked from a mysterious group

of enemies.

Aryan Civilization and the Beginnings of Hinduism- Around 1500 B.C. nomads called the Aryans came from central Asia and conquered India. They were very

different than the people they conquered:o The Aryans counted their wealth in cattle.o The Aryans did not live in the cities they conquered, but just left them there.o The Aryans were not literate and they preserved their culture by memorizing long hymns and poems in

Sanskrit and passed them down from generation to the next. - People of the Indus River fled to Vindhya, Mountains of Deccan. Others became slaves to the Aryans.- The Aryans controlled India from 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C.

Hinduism: Blending of Culture - Due to cultural diffusion, the blended religion created Hinduism. - When the Aryans conquered India, they brought tales about their own gods. They had gods of thunder, fire, earth,

heaven, moon and the sun. Hinduism is henotheistic, which means they believed in one god, but that god can take up different forms.

- Priests collected the hymns into collections called Vedas. The most important collection is Rig-Veda. - Historians cherished the collections because since there was no written documentation of that era, the Vedas

provided the information of the Aryan lifestyle.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- Upanishads were a collection of essays about the hidden meanings of the Vedic hymns. The ideas expressed in

them were:o 1. The one true god is Brahman, who can change its form into many different gods and everything that

exists; he is unifying and all-powerful spirit. o 2. The Soul of Brahman is Atman, which cannot be seen, but exists everywhere.o 3. Nothing ever dies entirely, when one passes away, the inner self is reincarnated into a different form.o 4. All Hindus strive to attain Moksha. This state is known as heaven, or to become one with Brahman.

- Hinduism is based on a caste system, which is divided into 4 different groups, the Brahmin Priest class, which is the highest, the Kshatriyas rulers and warriors, the Vaishyas which were merchants, landowners and common people, and finally the lowest caste, the Shudras, also known as the slaves and servants.

- Purity was important, as people of higher class, such as priests, were considered to be more pure than common farmers. They could not share food or such or else they risk contamination.

- The lowest, even lower than the slaves, were the Untouchables, or outcasts. They could not even drink the same water as higher ranking people.

- Hinduism classified people in castes depending on their deeds in their past lives. A warrior or noble must have done relatively no bad deeds, and people such as untouchables must have done a terrible deed in their past life. This ethical cause is called karma. A person who has done bad deeds will become lower class, and vice versa.

- Each caste has a particular duty, or dharma. Dharma is the set of rules and obligations each caste has to follow. If one were to disobey their dharma, they would be reincarnated into a lower caste. If one were to complete their dharma, they would be reincarnated into a higher caste. The person would keep going up and up, until they reach Moksha. It’s better to do one’s duty poorly than to do another’s duty well.

Birth of Buddhism- Around 530 B.C. a man named Siddhartha Gautama challenged the ideas of Brahmin priests. He lived a well life,

until he saw people suffering. Then he realized life was a cycle of endless pain and suffering. He decided to see wisdom. He became so weak when he was traveling with wanderers and decided to meditate to see wisdom. He felt the truth became clear to him, and he became Buddha.

- Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths which helped people seek enlightenment:o 1. Everything in life is pain and sufferingo 2. The cause of suffering is people’s self-centered desires.o 3. The only way to end suffering is to end all desires. o 4. People can achieve enlightenment by following the Eightfold Path.

- The Eightfold Path was like a staircase, each step stood for knowledge, purpose, speech, action, living, effort, mindfulness and meditation. If doing so, one could achieve Nirvana which is freedom from pain and desires.

Rise of the New Mauryan Empire- At this time, during 500 B.C. India was not united under one central government, so civilizations near the Ganges

River were constantly at war with one another. - The Persian Army of King Darius came through the Khyber Pass, and dominated India. For 200 years, the Indus

valley was ruled by Persia and Indians felt the benefits and burdens of having a central government. - The Greek Empire led by Alexander the Great also conquered India, but for a very short time in 326 B.C. - Around 322 B.C. a warrior named Chandragupta Maurya made himself ruler of the kingdoms of the Ganges

River. He started the Mauryan Dynasty. - Chandragupta ruled with fear and force. He made sure no one would revolt or rebel against him. He trusted no

one. He believed “Government is the science of punishment.” - Ashoka , the grandson to Chandragupta inherited the throne in 273 B.C. At first, he was very vicious and warlike,

but later, he was filled with remorse. He decided to follow Buddha’s teachings gradually. - Ashoka apologized to the tribes he conquered and he erected stone pillars with an edict or public announcement

of his new policies. - He employed officials to make sure everything was right and to look out for the welfare of all Indians in every

caste. - Ashoka sent hundreds of Buddhist missionaries to spread Buddhism across India. - After Ashoka’s death, 50 years later in 180 B.C. the Mauryan Empire was torn apart and broke down to smaller

kingdoms.

CREDITS: Patrick LoiGlossary

- Subcontinent : a large region that is part of a continent, but is separated from the rest of the continent in a certain way. India is separated from the rest of Asia, through the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas.

- Monsoon : winds which brings dry climates to one season and wet heavy rainfalls in another season. - Reincarnation : The rebirth of the inner self in another body. A person who is good would be reborn as a person in

higher class, while a bad person will be reborn in a lower class. - Moksha : Essentially the Indian version of Heaven; this is when the inner soul becomes one with Brahman. - Caste : A social group, which membership is determined at birth and never changes throughout a person’s life.

Caste is related to religious purity. - Karma : - Untouchables: This is the lowest class of the caste system, even under the slaves and servants. They cannot share

or use the same water as higher caste people, or else they would be contaminated. To become an untouchable, one must have done bad deeds in an earlier incarnation.

- Dharma : In Hinduism, the set of duties and obligations required of each caste. Everyone must follow their dharma. (To not mess up dharma with karma, think Dharma starts with a D, same as in Duty.)

Basic Reminders!!!- INDIA’S CIVILIZATIONS REVOLVED AROUND THE INDUS AND GANGES RIVER- THE ARYANS TOOK OVER INDIA AND INTRODUCED HINDUISM- SIDDHARTHA GAUTAMA INTRODUCED BUDDHISM AFTER SEEING HOW LIFE IS FULL OF PAIN

AND SUFFERING- INDIA WAS PART OF THE MAURYAN DYNASTY, WITH CHANDRAGUPTA BEING A VERY MEAN

RULER- HIS GRANDSON ASHOKA WAS NICE AND INTRODUCED BUDDHISM TO INDIA

China

- China civilizations had a late start, around 2000 B.C. on the valleys of the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. The plain that the rivers flowed into was the heart of China’s agriculture. - Ancient China was isolated from other civilizations, and they called themselves the Middle Kingdom. They believed people outside China were uncivilized. - The people of China’s duties are governed by their emperor and their family: - Family was central to society. Everyone’s roles in the family were fixed; the elders had more power than the younger children. Elders had control of the family’s decisions and possessions. The most important virtue in Chinese society was respect for their parents. - Women were considered most inferior. They are expected to obey their husbands, fathers and even their own sons. A woman must get married by age 13 to 16, and she will move into her husband’s house. - Spirits of family ancestors influenced family life, as they brought either good fortune or disaster to the family. They were not thought of as gods, but rather as neighbors that demanded attention and respect. Each family paid respect and made sacrifices. - The Chinese believed their ruler had divine approval from heaven, and was given the title of Mandate of Heaven. A bad king would lose the title if the spirits caused floods, riots, or other calamities. This was the explanation of Chinese rebellion and war. The fall of dynasties were decided this way. - The cycle of strength, decline & replacement of dynasties is called the Dynastic Cycle. Chinese history is marked by the succession of dynasties.

Shang Dynasty - Yellow soil from the Yellow river helped fertilize the farmlands. Floods from the river were unpredictable. Floods can kill thousands almost millions of people. The Yellow River was nicknamed “China’s Sorrows.” - Anyang was an important capital in the Shang dynasty. The city was made of wood and lived in cone shaped huts and pit houses. - A class system existed in China, and it was strictly divided into nobles, warriors and peasants. Warriors served in the army and owned most of the land. Nobles governed scattered villages, and peasants worked on farms. Artisans lived outside the city in smaller houses, but they were more comfortable. - Bronze was a symbol of royal power. The skill of Shang bronze smiths has never been surpassed.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- The Chinese learned how to draw fine threads from a silkworm’s cocoon and the silk was used to make fabric and on their shoes. - Animal bones and tortoise shells (oracle bones) were used by priests to foretell the future. Characters inscribed were similar to today’s characters. - In the Chinese method of writing, each character stood for an idea, not a sound. Someone who can read Chinese, but not know how to speak it, like an international number system. People all over China had the same system of writing, but their languages were different. However, their writing system was complex, as a literate person has to know at least 5,000 to 10,000 characters.

