chapter 1 anatomy & physiology 1

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 1 Anatomy & Physiology 1

Kathleen Cercone PT, PhDMartini Textbook

Call meDr. C.


1-2 Anatomy and Physiology • Anatomy

– Describes the structures of the body• What they are made of• Where they are located• Associated structures

• Physiology– Is the study of:

• Functions of anatomical structures• Individual and cooperative functions


1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy– Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy,

examines large, visible structures • Surface anatomy: exterior features • Regional anatomy: body areas and how structures work

together in an area such as the forearm• Systemic anatomy: organ systems• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death • Pathophysiology (disease)


1-3 Relationships between Anatomy and Physiology

• Physiology– Cell physiology: processes within and between

cells– Organ physiology: functions of specific organs– Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system– Pathological physiology: effects of diseases


Levels of Organization

• Smallest to largest:1. Atoms2. Molecules3. Macromolecules4. Organelles5. Cells6. Tissues7. Organs8. Systems9. Organism

How would you order these?

osteocytecalciumfemurbone tissueskeleton


Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 4).

Atoms in combination Complex protein molecule

Protein filaments

Chemical Level

Cellular Level

Heart musclecell



Cardiac muscletissue

Tissue LevelOrgan Level

Organ systemlevel

Organismlevel

The heart

Thecardiovascular

system



Major Organs• Skin• Hair• Sweat glands• Nails

Functions• Protects against

environmentalhazards

• Helps regulatebody temperature

• Provides sensoryinformation

Major Organs• Bones• Cartilages• Associated

ligaments• Bone marrow

Functions• Provides support

and protection forother tissues

• Stores calcium andother minerals

• Forms blood cells

Major Organs• Skeletal muscles

and associatedtendons

Functions• Provides

movement• Provides protection

and support forother tissues

• Generates heat thatmaintains bodytemperature

Major Organs• Brain• Spinal cord• Peripheral nerves• Sense organs

Major Organs• Pituitary gland• Thyroid gland• Pancreas• Adrenal glands• Gonads• Endocrine tissues in

other systems

Major Organs• Heart• Blood• Blood vessels

Functions• Directs immediate

responses tostimuli

• Coordinates ormoderatesactivities of otherorgan systems

• Provides andinterprets sensoryinformation aboutexternal conditions

Functions• Directs long-term

changes in theactivities of otherorgan systems

• Adjusts metabolicactivity and energyuse by the body

• Controls manystructural and functional changesduring development

Functions• Distributes blood

cells, water anddissolvedmaterialsincludingnutrients, wasteproducts,oxygen, andcarbon dioxide

• Distributes heatand assists incontrol of bodytemperature

CardiovascularEndocrineNervousMuscularSkeletalIntegumentary

THE ORGAN SYSTEMS


Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 4 of 4) .

Major Organs• Spleen• Thymus• Lymphatic

vessels• Lymph nodes• Tonsils

Lymphatic Respiratory Digestive Urinary Male Reproductive Female Reproductive

Major Organs• Nasal cavities• Sinuses• Larynx• Trachea• Bronchi• Lungs• Alveoli

Major Organs• Teeth• Tongue• Pharynx• Esophagus• Stomach• Small intestine• Large intestine• Liver• Gallbladder• Pancreas

Major Organs• Kidneys• Ureters• Urinary bladder• Urethra

Major Organs• Testes• Epididymides• Ductus deferentia• Seminal vesicles• Prostate gland• Penis• Scrotum

Major Organs• Ovaries• Uterine tubes• Uterus• Vagina• Labia• Clitoris• Mammary glands

Functions• Defends against

infection anddisease

• Returns tissuefluids to thebloodstream

Functions• Delivers air to

alveoli (sites inlungs where gasexchange occurs)

• Provides oxygen tobloodstream

• Removes carbondioxide frombloodstream

• Produces soundsfor communication

Functions• Processes and

digests food• Absorbs and

conserves water• Absorbs nutrients• Stores energy

reserves

Functions• Excretes waste

products from theblood

• Controls waterbalance byregulating volumeof urine produced

• Stores urine priorto voluntaryelimination

• Regulates bloodion concentrationsand pH

Functions• Produces male sex

cells (sperm),seminal fluids, andhormones

• Sexual intercourse

Functions• Produces female

sex cells (oocytes)and hormones

• Supports develop-ing embryo fromconception todelivery

• Provides milk tonourish newborninfant

• Sexual intercourse


1-5 Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is a key concept in biology and life.– The concept of homeostasis is the description for when the

internal conditions of living organisms remain stable (within a normal range), regardless of what is going on in the external environment.