Chou Dynasty - This dynasty reigned from 1027 B.C. to 221 B.C. Not much in civilization has changed. - For the first 300 years, Chou ruled a vast part of China, but in 771 B.C. barbarians attacked their capital Hao, and murdered their monarch. The rest of their family escaped to Loyang, but they barely had any power left at all. - Nobles who could not be controlled tried to pick fights with neighboring lords, and they became kings of their own territory. At this time, the Chinese’s philosophy of order, harmony and respect collapsed. - China’s most influential scholar Confucius believed order would be restored in China if society was organized around five basic relationships; ruler to subject, father to son, husband and wife, older to younger siblings, and friend to friend. If a ruler showed kindness, then his subjects may reciprocate kindness as well. - Confucius’s five relationships were based on family. He believed children should practice filial piety which is respect for parents and elders. - Confucius wanted to reform Chinese society. The Duke of Lu made Confucius his Minster of Crime, and crime vanished overnight. Only after he died, people began to memorize his teachings. - Another Chinese thinker was Lao Tzu. He believed natural order was most important, which Confucius believed in social order. He believed that nature had no purpose, but followed the Tao (the “way”) or the universal force that guides all things. - Lao believed people should follow Tao, because it will prevent disputes or have personal desires. People who followed this philosophy withdrew from society and lived close to nature. - Another group, which is the Legalists believed that restoring government was they way to restore power. They believed the ruler should provide for the people. Anyone who disobeyed the government would get punished.

Ch’in Dynasty - In 256 B.C. the Ch’in armies destroyed the Chou forces and the 13 year old Legalist Shih Huang-ti king took the throne. (Huang-ti refers to the term of emperors.) The Ch’in dynasty was the first to have an emperor. - Shih defeated the barbarians and constructed the Great Wall of China. He gave China a form of government that lasted for 2,000 years. - Shih’s goals were to destroy outside rival armies and resistances; his armies attacked barbarians all the way to Vietnam. - Shih also did not trust powerful nobles, so he uprooted them to live in the capital city where he can watch them and prevent them from revolting. - The First Emperor wiped the old borders and established new ones. He split China into 36 administrative districts which were controlled by officials. - He also burned all books that criticized him or considered useless. Only books about farming and medicine were saved. - Shih also set uniform standards for laws, money, weights and measures and established a network of highways. - Although smaller walls have been built during the Chou dynasty, the First Emperor closed the gaps, so horse drawn invaders would have to ride around the entire length of the wall. The wall expanded for 1400 miles. People built the Great Wall because it was the law, and to disobey the law meant death. - After 3 years of Shih Huang-ti’s son ruled, peasants rebelled and ended the Dynasty.

Han Dynasty - The Han dynasty began around 202 B.C. and had a high reputation. The hated Ch’in laws were repealed. Confucius’s teachings had the most effect during this time. - The Han Emperor, Wu-ti was known as the Martial Emperor because of his success in battle. Boundaries extended to central Asia, south to Vietnam and East to Korea. - During the Han rule, there was a revival for learning. Although many books were burned, people either kept some secretly or memorized them. The “Five Classics” were the most important because they were a Confucius’s collection of the greatest writings of Chou times. “Analects” was the 6th book.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- Wu-ti declared that Confucianism the official beliefs for his government. Educated scholars who mastered the “Classics” had high positions in his government. - Wu-ti sent officials in search of horses, and they found the Persian civilization. Silk linked China with Persia and the road through the rocky and mountainous Tibet into central Asia was called the Great Silk Road. Trade began between China and Mediterranean civilizations. - Poverty and famine due to bad harvests and droughts attacked peasants and they often escaped to the mountains, where they formed secret societies. These societies rebelled against Han rule. - There were two parts of the Han Dynasty, one from 206 B.C to 8 A.D and the second one from A.D. 25 to 220. - Corruption and disorder eventually ended the Han Dynasty. - Buddhism spread to China through the Silk Road. People said that Buddha was a merciful god who came to save humans, although Buddha never claimed he was a god. People began to worship the kindly Buddha and the religion spread rapidly across the land.

Key Facts - Family and strong bonds held Chinese society together - After the Shang and Chou dynasty, emperors ruled with the Qin dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China - After a rough Qin dynasty, the Han Dynasty came into power, with a Golden Age for learning. Confucius was most influential at this time - Great Silk Road lead to spread of Buddhism in China.

Chapter 5: Ancient Greece

- The Geography influenced Greece by: I. The Sea - Greece is made up of several islands located in the Aegean Sea as well as parts of mainland Greece and Asia Minor. - The sea made sea trade and travel important in Greek culture, since Greece needed to get from one place to another because it had a lack of resources.

II. The Land - About ¾ of Greece is covered with mountains. - Greece is divided among these mountains. It was difficult to unite Greece until one government because it was divided. - Travel among land was difficult because of these mountains. - Very few percentage of Greece has fertile lands, and Greece has a population of less than 2 million people. - Greek diet is simple and contains mainly grains, grapes, olives and bread.

III. The Climate - Temperatures are moderate and there is only rain in the winter. Farming was less reliable because of the lack of rain. People spent their time outdoors. - People often had open gatherings such as an agora or marketplace where they discussed issues and exchanged news.

IV. Minoan Civilization - The Minoan Civilization was named after their king Minos. - They lived on the island of Crete from 2000 B.C. to 1400 B.C. - Aspects of Minoan Culture: o Wall paintings showed that the Minoans had a lively life, filled with activities, events and sports. o The Minoans were interested with the beauty of nature. o They had a plumbing system, for bathing and even a flush toilet. - The Minoan civilization ended around 1400 B.C. to 1200 B.C. The cause is unknown, whether it might be a natural disaster or a human attack.

V. Mycenaean Civilization - This civilization was located at Mycenae, on mainland Greece. This time was known as the Bronze Age. - It was located on a steep rocky ridge, where it was ruled by a warrior-king. There were several small forts located near the area, each with its own warrior king. They ruled from 1600 B.C. to 1200 B.C. - The nobles lived a fine live in large palaces, and were extremely wealthy.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi

Dark Ages - After the Mycenaeans were destroyed by a mysterious group of people who also destroyed the Egyptians and Hittites. - Dorians were a new group of people who moved into the area. - The Dorians were less skilled with art and trading than the other Greeks. - During this time, the Dorians lost the skill of writing, so there was a gap in history from 1150 B.C. to 750 B.C. - Historians relied on the heroic poems or epics by Homer for information. The most famous epics were Iliad and the Odyssey. - Homer’s poems taught a powerful ideal called arête, which meant to strive for excellence, courage and to win fame and honor. - The First Olympic Games were held in 776 at Olympia. The main event was the pentathlon, and everyone wanted to strive for fame and honor. - The Greeks worshipped humanlike gods, which human passions and weaknesses. Greeks developed myth about them, which were stories to understand the mysteries of human passions. - The Greeks did not have a priestly class; rather, it was a civic duty for a citizen to be a priest.

Rise of Polis - After 750 B.C. city states or polis would rise and they each controlled miles of territory. - All free adult men were citizens and they attended meetings and councils at an agora or acropolis, a fortified hilltop. - Citizenship and free individuals and polis life was the central force in Greece. - Aristocracy is a government where a group of noble families had power and rule. - Tyrants were ambitious leaders in revolts against aristocrats. Tyrants also helped take wealth from the aristocrats and give it among the poor.

Sparta (600 to 371 B.C. Most powerful army) - Sparta was located at the Peloponnesus peninsula. - Sparta conquered the Messenians, a neighboring polis, and was treated like helots (slaves). The Messenians revolted and the Spartans were close to losing. - After this revolt, the Spartans focused on making themselves a stronger army. They made themselves a military based city state, with strict rules and trained all men to be warriors. - The Spartans adopted a cruel set of rules called the Code of Lycurgus, which made babies examined; the weak ones were killed, and Spartans were given only a small ratio of food and lack of clothing to make them learn how to endure harsh conditions. - Sparta eventually had the most powerful army in Greece, but they did not have many advances in art and literature.