– Homeostasis is the process used by the body to maintain a stable internal environment.

– What happens with disease in relation to homeostasis?


Homeostasis• Components of a homeostatic mechanism

• Receptor (sensor) – sensitive to environmental change• Control center (integration center) – processes

information from the receptor and sends out commands• Set point (desired value) – in the control center• Effector – responds to commands opposing stimulus


Normalconditionrestored

Normalconditiondisturbed

Sendscommands

to

Informationaffects

ThermometerAir conditionerturns on

RESPONSE:Room temperature

drops

STIMULUS:Room temperature

rises

EFFECTOR RECEPTOR

HOMEOSTASIS

Normal roomtemperature

CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat)

The setting on a thermostat establishesthe set point, or desired value, whichin this case is the temperature youselect. (In our example, the set point is22°C, or about 72°F.) The function of thethermostat is to keep room temperaturewithin acceptable limits, usually within adegree or so of the set point.

Features of homeostatic control mechanisms, as shown for themaintenance of room temperature

An example of Homeostasis and Negative Feedback in our homes


HOMEOSTASIS

EFFECTORS RECEPTORS

CONTROL CENTER

Homeostasisrestored

HomeostasisdisturbedAt normal body temperature

(set point: 37°C or 98.6°F),the temperature control

center is relatively inactive;superficial blood flow and

sweat gland activity areat normal levels.

Homeostasis and body temperature

Increased activity in thecontrol center targets twoeffectors: (1) smooth musclein the walls of blood vesselssupplying the skin and(2) sweat glands. The smoothmuscle relaxes and the bloodvessels dilate, increasingblood flow through vesselsnear the body surface; thesweat glands accelerate theirsecretion. The skin then actslike a radiator by losing heatto the environment, and theevaporation of sweat speedsthe process.

If body temperature risesabove 37.2°C (99°F), twosets of temperaturereceptors, one in the skinand the other within thebrain, send signals to thehomeostatic control center.

The temperature controlcenter receives informationfrom the two sets oftemperature receptors andsends commands to the effectors.

Start

The homeostatic control of body temperature, which involves anegative feedback loop

Figure 1.7 1


Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation


1-6 Negative Feedback• The Role of Negative Feedback

– The response of the effector negates the stimulus– Body is brought back into homeostasis

• Normal range is achieved

• When negative feedback occurs, the body senses that a certain level is too high or too low and acts so the level moves in the opposite direction

• If you remember it goes in the opposite direction you will know what feedback it is


• Positive feedback– Initial stimulus produces a response that

exaggerates or enhances the change in the original conditions

– Typically occurs when a potentially dangerous or stressful process must be completed quickly• Example: clotting mechanism

• Positive Feedback is the control mechanism in which the adjustment is made to “exaggerate and accelerate” the original change– Speed up the adjustment– Rare- only a few examples


Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting.

Chemicals Chemicals Blood clot

Clottingaccelerates

Positivefeedback

loop

Damaged cells in the bloodvessel wall release chemi-cals that begin the clottingprocess.

The chemicals start chainreactions in which cells,cell fragments, and solubleproteins in the blood beginto form a clot.

As clotting continues, eachstep releases chemicalsthat further accelerate theprocess.

This escalating processis a positive feedbackloop that ends with theformation of a blood clot,which patches the vesselwall and stops the bleeding.

Positive Feedback in Homeostasis


Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation.


The Language of Anatomy=LAB

This is NOT lectured on at all. You will do this material in lab. I have worksheets for lab. The lab book will be used in this lab as well.


Anatomical Terms

• Landmarks around the body create a map for orientation

• Based on Latin or Greek words used by ancient anatomists

• Many terms also were initially named after the discoverer or the most famous victim (diseases)• Most eponyms have been replaced by more

precise terms


Anatomical Landmarks (Surface Anatomy)


1-7 Anatomical Terminology• Superficial Anatomy

– Locating structures on or near the body surface• Anatomical Landmarks

– Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward

– Supine: lying down, face up– Prone: lying down, face down


Figure 1-7 Directional References.

Right Left

Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head) The head is superior to the knee.

ProximalToward an

attached baseThe shoulder isproximal to the

wrist.

Towardthe

midline

Awayfrom themidline

Proximal

MedialLateral

DistalAway from anattached baseThe fingers are

distal to thewrist.

Distal

Superficial

OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Deep

At, near, or relatively closeto the body surface

The skin is superficial tounderlying structures.

Toward the interior of thebody; farther from the surfaceThe bone of the thigh is deepto the surrounding skeletal

muscles.

CaudalToward the tail;

(coccyx inhumans)

The hips arecaudal to the

waist.

Posterior or Dorsal Anterior or VentralPosterior: The back

surfaceDorsal: The back.

(equivalent to posteriorwhen referring to the

human body)The scapula (shoulder

blade) is locatedposterior

to the rib cage.

Anterior: The frontsurface

Ventral: The bellyside. (equivalent to

anterior whenreferring to the human

body)The umbilicus (navel)

is on the anterior (or ventral)surface of the trunk.

Cranial or CephalicToward the head

The cranial, or cephalic, border ofthe pelvis is superior to the thigh.

Superior

The knee is inferior to the hip. InferiorInferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet

Lateral viewAnterior viewa b


Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes.

Frontal or coronalplane

Midsagittal plane

Plane is orientedparallel to long axis

A frontal, or coronal,section separatesanterior andposterior portions ofthe body. Coronalusually refers tosections passingthrough the skull.

Directional term:frontally or coronally

Frontal plane

Plane is oriented parallel tolong axis

Sagittal plane

Directional term: sagittally

A sagittal section separatesright and left portions. Youexamine a sagittal section,but you section sagittally.In a midsagittal section, theplane passes through themidline. It separates thebody into equal right andleft sides.A parasagittal sectionmisses the midline. Itseparates the body intounequal right and left sides.

Transverse plane(inferior view)

Transverse, orhorizontal, plane

Plane is orientedperpendicular to long axis

A transverse, or cross,section separatessuperior and inferiorportions of the body.

Directional term:transversely or horizontallyOblique


Frontal plane

Transverse plane

Sagittal plane

The major sectional planes


Anatomical Frames of Reference

body cavity – a fluid-filled internal chamber between the organs (viscera)

and body wall

• provides cushioning• permits change in size/shape (e.g GI

tract)• prevents friction


Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).

Umbilicalor navel

Abdominal(abdomen)

Trunk

Mammaryor breast

Thoracic orthorax, chest

Cervical or neck

Buccal or cheek

Otic or ear

Ocular, orbitalor eye

Nasal or noseFrontal or

forehead

Cranialor skull

Cephalic or head

Oral or mouthMental or chin

Axillary or armpit

Brachialor arm

Antecubitalor front of

elbow

Facialor face

Anterior viewa


Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).

a Anterior view

Pedalor foot

Femoralor thigh

Pubic(pubis)

Inguinalor groin

Manualor hand

Pelvic(pelvis)

Antebrachialor forearm

Carpal or wrist

Palmar or palm

Pollexor thumb

Patellaror kneecap

Digits(phalanges)

or fingers (digitalor phalangeal)

Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital or

phalangeal)

Cruralor leg

Tarsal orankle

Hallux orgreat toe

Trunk


Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).

Olecranalor back

of elbow

Upperlimb

Dorsal orback

Acromial orshoulder

Cephalicor head

Cervicalor neck

Posterior viewb


Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).

Posterior view

Lowerlimb

Plantar orsole of foot

Calcaneal orheal of foot

Suralor calf

Popliteal orback of knee

Glutealor buttock

Lumbaror loin Upper

limb

b


Body CavitiesDorsal = back side

Ventral = front side

Thoracic = chest (heart, trachea, lungs..)

Abdomen = stomach area (spleen, intestines)

Pelvic = lower abdomen (bladder, reproductive organs)

DIAPHRAGM: Separates the thoracic and pelvic region

SEROUS MEMBRANE - covers and surrounds organsSEROUS FLUID - lubricates organs


Superficial and regional anatomy• Abdominopelvic quadrants

• Imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect at navel• Used by clinicians to determine possible cause of

patient pains, aches, or injuries• Abdominopelvic regions

• Nine regions• Preferred by anatomists• Describe the precise location and orientation of

internal organs4 quadrants – for clinical description9 regions – for anatomical description


Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.

Right UpperQuadrant

(RUQ)

Right LowerQuadrant

(RLQ)

Left LowerQuadrant(LLQ)

Left UpperQuadrant(LUQ)

Abdominopelvic quadrants. The fourabdominopelvic quadrants are formed by twoperpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. Theterms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, aremost often used in clinical discussions.

a


Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.

Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvicregions provide more precise regional descriptions.