Golden Age of Athens (Late 400 B.C.) - Athens adopted the government of Democracy. Athenians were always eager to learn new things and think as free civilians. - Solon and Cleisthenes made reforms to prevent war; they are: His economic reforms: 1. He cancelled all debts and freed those who have been enslaved for debt. 2. He made farming more profitable and encouraged farmers to grow more wine grapes and olives. These became the base of a rich trade for Athens. 3. He encouraged industry by requiring every father to teach his son a trade. Athenian pottery, for example, was sold all around the Mediterranean Sea. 4. He allowed every male citizen to attend the assembly. All important matters were debated there and decided by vote. 5. He began a new legal system in which any citizen could bring charges against anyone who had committed a wrong. Thus, if a citizen saw a crime committed against a slave, the citizen could bring a charge, even though the slave could not. The idea that all citizens were responsible for justice was revolutionary. - Cleisthenes introduced the Council of Five Hundred to propose laws and make decisions. All citizens had equal chance to being in the council, except for women. - Athens became the leader of alliance of hundreds of city states, called the Delian League to prevent further wars.

- Pericles, a strong Athenian Orator wanted to reform Athenian democracy by: o Strengthen Athenian government by increasing the salaries of paid officials. This allowed poorer men to become officials.

CREDITS: Patrick Loio Build a commercial empire out of Athens. He used money from the treasury to make Athens the strongest navy in the Mediterranean. o Glorify Athens by using money to buy artistic materials such as gold, ivory and marble, pay artisans and to build Greece’s most famous architectural work, the Parthenon. - Classical Art is the values of order, balance, proportion and applying the human body into art. The Golden Age of Athens was known for its outburst of new architecture and sculptures that revolved around these values. Sculptures of humans did not have facial features. - The Greeks invented drama and tragedy. Theater was an important part in Greek life, because these plays portrayed public issues, such as war, gods, peace, duties, families and the city. Part of civic duty is to attend the plays. Famous play writers were Aeschylus, and Sophocles. - Women had unequal rights as male citizens, as they were expected to stay indoors and perform household duties, while the men worked and attended meetings at the agora. - After the Peloponnesian War, Athens lost its self confidence, power, empire, fleet and wealth. - Despite the shaking confidence in democracy, there was an outburst of artistic expression, as art expressed facial expressions, and comedies that poked fun at society, invented by Aristophanes. - Philosophy was a new high in Greek Culture. Philosophers wanted to search for truth and wisdom. They assumed the universe was put together in certain laws, and they assumed they could understand these laws through reason. - Socrates was a famous philosopher who would use the Socratic Method, which is to ask questions to a youth on the street, and keep asking questions until they reach a deep conversation. Socrates would teach by asking questions. He was tried and had a death sentence for ‘corrupting’ the youth of Athens. - Plato admired of Socrates and he was upset that Socrates was killed. In addition to teaching Plato wrote as well, and in his book, the Republic, he wrote about a perfect social, where people would be classified on their intellect. - Aristotle was a student of Plato, and he created a set of logic systems, called syllogism.

The Conquest of Alexander the Great (336 B.C. to 323 B.C.) - Philip II was the king of Macedon, and he was very reckless, and he wanted to expand his power. He created armies with large phalanxes, and they easily defeated and invaded Greece, despite Demosthenes’ warnings. He defeated Athens and Thebans in the battle of Chaeronea united the city states. - Philip wanted to invade Persia, but he was killed and his son, Alexander took over as king. - Alexander wanted to invade the Persians for revenge and because he was the descendent of Achilles, he was destined to be a hero. - Alexander was trained to a powerful warrior. He stomped down all rebellion and he and the Companions defeated the Persians at Granicus. - Alexander defeated the Persians even if they were outnumbered at the Battle of Issus and Gaugamela. Darius III, the king of Persia offered Alexander riches, but he declined. After Darius III was cornered and killed, Persia fell to Alexander. - Alexander controlled the largest empire in the world, from Egypt to the Indus River. He had towns named after him. Alexander was always restless, but he died on 323 B.C. - After Alexander died, power was passed to three generals, Antigonus, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. - Greeks intermarried with Persians, and the blending of cultures led to Hellenism. Mathematics, physics, astronomy, geography, and art all expanded under Alexander’s legacy. Famous mathematicians, and astronomers include Aristarchus, (who proved the sun was larger than the earth, and the earth revolved around the sun), Eratosthenes (who calculated the Earth’s size), Euclid (the father of geometry), and Archimedes (who discovered pi).

Wars - Warriors with a spear in one hand, and a shield in another were hoplites. - Hoplites stood in rows and columns, called a phalanx were the most powerful fighting machines in the world. - Soldiers fought with iron, something stronger than bronze and regular citizens could afford it. Trojan War - Fought between mainland Greece and Troy - Story was told by Homer in his epics, and Heinrich Schliemann proved Homer’s tales were true - Fought because a Trojan youth stole Helen, the wife of a Greek king - Story of how the strategy of using a Trojan Horse as a trap worked Greek-Persian War - told by Herodotus

CREDITS: Patrick Loi- Greeks of Ionia revolted against the Persians, and Athens helped Ionia, but Darius vowed to destroy Athens after the revolt. - Battle of Marathon: Athens victorious, however, weakened. - Xerxes had a new army which outnumbered the Greeks, and killed all the Spartans at the battle of Thermopylae. - Athens, with the help of Themistocles, was able to defeat the Persians in a naval battle at the Battle of Salamis. - The Concluding battle of Plataea, with the Greeks victorious, ended the Persian invasion. Peloponnesian War - Fought between Sparta and Athens due to rising tensions - Sparta was stronger on land, while Athens was stronger at sea. Pericles tried to fight Sparta from the sea. - Thucydides recorded the events of the war in his journal - Spartans destroyed Athens food source, and everyone was crowded behind city walls. This overpopulation led to a plague, which killed 1/3 of the population. - Athens lost in a naval attack towards Syracuse, an ally of Sparta, but the entire fleet and army was destroyed there. - Athens surrendered in 404 B.C. and Athens lost its strength and self confidence.

Key Facts - Greek civilization grew up around the Aegean Sea - Polis competed for power - Athens dominated Greece during the Golden Age with its democratic government - Alexander the Great conquered the Persian Empire and blending of cultures led to Hellenism.

Chapter 6 & 7- Roman Republic & Roman Empire

Roman myth: Romulus + Remus Latin king feared that twins might claim throne--ordered them placed in basket + set afloat on Italy’s Tiber River

(assumed they’ll drown); she-wolf found them + shepherd discovered babies + brought them up as his sons; RR decided to build city near where they were abandoned; each bro chose a hilltop + claimed leadership of new city; soon, they were quarreling + Romulus killed Remus; hilltop Romulus had chosen (Palatine) became center of new city + called Rome; after long reign, Romulus turned into god + told Romans to make Rome capital of world By 27 BC, Rome was capital of world

Romans built great city Rome located midway b/w Alps + Italy’s southern tip city central pt in peninsula; Rome occupies ideal position

from which to send out ships + armies in all directions may key trade routes b/w northern + southern Italy met at

Rome Italy’s land mountainous; Alps separate Italy from rest of Europe; Apennines, runs down length of Italy; land W

side fertile 3 dominant groups

Latins: wandered across Alps into Italy CA 1000 BC; settled on either side of Tiber River, region called Latium; Rome began as settlement of Latin shepherds

Greeks: b/w 750 + 600 BC, settlers from Greece established ≈ 50 colonies on coast of S Italy + Sicily; Greek colonies prompted Latins to call this area Magna Graecia/Greater Greece; these prosperous + commercially active cities brought all Italy into closer contact w/ Greek civilization

Etruscans: entered N Italy b/w 1200-800 BC; maybe from Asia Minor; more civilized that Latins; had a writing sys (adapted from Greek alphabet); Latin settlers of Rome adopted Etruscan alphabet; Roman buildings show influence of Etruscan arch

Religious ideas borrowed Greeks: Romans were polytheists; however, many early Roman gods had no names/personalities, instead, they

were spirits w/ daily cares such as guarding children’s food, protecting household, etc Knowledge of Greek gods to Rome through traders; Romans gave own names to these gods but kept legends

+ personalities of Greek divinities; Zeus = Roman god Jupiter; Hera = Roman goddess Juno

CREDITS: Patrick Loi Etruscans: Romans learned practice of “taking auspices,” which meant “watching birds in flight”; it was good

sign if, b4 battle, vulture/eagle flying Romans established republic

During yrs of royal rule b/w 600 + 509 BC, Rome to cities; kings ordered constructions of temples + public buildings; swampy valley below Palatine Hill drained, making public meeting place (valley known as the Forum) became <3 of Roman political life

Legend: son of last king of Rome attacked Roman woman, Lucretia; Romans rose in revolt + overthrew prince’s father; then, Romans declared they would never again be ruled by king; any Roman who plotted to became king could be killed w/o trial

509 BC, Rome became republic (political unit that’s not ruled by monarch + in which citizens have right to choose leaders)

Romans valued family ties Character of citizens influenced by “ways of fathers” (group of values); Romans emphasized discipline, strength

+ loyalty Person w/ these qualities said to have gravitas (Romans virtue of weightiness/seriousness)

<3 of Roman society was family; power to rule early Roman household belonged to eldest man called pater familias/father of family; they had complete power over family; could sell family member into slavery/kill any member of family w/o penalty; however, pater familias acted as protector of family + chief priest Although pater familias legal head of family, women in charge of daily running of household; had much

greater freedom than Athens; was citizen w/ right to own property, testify in court, eat w/ husband; COULDN’T VOTE THOUGH

of classes: birth determined every Roman’s social/political status

Patrician: member of privileged upper class Claimed that their ancestors had been patres/fathers who founded Rome + ancestry gave them authority to

make laws for Rome + its people Plebeians: common farmer, artisan/merchant; was free citizen w/ right to vote

Army All male citizens required to serve in army + no 1 could hold public office until he had 1st served 10 yrs as soldier Legion: massive military unit of Roman army; made up of 4000-6000 infantry men (heavily armed foot soldiers)

+ group of cavalry men (soldiers on horseback); each legion into 60 smaller groups, each known as a century

Legions were fighting force that spread Rome’s power around Med Sea Plebeians won more power

509 BC Romans drove out kings, patricians controlled Rome’s government; plebeians couldn’t hold most important positions in government; b/w 494-287 BC, 1000s plebeians refused to fight in Roman army unless patricians agreed to certain reforms + they gained access to many political offices + obtained more favorable laws

12 tables: creation of written law code 415 BC, group of 10 officials wrote down Rome’s laws; laws carved on 12 great tablets/tables + hung in

Forum Balanced government: government partly monarchy, aristocracy + democracy; Romans believed that this mixture

gave them best features of all kinds of governments 2 Consul: powerful official in Roman republic who commanded army + directed government; had power of life +

death over citizens Power limited by 2 rules: 1st – consul’s term only 1 yr long + same person couldn’t be elected consul again for

10 yrs; 2nd – 1 consul could always veto the other’s decision Senate: aristocratic branch of government; tradition said that Romulus named 100 patricians to advise him,

creating 1st senate; later, # of senators ↑ + plebeians could also be members; membership was for life

CREDITS: Patrick Loi Democratic side of Roman government was assembly; all citizen-soldiers were members of this branch; in early

days, assembly had little power, over yrs, powers of assembly ↑ Dictator: political leader elected for 6 months + given absolute power to make laws + command the army during

times of crisis (chosen by consuls + then elected by senate) Rome won control of Italy

390 BC, Rome’s walls stormed by Gauls (people from Po River valley, N of Apennines); Gauls left Rome it in ruins + Romans forced to pay bribe to persuade Gauls to leave; however, Romans recovered rapidly, built stronger, larger wall around city

S regions of Italy colonized by Greeks; 282 BC, Greek colonists sought aid from Pyrrhus (king + general in W Greece)- brought 20000 soldiers to fight Romans, twice Pyrrhus’s army slammed into Roman legions + drove them from field but Greek army suffered big losses; 275 BC, Romans drove Pyrrhus’s troops back to Greece (Pyrrhic victory)

Rome governed Italy After 275 BC, Romans masters of all Italy except Po Valley in N, which was held by Gauls Latin neighbors on Tiber were treated as full citizens of Rome; could marry other Romans, vote in assemblies, etc Territories farther from Rome, people given status of ½ citizens; only couldn’t vote Allies of Rome: had to contribute troops to Roman army; forbidden to make treaties w/ any other state but Rome;

were free to govern own people w/o Roman interference New citizens became partners in Rome’s growth; policy helped Rome to succeed in building long-lasting empire

Rome fought Carthage After decline of Athens, trade in Med region dominated by 2 wealthy cities: Alexandria in Egypt (ruled by

Ptolemies) + Carthage (former Phoenician colony) 264 BC, Rome + Carthage went to war for control of Sicily + W Med (Punic Wars)

Carthage was ≈ 3x size of Rome w/ pop of 250000, had huge navy of 500 ships, trade made Carthage wealthy (w/ this wealth, Carthage employed people Numidia as mercenaries: soldier who’s paid to fight in another country’s army)

Beginning of 1st Punic Wars, Rome had no navy; Rome’s power rested on armies but Rome had more than 500000 troops available through conquests in Italy, Rome’s citizen troops were generally more loyal + reliable than mercenaries; warfare was specialty (Romans had directed much of energy toward winning wars, all of Carthage’s energy had been aimed at winning wealth through trade) Beginning of 1st war, Carthaginian warship washed up on Italian shore + Romans built 140 ships by

copying Carthaginian design; however, Roman warship was equipped w/ long gangplank (attached was iron hook called raven, when Roman ship drew alongside Carthaginian vessel, beak stuck deep in Carthaginian deck, binding ships tog, Roman soldiers rushed over gangplank.

1st Punic War lasted 23 yrs b4 Carthage’s fleet defeated + sunk in 241 BC = marked end of Carthage as sea power + Rome took over Sicily

2nd Punic War 218 BC, peace b/w 2 cities broken, mastermind was Hannibal (29yrs), great military general; assembled army of

50000 infantry, 9000 cavalry + 60 elephants to try to capture Rome (more than ½ men + most elephants lost from desertions, battles w/ Gallic tribes + blizzards on mountains) Rome made 2 armies to fight but Hannibal destroyed them; 216 BC, 3rd army of 86000 Romans found

Hannibal’s army of 50000 men camped at Cannae; Hannibal drew attacking army into trap + Romans died; next 13 yrs, Romans didn’t dare to challenge him again; however, they couldn’t capture Rome b/c walls were too high + their own forces too small

Battle of Zama: Scipio attacked Carthage, forcing Hannibal to rush home; 202 BC, Carthage defeated + end of 2nd

Punic War If Hannibal had been victor, Carthage + not Rome would became greatest empire in world; b/c Rome was

victorious, Rome passed on its laws, government + culture to Western civilization

CREDITS: Patrick Loi Rome made conquests to E

After death of Alexander the Great, his empire among generals; their descendants still ruled lands around E

Med (Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedon, Ptolemaic dynasty ruled Egypt + Seleucid dynasty ruled Persian empire); at 1st, Roman armies marched into Macedon looked like protectors of Greek freedom; 197 BC, Greeks rejoiced when Romans freed them from rule of Philip V of Macedon; once settled in Greece, Romans interfered in Greek politics, crushing all opposition of rulers favored by Rome; as time passed, exercise of Roman power in E became ruthless; 146 BC, people of Corinth massacred/enslaved, it walls wrecked + homes + temples burned

Rome destroyed Carthage By time of 3rd Punic War (149-146 BC), Carthage no longer threat to Rome, yet I was prosperous city + some

Romans filled w/ hate; Cato (senator) responsible for war (his speeches ended w/ same message “Carthage must be destroyed”); 149 BC, Rome forced war on Carthage w/ excuse that Carthage had warred w/ neighboring Numidia w/o Rome’s permission; under leadership of Scipio Aemilianus (grandson of Scipio Africanus), Roman army broke into Carthage + set it afire; after 3rd Punic War, Rome cont to expand eastward; 133 BC, W tip of Asia Minor dropped into Roman hands as gift of dying king = Rome’s Med empire stretched from Asia Minor to Spain

After Punic Wars Gap b/w rich + poor grew

Returning soldiers couldn’t afford to rebuild; small farmers sold ruined acres to wealthy citizens; new landowners treated farming as business - labor for their estates (latifundia) cheap b/c Rome’s many wars brought 1000s of chained captives to work as slaves

W/ their land gone, battle scarred farmers sought city jobs but wealthy Romans preferred slaves to hiring free workers Proletariat: poorest class in ancient Rome; w/o work/hope, they became dangerous + discontented mob

within city (riots constant danger in Rome) Captured booty paraded through Roman streets during holidays called “triumphs” (victorious general, dressed

in purple-trimmed toga + golden crown, riding through triumphal arch; followed by wagons of loot + bands of veterans)