Left hypochondriacregion

Right hypochondriac

region

Left lumbarregion

Left inguinalregion

Right lumbarregion

Right inguinal

region

Epigastricregion

Umbilicalregion

Hypogastric(pubic)region

b


Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.

Anatomical relationships. The relationship betweenthe abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and thelocations of the internal organs are shown here.

Liver

Gallbladder

Large intestine

Small intestine

AppendixUrinarybladder

Spleen

Stomach

c


1-8 Body Cavities• Serous Membranes -

– Line body cavities and cover organs– Secretes fluid into body cavities (lubrication)– Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer

• Parietal layer — lines inner surface of body way• Visceral layer — covers surface of organ (viscera always

means “organ”)• A layer of serous fluid is found inbetween


• Serous Membrane - two layered, covers organsoOuter layer = parietalo Inner layer = visceral (lines the

organs)

• Serous fluid – lubricating fluid


Figure 1-9b Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.

Heart

Visceralpericardium

Parietalpericardium

Pericardialcavity

Air space

Balloon

The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushedinto a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wristof the hand, lies at the connection between the heart andmajor blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity isexaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layersare separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid.

Your organs move with your body, and this makes serousMembranes very important.

b


Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes

Thoracic Cavity Pericardial Cavity

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Visceral Pleura Visceral Pericardium

Visceral Peritoneum

Pleural Cavity Pericardial Cavity Peritoneal Cavity

Parietal Pleura Parietal Pericardium

Parietal Peritoneum


1-8 Body CavitiesThe Thoracic Cavity: superior to diaphragm; enclosed in the ribcage (anterior)

Right and left pleural cavitiesContain right and left lungs ( have serous membranes)

MediastinumUpper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymusLower portion contains pericardial cavity

The heart is located within the pericardial cavity- serous membranes


Body cavities

• Viscera• Internal organs partially or totally enclosed by body

cavities• Connected to rest of body• Example: pericardial cavity

• Pericardium (peri-, around + cardium, heart)• Delicate serous membrane lining the pericardial

cavity• Secretes watery fluid that keeps surfaces moist and

reduces friction• Permits heart to change size and shape when beating


The body cavities:the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity

BODY CAVITIES

THORACIC CAVITY

The diaphragm,a muscular sheet,

separates the thoraciccavity from theabdominopelvic

cavity.

THORACIC CAVITY

ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

A horizontal section through thethoracic cavity shows the relationshipbetween the subdivisions of theventral body cavity in this region.

Each lung is enclosed within a pleural cavity, linedby a shiny, slippery serous membrane called thepleura (PLOO-ra).

The pericardial cavity is embedded within themediastinum, a mass of connective tissue thatseparates the two pleural cavities and stabilizes thepositions of embedded organs and blood vessels.

Note theorientation ofthe section.Unless otherwisenoted, all crosssections areshown as if theviewer werestanding at thefeet of a supineperson andlooking towardthe head.

Heart in pericardial

cavityRight lung

in rightpleural cavity

Left lungin left

pleural cavity

During development, theportion of the original ventralbody cavity extending intothe abdominopelvic cavityremains intact as theperitoneal (per-i-tō-NĒ-al)cavity, a chamber lined bya serous membrane knownas the peritoneum(per-i-tō-NĒ-um). A feworgans, such as the kidneysand pancreas, lie betweenthe peritoneal lining and themuscular wall of theabdominal cavity. Thoseorgans are said to beretroperitoneal (re-trō-per-i-tō-NĒ-al; retro, behind).

DiaphragmPeritoneum (red)

showing the boundariesof the peritoneal cavity

The abdominal cavitycontains many digestive

glands and organsRetroperitoneal areaThe pelvic cavity contains

the urinary bladder,reproductive organs, and

the last portion of thedigestive tract; many of

these structures lieposterior to, or inferior to,

the peritoneal cavity.

ABDOMINOPELVICCAVITY


1-8 Body Cavities• The Abdominopelvic Cavity

– Abdominal cavity — superior portion• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones• Contains digestive organs• Retroperitoneal space

– Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall

– Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract

– Pelvic cavity — inferior portion• Within pelvic bones• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder


Terms you need to know:• Superior (cranial)• Inferior (caudal)• Ventral (anterior)• Dorsal (posterior)• Medial• Lateral• Intermediate• Proximal• Distal• Superficial (external)• Deep (internal)

• Axial• Appendicular• Saggital plane

– Midsaggital/median– Parasaggital

• Frontal (coronal) plane

• Transverse (horizontal) plane

• Oblique section

chapter 1 anatomy & physiology 1

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