Slavery: result of 1st Punic War: 75000 free men + women became Roman slaves; by 100 BC, slaves were 1/3 Rome’s total pop; 3x b/w 138-70 BC, 1000s slaves rebelled against masters (3rd worst: led by slave Spartacus who was a gladiator; raised an army of 70000 slaves + ravaged Italian countryside from 73-71 BC but lost) Gladiator: person who fought opponent to death in public arena

Gracchi bros: Tiberius + Gaius Gracchus attempted to reform Rome’s gov Tiberius (older) elected to political office of tribune (Roman official elected by assembly to speak on behalf of

plebeians) in 133 BC; suggested to give plebeians land by limiting size of large estates + distribute lands to poor ppl of Rome (to rich ppl, horrible idea); further alarmed rich by seeking to be reelected as tribune; on election day, some senators + followers murdered Tiberius + flung body into Tiber

10 yrs later: Gaius elected tribune (he made office of tribune most powerful position in Rome); pushed through series laws designed to weaken senate; planned programs to deal w/ unemployment; Gaius declared enemy of state by senate; Gaius + supporters took refuge on Rome’s hills where they were attacked by band of senators w/ slaves + foreign mercenaries; Gaius died + senate executed 3000 followers

Army leaders After death of Gracchi; 2 army leaders muscled way to power; Marius (victories against German tribes made him

popular w/ people) + Sulla (strong-armed champion of senate) Marius + army saved Rome from invasion of Germanic tribes in 105 BC, as result, elected consul 5x in row;

Marius blamed weakness of Rome’s defenses on dwindling # of citizen-soldiers (only landowners could serve in army + too many farmers forced off land); to make up for this loss, Marius allowed city’s poor to enlist in army; new recruits received weapons + armor; they signed up for pd of 16 yrs; willing to fight for any army leader who rewarded them w/ land + gold; after Marius, Roman armies didn’t fight for republic, they fought

CREDITS: Patrick Loifor military leader who used political power to give them weapons, food + loot; these leaders used their armies to advance their own political ambitions

88 BC, Marius commanded 1 army while Sulla commanded another; over next 6 yrs, both leaders used armies to march against Rome; each held power for while + killed supporters of his opponent; each forced own laws on Rome 82 BC, Sulla returned to power + abolished 6month limit to dictator’s term + had himself named dictator

until he chose to step down Julius Ceasar; bribed Sulla’s soldiers to spare his life; for more than 20 yrs, in the Forum, charmed crowds w/

speeches, in country villa, threw lavish parties for politicians; to support his extravagant life-style, borrowed lots of $ from man called Crassus the Rich; Crassus invested in Caesar’s political career + it paid off when Caesar became governor of province in Spain 1st Triumvirate: 60 BC, Caesar + Crassus joined forces w/ Pompey (popular general); to cement alliance, Pompey

married Caesar’s daughter Julia; w/ help of 2 allies Caesar elected consul in 59 BC + for next 10 yrs, they ruled as triumvirate Triumvirate: group of 3 political leaders who ruled Rome

Conquest of Gaul: Caesar served only 1 yr as consul; then assigned himself governorship of Gaul; pushed N into valleys of central Gaul, crossed English Channel + battled barbaric tribes who lived in Britannia, crossed the Rhine River to meet Germanic tribes; end of day, each soldier pulled shovel from 60lb pack + dug his share of trench to protect camp > 1sq m; inside, 2 legions (≈9000 men) could eat (few handfuls of grain + cup of sour wine) + sleep; Caesar’s sent back news to Rome– collected into 6 books which became 1 of classics of Latin lit (Caesar’s Commentaries on the Gallic Wars)

Caesar made himself ruler News from Gaul: poor citizens loved him more for conquests + senators feared for their own power; by 50 BC,

triumvirate came apart (Crassus dead – killed in battle), Pompey became Caesar’s rival; w/ Pompey’s approval, senate ordered Caesar to disband his legions + return to Rome

Crossing Rubicon: Jan 10, 49 BC, he rode S across Rubicon River in Italy; Caesar defied senate’s order + challenged Pompey (“crossing the Rubicon” means taking decision from which there’s no return); 48 BC, Caesar’s troops defeated Pompey’s at Pharsalus in Greece; Pompey sailed to Alexandria hoping to win support against Caesar but pharaoh ordered Pompey to be murdered; when Caesar arrived in Alexandria, he was presented w/ Pompey’s head as gift Civil war: conflict b/w 2 political groups within same nation

Absolute leader: 46 BC, Caesar retuned to Rome + commanded support of armies + masses; 44 BC, senate appointed him dictator for 10 yrs; as absolute ruler, he granted Roman citizenship to many ppl in provinces outside Italy, expanded senate to 900 men, made senate more representative of empire, ordered landowners who used slave laborers to sub free mean for ≤1/3 of work force, set up public works program to create more jobs, founded 20 colonies in Spain, France, Switzerland, Africa to provide land for Rome’s landless poor

Calendar: replaced old Roman calendar, liked to phases of moon w/ new solar calendar worked out by scholars of Alexandria; new calendar called Julian calendar – counted 365 days in year + 1 extra day every 4 yrs; b/c Romans thought Feb unlucky, made it shortest month, July named after Julius Caesar b/c included bday; Julian calendar used in most of Europe until 1582

Caesar's death: March 15 44 BC, Caesar walked to Theater of Pompey for meeting; chief conspirators: Brutus (friends w/ Caesar) + Cassius pardoned by Caesar for earlier support of Pompey; both men feared that he would make himself king (anyone who plotted to become king could be killed w/o trial); as Caesar approached, conspirators pressed up against him + stabbed; last words: “Et tu, Brute!” (And you, also, Brutus!)

Civil war after Caesar’s death 2nd Triumvirate: Octavian was Caesar’s grandnephew + adopted son; chief rival: Mark Antony was Caesar’s

trusted comrade; for time, agreed to cooperate in destroying Caesar’s enemies; teaming up w/ Lepidus, powerful

CREDITS: Patrick Loipolitician, led armies into Rome + forced assembly to grant them power to rule state; for 10 yrs (43-33 BC), Caesar’s 3 avengers acted tog as 2nd Triumvirate Cicero, senate’s greatest orator murdered (often spoke in defense of republic + against absolute rule); Brutus

+ Cassius committed suicide by falling on own swords after armies routed by Antony in 42 BC at Battle of Philippi in Greece

War: Oct defeated Lepidus + forced him to retire; Ant married Octavian’s sister as political gesture but while commanding Roman troops in Asia Minor, he met Cleopatra who wooed + won Ant as she had won Caesar; sent back word to Rome that he was divorcing Octavian’s sister + marrying Cleo In senate, Octavian accused Ant of plotting to rule Rome from foreign city of Alexandria; Ant + Octavian’s

forces clashed in naval battle off W coast of Greece; 31 BC, Battle of Actium, fleet commanded by Ant + Cleo defeated by Octavian’s navy; couple later committed suicide + Oct made Egypt another province of Rome

Oct became sole ruler: instead of seeking crown, took title of “1st citizen”; 27 BC, Oct to accepted title of Augustus (“exalted 1” + for gods); Roman state under Aug no longer republic; it was ruled by 1 man as an empire; however, senate + assembly cont to meet in old ways b/c Aug scared they could strip him of his power + titles; senators no fools yet played along b/c only by supporting Aug could they hope to win rich government post in provinces Roman

politicians found it convenient to let ancient republic die; Oct ruled Rome for 41 yrs, reign marked beginning of longest pd of peace + prosperity that Rome ever knew

Colosseum: spectacles held every day for 100 days; largest building of its kind in ancient world; 160ft high walls had 4 tiers of windows, columns + arches w/ 80 entrances at bottom; as many as 50000 spectators used 76 entrances, Emperors + their party used 2 entrances + last 2 were reserved for gladiators; bottom tier feat boxes for emperor, state priests + senators; above them, rows of marble seats for citizens, members of middle class, favored slaves + foreigners respectively; 4th tier, wooden seats for women + poor; overhead was colored awning that could be rolled out on cables to shield audience against sun + rain; mornings devoted to animal shows, afternoon professional gladiators (slaves, prisoners of war, condemned criminals/free Romans who chose to gamble lives for short span of glory + public adoration) fought animals/1 another Adopted gladiator contests from Etruscans (had religious importance); for roman government, bloody

entertainments served political purpose (were way to entertain 1000s of unemployed people who flocked city of Rome); Colo symbolic of entire Roman empire: outside both large in size + strength + inside, bravery, honor + glory w/ cruelty, sensationalism + violence

Pax (peace) Romana: pd of prosperity 27 BC- AD 180, peace was chief gift that Rome gave the people it ruled; borders of empire measured 10000m +

enclosed area of > 3mil sq m.; pop b/w 70-90 mil people (city of Rome ≈ 1 mil people) Aug + government: built foundation for Pax Romana through policies (plan of action that guides an individual,

group/government); encouraged trade, glorified Rome w/ buildings, created sys of government, set tone for empire by extolling old values of simplicity, sober conduct + patriotism; Aug dressed in homemade white togas + lived in small house on Palatine Hill Trade + trans: having common coinage (denarius: silver coin) made trade b/w diff parts of empire easier; Aug

realized that it hurt trade to tax goods as they moved across each province’s border eliminated such taxes; to

improve trans + bind empire tog tightly, Aug began program of highway construction Aqueduct: long bridge like structure that carries water to populated areas

Public building program: Romans learned to use concrete; it formed backbone of Rome’s architecture; Aug commissioned Greek artists + architects to build temples similar to Parthenon

Civil service: under Aug, Rome became center of efficient imperial government; Aug left senators their titles + money-making positions in provinces but gave much of real work of running empire to plebeians + slaves Civil service: workers employed by government to carry out functions such as repairing roads, delivering

mail, collecting taxes

CREDITS: Patrick Loi Aug death: died at 76 in AD 14

Senate hailed his adopted son + chosen successor Tiberius; Tiberius + 3 emperors after him known as Julian emperors b/c descended from family of Caesar; sys of gov set up by Aug proved to be more stable + effective than its individual leaders

Succession: transfer of power/authority to another person(s) Every time emperor died there was a crisis; when emperor Nero committed suicide, provincial armies +

Praetorian Guard (army of 9000 men stationed in Rome) took turns proclaiming new emperor, then murdering him + installing another; in 18 months (AD 68-69) Rome had 4 emperors

Good Emperors: succession pro temporarily solved by men known as 5 Good Emperors/Adoptive Emperors When Domitian was murdered in AD 96, senate chose Nerva emperor, Nerve only made Trajan his successor;

when Nerva died in 98, Trajan accepted as emperor; Trajan then adopted relative, Hadrian as successor; Hadrian adopted Antoninus Pius, + he in turn adopted Marcus Aurelius who ruled until AD 180 for 85 yrs, 5 emperors succeeded 1 another w/o bloodshed; although called Good Emperors, Trajan,

Hadrian + Marcus Aurelius were better; during Marcus’s lifetime, Pax Romana severely tested + strained—disease (maybe plague) swept across E provinces into Rome where it killed 2000 people in 1 day; German tribes overwhelmed Roman legions along Danube River; after Marcus died in AD 180, Pax Romana collapsed, marking end of golden age

Greco-Roman culture: Romans learned Greek language; emperors + wealthy citizens copied Greek arch + hired Greek sculptors; Pax Romana spread Greek as well as Roman achievements Philosophy

Epicureanism: Epicurus lived in Athens b/w 324-270 BC; taught way to gain happiness was to free body from pain + free mind from fear; to avoid pain, ppl should avoid all excesses, including of pleasure; ppl should accept death as end of existence; there was no life after death = nothing to fear Epicureanism: philosophy of life that justified pursuing sensuous pleasure

Stoicism: Greek philosopher Zeno (336-263 BC) taught that universe controlled by superhuman power (Universal Law, Divine Reason/Supreme Power); pain + pleasure unimpo; wealthy fams hired Stoic scholars as tutors for son, many rose to political powers, giving Stoics great influence in politics; emperor Marcus Aurelius: during 7yrs he spent w/ armies on Danube frontier, he wrote to console himself, later collected in book Meditations; Stoics believed human laws should be reasonable + just Stoicism: philosophy of life that encourages virtue, duty + endurance

Latin lit Livy’s his: covered years from Rome’s founding-rule of Augustus in 142 Roman style books; Livy had bias

typical of many historians; he liked past better than present; thought heroes of old (Romulus, Scipio, Cato) were more patriotic than Romans of own time

Virgil’s epic poem: Aeneid: poet Virgil devoted 10yrs for this; an epic consciously modeled after Greek masterpieces of Homer; traces Roman origins far back b4 RR to Aeneas, 1 of Trojan warriors in Iliad

Silver age: historians refer to 124 yrs b/w death of Augustus + Hadrian as “silver age” of lit; criticism replaced patriotism; praise replaced by satire (lit that mocks society for its foolishness + wickedness); Juvenal wrote bout morals of private citizens, historian Tacitus directed scorn at government; the weren’t banned/sent into exile b/c Rome so secure as cap of world that it could tolerate criticism Annals: Tacitus portrays every emperor from Tiberius-Nero as cruel + corrupt

Buildings: new cities in W Europe looked like mini Rome; Roman governors supported constructions of Roman-style buildings (saw as way of building allegiance to Rome itself); Romans used arch to glorify rule Pantheon: dedicated to all god; domed roof rested on drumlike structure called rotunda; light streamed into it

through small opening on dome Roman law; standards based largely on teachings of Stoics

CREDITS: Patrick Loi No person could be judged guilty of crime until after facts of case examined; All persons accused of crimes had

right to face accusers + defend themselves b4 a judge; if there was doubt bout person’s guilt, he/she should be judged innocent; any law that seemed unreasonable/grossly unfair could be set aside

After Rome fell, principles of Roman law became basis for law in many European countries Roman society: by AD 250, 150 holidays celebrating emperors’ birthdays, gods’ feast days; many of these days

government provided games, races/gladiator shows Life at top: wealthy Romans spent lots of $ on fancy houses, statues for gardens, high priced slaves + banquet ($

of food > important that taste of it); guests normally arrived for banquet in late afternoon + didn’t stop eating until midnight; after each course, slave stationed behind each guest to provide bowl of scented water for washing hands

Life at bottom: poor families lived in crowded wooden tenements (roofs + ceilings may collapse, fire touched off by stray ember form charcoal stove) up to 7 stories

Villas in countryside: Italian villas had libraries, art galleries, swimming pools + athletic courts; provinces like Gaul, North Africa + Britannia, villas grew much of empire’s food supply; people on villas raised own food + made most of other goods they need; many villas fortified as protection against tax collectors Villas: country estate

Christianity spread Jews: after their return to Palestine from Babylon, Jews ruled by Alexander Great, Ptolemies of Egypt + Seleucids

of Persia; they tolerated + were tolerated by these rulers; 168 BC, Seleucid king decided to build altar to Greek go Zeus in Jewish temple in Jerusalem; Jews wouldn’t stand for that + led by Judas Maccabee, they recaptured + purified temple in 165 BC; 142 BC, Jews won their independence; entire areas of Syria + Palestine fell under Roman influence CA 65BC; 1st, Jew kingdom independent, Jew king ruled as representatives of Rome; ruler Herod was Romanized Jew (his loyalties were b/w Rome + own people; tolerant of poly faiths = angry Jews);

AD 6, Rome took over Jew kingdom + made it Roman province of Judaea Jesus born CA Rome’s takeover of Jew kingdom; he was both Jew + Roman subject (story of Jesus comes

primarily from Christian sources: 4 Gospels of New Testament); born in town of Bethlehem near Jerusalem; grew up in village of Nazareth in N Palestine; each yr, went w/ parents to Jerusalem to celebrate Passover

Ministry: began ≈ 30yr; religious leader John the Baptist warmed followers to repent their sins in preparation for coming of kingdom of God; he was known as Baptist b/c he immersed his followers in Jordan River as symbol of cleansing from sin; Jesus asked John to baptize him; next 3yrs, he became wandering prophet +teacher; teachings continued many ideas from Jew tradition + taught that God would end wickedness in world + established kingdom of God for people who sincerely repented;

Apostles (12): 1 of Jesus’ followers who preached + spread teachings of Jesus To explain his message, Jesus used everyday situations +t old short stories (parables) that contained moral

lessons; emphasized fatherhood of God as personal relationship to each human being; stressed importance of people’s love for God, neighbors, enemies + themselves; Golden Rule: people should treat others as they themselves wished to be treated

Death + resurrection: growing popularity of Jesus + teachings worried Roman officials + Jew leaders; AD 30, Jesus visited Jerusalem; many people believed that as Messiah, he would end Roman rule + bring new age of peace + prosperity; chief priests denied Jesus was Messiah (thought that his teachings were blasphemy/contempt for God); Roman government Pontius Pilate concerned that Jesus’ teachings about kingdom of God challenged authority of Rome sentences Jesus to be crucified; Jesus’ follower Mary

Magdalene visited Jesus’ tomb 2 days later+ found body gone; Jesus appeared to followers in next 40 days + encouraged them to spread teachings; led by Peter, apostles spread teachings of Jesus throughout Palestine + Syria; as they spread meaning of Jesus’ life + death, cross became symbol of hope for new Christian faith Messiah: savior chosen by God

Paul: while traveling to Damascus in Syria, saw burst of light + heard Jesus = Jew Saul became Christian Paul; dedicated rest of life to spreading teachings of Jesus; his letters (written to churches) formed important part of New

CREDITS: Patrick LoiTestament (known as Epistles, stressed that Jesus was son of God who died for people’s sins); declared Christianity open equally to anyone; Christian churches established in every major city in E empire due to Paul

Judaism vs Christianity War against Jews: Ad 66, band of Jew revolutionaries called Zealots tried to throw off Roman yoke; when Roman

troops put down rebellion 4 yrs later, they burned Jew temples; AD 130, emperor Hadrian ordered to rebuild Jerusalem as Roman colony + a shrine to Jupiter built in place of Jew temple; Jews rose in rebellion (3yrs)

Persecution of Christians: Ad 64, Nero ordered 1st persecution of Christians; as Pax Romana began to fall, Romans became harsher toward those who wouldn’t worship emperor; many Christians brought b4 Roman magistrates for trial; those who gave up religion + accepted Roman gods were set free + those who opposed tortured + executed in arena Martyr: one who chooses to die rather than give up a principle/cause

Petrine doctrine: Peter traveled to Rome where he acted as Rome’s 1st bishop; eventually, every major city in empire had own bishop; Roman bishops argued Peter was 1st pope: argument known as Petrine doctrine Bishop: church official who sets moral standards, supervises finances + governs several churches Pope: bishop of Rome, head of Roman Catholic Church

Rome’s empire decline: w/ rule of Marcus Aurelius’s son, Commodus; AD 192, he strangled in bath b/c became cruel ruler; decline of empire cont for 300 yrs + AD 472, barbarian king took over rule of Rome; 3 stages of decline: 1. “crisis of 3rd C” where empire beset by economic, military + political problems; 2. Time of revival where empire

into 2 parts (E + W); 3. Western ½ of empire fell to invaders During 3rd C (AD 200-300)

Economic decay: during Pax Romana, trade disrupted by barbarian raids + bands of pirates of Med sea lanes; gold + silver drained away to buy luxuries from China, India, Arabia however, they had lil interest in buying wine, cheese + glass from Rome; Roman paid out fortune in gold + silver for imported luxuries = desperate to pay expenses, Roman gov started minting coins w/ less silver; harvests in Italy + W Europe became meager (overworked soil lost fertility) Inflation: overall rise in prices of goods + services

Military decay: tribes of N barbarians called Goths overran legions guarding Danube frontier; AD 260, Roman emperor Valerian captured in battle w/ Persians (Valerian forced to crouch down + allow Persian king to step on him while mounting horse); Roman soldiers now fought for $, not patriotism; to attract recruits in army, government promised lots of cash awards; to keep cost down, emperors began to recruit barbarians, who couldn’t be trusted

Political decay: as empire’s prosperity faded, less $ came in as taxes; however, government cont to require each tax district to send certain amt; if local tax collector couldn’t gather up enough, had to pay remaining himself = few people willing to serve government

Diocletian (AD 284-305) reformed empire Ad 284, Dio (strong-willed army leader) became new emperor; tried to restore order in empire + ↑ strength

To secure boundaries of empire, doubled size of Roman armies; to beat inflation, used price + wage controls; to restore faith in ancient gods; ordered general persecution of Christians; to ↑ prestige of emperor, assumed manner + costume of Persian ruler; to improve administration, empire into Greek-speaking E (Greece, Asia

Minor, Syria, Egypt) + Latin-speaking W (Italy, Gaul, Britannia + Spain), each part w/ own emperor E had most great cities + trade centers wealthier (Dio took E)

Reforms not successful: wages added to load of taxes, price controls failed, Christianity cont to grow; however he did stop decline of empire: borders safe

Constantine: AD 312, before battle, he prayed for divine help = ordered artisans to put Christian symbol on soldiers’ shields; near Milvian Bridge, he won + became emperor of W ½; AD 313, announced end of persecution of Christians; from Milan, granted “both to Christians + to all men freedom to follow religion that they choose”; by this

CREDITS: Patrick LoiEdict of Milan, Christianity became religion approved by emperor; 395, emperor Theodosius made it empire’s official religion; Cons won control of E + W

New capital: AD 330, Cons moved capital from Rome to Greek city of Byzantium renamed Constantinople; advantages: 1. Stoop at crossroad for trade (located on narrow water passageway Bosporus, Byzantium controlled all shipping b/w Black + Med Sea); 2. City easy to defend (surrounded by water); 3. Byzantium strongly Christian; 4. Byzantium located in more prosperous ½ of empire

Barbarians: AD 376-476 (Ostrogoths, Visigoths, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Burgundians, Lombards, Vandals took part in Rome’s destruction: all spoke Germanic language) Germanic tribes terrified of Huns (nomadic people from central Asia); when Huns moved W, Burgundians,

Franks + Vandals pressured to move W too, began massive movement of Germanic people which destroyed W ½ of Roman empire

Barbarians sacked Rome: during 1st ½ of 5th C, Rome sacked 2x by Germanic armies: 1st Visigoths in AD 410, then Vandals in AD 455 410: Alaric (king of Visigoths) marched across Alps to Rome; traitor opened Rome’s gates + 100s Germans raid

it for 3 days but Rome remained rich enough; 455 Gaiseric the Lame (king of Vandals) from North Africa sailed to Rome in pursuit of more treasure 1000s Romans captive + shipped back North Africa as slaves

Attila the Hun: under leader Attila, Huns seemed more dangerous; w/ 100000 soldiers, he threatened to conquer entire empire; in E, armies sacked 70 cities (Failed to scaled walls of Constantinople); AD 453, he advanced against Rome but stopped by Christian bishop (Leo I might have frightened Huns by telling of plague in Italy/awed by Leo)

Last emperor of W: AD 455, Roman emperor in W powerless; Germanic tribes fought 1 another for possession of W provinces; last Roman emperor was Romulus Augustulus (14 yrs; AD 476, he lost throne to barbarian general Odoacer who sent Romulus into exile + Roman empire gone E ½ became known as Byzantine empire

Chapter 8 Review – The Byzantine Empire and the Rise of Islam (450-1453)  

*Constantinople – founded by Rome’s first Christian emperor, Constantine in 330. A city built in the site of Byzantium. 

-The Byzantine emperors had absolute and complete power in both church and the state.

-Despite their Roman traditions, Byzantine developed it s own culture.

-Religion and politics were very closely associated. 

*Justinian – a Byzantine emperor who conquered Roman lands and made many achievements 

-Justinian tried to reconquer the Roman lands to the west.

-Justinian ordered a group of Greek and Latin scholars to compile and simplify the laws.

-Justinian undertook a massive building program in Constantinople.

-Justinian ended up conquering Rome, direction to North Africa and Italy, and a part of Spain.

-Justinian ordered a code of laws which lasted long after he died. It was called The Codex Justinian. 

-Thanks to Justinian’s rules, and laws Constantinople was growing quick and flourishing. Some of the city’s new features were the marketplace, the imperial palace, and the Hagia Sophia. 

CREDITS: Patrick Loi*Icons were the reason that 2 groups of church – iconoclasts and people who supported icons – fought about. 

-The Roman pope took sides with the icon-supporters. The Byzantine accepted icons and the iconoclasts lost.

-This fight caused bad relationship between Christians in Rome and Constantinople. 

*Patriarch – the bishop of Constantinople 

-Patriarch accepted the authority of the Byzantine emperor, but refused the Roman pope.

-The result was that Constantinople and Rome broke away from each other and the Roman pope and the patriarch excommunicated each other.

-In the end, their politics all come down to religion. 

-Although Constantinople remained powerful and rich for hundreds of years, there were many sufferings and dangers and invasions facing the Byzantine Empire.

-Starting with Justinian’s death in 565, plague was present and weakened its armies.

-Many other groups of people started to attack the empire. 

Section 2: The Spread of Islam and its effects 

*Mecca – a holy city for Arabians located near the western coast of Arabia. 

-Many traveled in and out of Mecca.

-Kaaba was the holy cube in Mecca where people worshipped. 

*Muhammad – an important individual who spread monotheism and his beliefs. 

-At the age of 40, he had a vision where Gabriel told him he was the messenger of God.

-In 613, Muhammad started to preach publicly in Mecca and had a little success. 

*Hegira – Muhammad’s flight from Mecca, this was important because it marked a turning point for Muhammad. 

-He went to Medina, where he gained many followers and great political influence. His belief became known as Islam, and the followers were known as Muslims.

-Starting from Medina, Muhammad started to attack the Meccans and defeated them. Finally, he destroyed the idols in Kabba, leaving only the Black Stone.

-Muhammad dies at the age of 62. 

*Koran – Islam’s holy book, containing the words of Muhammad. It was written in Arabic. 

-The life of a Muslim was simple but demanding. The Five Pillars of Muslim were faith, prayer, alms, fasting and pilgrimage.

-Islam expanded east and west. They conquered the region of Spain and Portugal, North Africa, Egypt, Palestine and Mesopotamia.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi-They had this term called jihad, which was a holy battle and soldiers killed in jihad were gone through a ritual. 

-After the death of Muhammad, caliphs, or leaders who followed Muhammad came into ruling. The three caliphates were the orthodox caliphate (632-661), The Umayyad caliphate (661-750), and The Abbasid caliphate (750-1955).

-The Ummayyads killed Husayn, the grandson of Muhammad. This caused a split in the Abbasid’s time, splitting Islam to 2 religious groups, ones that supported the Umayyads, and the ones that didn’t. 

-Islamic arts and sciences were very growing and impressive at the times.

-Islamic arts and sciences were greatly influenced by the Greeks’.

-Some of their achievements were the treatment of disease, the use of the astrolabe, mathematics.

-Islamic literature was also great, but it was only appreciated by the literate people.

-Islamic architecture was impressive; some of the examples are the mosques.  

Sections 3: The Influences of the Empires on Slavs and Turks 

*At about 800, both the Islamic and Byzantine empires were stable. However, they both had internal divisions and conflicts and the enemy attacks eventually destroyed them. Meanwhile, the Byzantine had influenced the Slavs, while the Turks were influenced by the Islamic empire. 

-While the Slavs were invading Constantinople, they admired their civilization and decided to become Christians.

-Between 850 and 900, the conversions were made by Byzantine missionaries.

-A monk named Cyril and other missionaries invented Cyrillic Alphabet for the Slavs, which made it possible for the Slavs to read the Bible in their own language and greatly influenced the conversion. 

*According to the Primary Chronicle, the first Russians were a group of hunters from Scandinavia and they were called Rus by the Slavs.The Slavs invited Rus to rule and protect them, thus beginning the history of Russia in 862. 

-The Russian ruler Vladimir decided to convert to Christianity in a Byzantine way instead of Rome’s The Russians was influenced and they looked to Constantinople for religious worship.

-The result of this was prosperous for the Russians. By 1000, Kiev had populations of 8,000. Its churches imitated those of Constantinople’s. The Russian culture was greatly influenced by the Byzantine culture. 

*Many internal divisions took place in the Islamic empire and this weakened the empire. 

-At this time of weakness, the Turks, nomads who were used to the plains, attacked Baghdad.

-By 1000, the Seljuk Turks converted to Islam and joined the Sunni branch.

-The Turks went on with their invasion of the Muslims, in 1055, they captured Baghdad. 

-Twenty years later, they defeated the Byzantines in the Battle of Manzikert. This had a tremendous negative effect on the Byzantines.

-The Ottomans started to appear on the Byzantine borders as they grew weaker.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi-The Ottomans believed themselves as ghazis, fierce Islamic warriors fighting against the unbelievers.

-Due to the invasion of the Ottomans, only the most important city, Constantinople remained unconquered.

Chapter 9 - Early Middle Ages (Early Medieval period)-500 to 1000 AD  

    Roman civilization declines due to barbarian attacks. Warfare led to disrupted trade, and Europe became more rural.

    Literacy declined as well; the barbarians could not read or write and the Roman subjects began to flee to the countryside. By 600, only the priests were still literate.

    New dialects began to develop. By the 800's, the Romance languages (French, Spanish, Italian, etc) had evolved from Latin.

    Germanic kingdoms replaced the Roman provinces. Their boundaries constantly changed due to warfare; as a result, government was based on personal ties; warriors pledged their loyalty to chiefs, and would willingly fight for them, but would not obey a king who they did not know, or officials.

    Beginning in the 300's and 400's, Christian missionaries began traveling among the Germanic and Celtic groups, risking their lives to spread their beliefs.

    One of the most successful was Patrick of Ireland, who was captured and taken to be a slave by the Celts, then escaped to northern Gaul and became a bishop, eventually returning to Ireland as a missionary.

    In the late 400's, Clovis, a Frankish king, ruled most of northern Gaul. He converted to Christianity during a battle. By the 600's, the Roman Catholic Church had succeeded in winning over many Germanic people who had moved into Rome's lands.

    Benedict set rules for monastic living; they were strict but made allowances for human frailty. Having a orderly, written set of rules led to monasteries being some of the best-governed communities, as well as the best educated.

    Gregory I expanded papal power; he governed Rome when the Byzantine emperor was too weak to protect it, signing a peace treaty with the Lombards. He used Church revenues to raise armies, repair roads, and relieve the poor. He also sent missionaries to England, and wrote two influential books.

    Gregory's actions as Pope showed a new view of the world, ignoring political divisions. 

    Clovis and his successors are known as the Merovingian dynasty. They lost power due to the fact that the sons of a king would divide the kingdom after his death. By 700, the power of the kings was almost nothing. The mayor of the palace held most of the power. In 714, it was held by Charles Martel, who expanded the power of the Franks and defeated a Muslim raiding party.

    After Charles' death, his son, Pepin the Short, took power. He wanted to be king in his own right, and so asked the pope to make him king. In 754, Pepin agreed to fight the Lombards on the pope's behalf; in return, Pope Stephen II anointed him with holy oil and made him "king by the grace of God".

    Pepin led an army into Italy and defeated the Lombards in many cities. He collected the keys to the cities and gave them to the pope; the popes became political rulers of scattered Italian lands known as the Papal states.

    Pepin died in 768 and left the kingdom to his son, Charles. He became known as Charlemagne in French. He was a great sportsman and warrior. Charlemagne led his armies against the enemies against his kingdom, conquering more land.

CREDITS: Patrick Loi    The pope asked for protection from the Lombards again; Charlemagne responded, defeating the Lombards, capturing their king, and taking over northern Italy.

    In 778, Charlemagne marched into Spain; the expedition failed. As they retreated, ambushers slaughtered the rear guard; among the dead was the leader, Count Roland. This became a Frankish legend, told in an epic poem called the Song of Roland.

    Charlemagne then defeated the Avars after seven years of warfare, and the Saxons for thirty until they surrendered. He forced the conquered to convert to Christianity by the threat of death.

    Charlemagne needed nobles to govern his kingdom, but needed to limit their power. The land was divided into counties, each ruled by a count. Charlemagne sent out Missi Dominici, or "emissaries of the master", to see that the counts ruled fairly and did not abuse their power. He also personally visited every part of his kingdom to keep things under control.

    Most of Charlemagne's power came from his position as a great landowner. Most of his wealth came from goods produced on the royal estates; it supported the court and paid for the working of the government.

    Charlemagne showed interest in learning; he recruited leading scholars and had his children learn to read and write. He ordered monasteries and cathedrals to open schools to train future monks and priests. Monasteries, while making copies of a book, developed a style of lettering known as Carolingian miniscule.

    The pope then made Charlemagne emperor; it angered the Byzantines and gave a precedent to popes giving the title of "Roman emperor", essentially a protector of Christendom.

    Charlemagne died in 814; his son, Louis the Pious, was a weak rules, and left three sons, Lothair, Charles the Bald, and Louis the German. They fought for the throne until 843, when they signed the Treaty of Verdun, dividing the empire into three kingdoms.

---------------------------------THE END! GOOD LUCK ON YOUR FINALS EVERYONE!-----------------------------------