chapter 01 lecture notes
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Introduction to Anatomy and PhysiologyTRANSCRIPT
9/21/2011
1
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by
Jason LaPres
Lone Star College—North Harris
1An Introduction to
Anatomy and
Physiology
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
• Learning Outcomes
• 1-1 Explain the importance of studying anatomy and
physiology.
• 1-2 Identify basic study skill strategies to use in this
course.
• 1-3 Define anatomy and physiology, describe the
origins of anatomical and physiological terms,
and explain the significance of Terminologia
Anatomica (International Anatomical
Terminology).
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
• Learning Outcomes
• 1-4 Explain the relationship between anatomy and
physiology, and describe various specialties of
each discipline.
• 1-5 Identify the major levels of organization in
organisms, from the simplest to the most
complex, and identify major components of each
organ system.
• 1-6 Explain the concept of homeostasis.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
• Learning Outcomes
• 1-7 Describe how negative feedback and positive
feedback are involved in homeostatic regulation,
and explain the significance of homeostasis.
• 1-8 Use anatomical terms to describe body
sections, body regions, and relative positions.
• 1-9 Identify the major body cavities and their
subdivisions, and describe the functions of each.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to Studying the Human Body
• Classification of Living Things
• Humans and many other animals are vertebrates
• Characterized by a segmented vertebral column
• Common characteristics suggest the same path in
evolution
• Homeostasis
• The goal of physiological regulation and the key to
survival in a changing environment
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1-1 Anatomy and Physiology Directly Affect
Your Life
• Anatomy
• Is the oldest medical science
• 1600 B.C.
• Physiology
• Is the study of function
• Biochemistry
• Biology
• Chemistry
• Genetics
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1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success
• Study Strategies
• Attend all lectures, labs, and study sessions
• Read your lecture and laboratory assignments before going to class or lab
• Devote a block of time each day to your A&P course
• Set up a study schedule and stick to it
• Do not procrastinate
• Approach the information in different ways
• Develop the skill of memorization, and practice it regularly
• As soon as you experience difficulty with the course, seek assistance
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success
• Learning Outcomes
• Illustrations, Tables,
and Photos
• Pronunciation Guides
• Checkpoint Questions
• Tips & Tricks
• Clinical Notes
• Arrow Icons
• End-of-Chapter Study
and Review Materials
• Systems Integrators
• Colored Tabs
• End-of-Book
Reference Sections
• Important Features of the Textbook
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1-2 Good Study Strategies Crucial for Success
• Supplements
• Practice Anatomy Lab™ (PAL™) 3.0 DVD
• MasteringA&P™ Study Area
• Interactive Physiology® 10-System Suite (IP-10) CD-ROM
• Martini’s Atlas of the Human Body
• Get Ready for A&P!
• A&P Applications Manual
• Study Guide
• Full descriptions in preface of textbook
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1-3 Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy
• Describes the structures of the body
• What they are made of
• Where they are located
• Associated structures
• Physiology
• Is the study of:
• Functions of anatomical structures
• Individual and cooperative functions
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1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
• Anatomy
• Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines
large, visible structures
• Surface anatomy: exterior features
• Regional anatomy: body areas
• Systemic anatomy: organ systems
• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death
• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
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1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
• Anatomy
• Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules
• Cytology: study of cells and their structures
• cyt- = cell
• Histology: study of tissues and their structures
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1-4 Relationships between Anatomy and
Physiology
• Physiology
• Cell physiology: processes within and between cells
• Organ physiology: functions of specific organs
• Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system
• Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Chemical (or Molecular) Level
• Atoms are the smallest chemical units
• Molecules are a group of atoms working together
• The Cellular Level
• Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working
together
• The Tissue Level
• A tissue is a group of similar cells working together
• The Organ Level
• An organ is a group of different tissues working together
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ System Level
• An organ system is a group of organs working together
• Humans have 11 organ systems
• The Organism Level
• A human is an organism
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization
Chemical and Molecular Levels
Cellular Level
Atoms in combination
Complex protein moleculeProtein filaments
Heart musclecell
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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization
Tissue LevelOrgan Level
Cardiac muscletissue
The heart
Thecardiovascular
system
Organ system
level
Organism
level
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Integumentary
• Major Organs
• Skin
• Hair
• Sweat glands
• Nails
• Functions
• Protects against environmental hazards
• Helps regulate body temperature
• Provides sensory information
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Skeletal
• Major Organs
• Bones
• Cartilages
• Associated ligaments
• Bone marrow
• Functions
• Provides support and protection for other tissues
• Stores calcium and other minerals
• Forms blood cells
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Muscular
• Major Organs
• Skeletal muscles and associated tendons
• Functions
• Provides movement
• Provides protection and support for other
tissues
• Generates heat that maintains body
temperature
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Nervous
• Major Organs
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nerves
• Sense organs
• Functions
• Directs immediate responses to stimuli
• Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems
• Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions
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• The Organ Systems
• Endocrine
• Major Organs
• Pituitary gland
• Pancreas
• Gonads
• Endocrine tissues in other systems
• Functions
• Directs long-term changes in the activities of
other organ systems
• Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body
• Controls many structural and functional changes during
development
• Thyroid gland
• Adrenal glands
1-5 Levels of Organization
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Cardiovascular
• Major Organs
• Heart
• Blood
• Blood vessels
• Functions
• Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved
materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
• Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Lymphatic
• Major Organs
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Lymphatic vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
• Functions
• Defends against infection and disease
• Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Respiratory
• Major Organs
• Nasal cavities
• Sinuses
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
• Alveoli
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Respiratory
• Functions
• Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where
gas exchange occurs)
• Provides oxygen to bloodstream
• Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream
• Produces sounds for communication
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Digestive
• Major Organs
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Digestive
• Functions
• Processes and digests food
• Absorbs and conserves water
• Absorbs nutrients
• Stores energy reserves
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Urinary
• Major Organs
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
• Functions
• Excretes waste products from the blood
• Controls water balance by regulating volume of
urine produced
• Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination
• Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Male Reproductive
• Major Organs
• Testes
• Epididymides
• Ductus deferentia
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Penis
• Scrotum
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Male Reproductive
• Functions
• Produces male sex cells (sperm),
suspending fluids, and hormones
• Sexual intercourse
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Female Reproductive
• Major Organs
• Ovaries
• Uterine tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina
• Labia
• Clitoris
• Mammary glands
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1-5 Levels of Organization
• The Organ Systems
• Female Reproductive
• Functions
• Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and
hormones
• Supports developing embryo from
conception to delivery
• Provides milk to nourish newborn infant
• Sexual intercourse
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1-6 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis
• All body systems working together to maintain a
stable internal environment
• Systems respond to external and internal changes
to function within a normal range (body
temperature, fluid balance)
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1-6 Homeostasis
• Mechanisms of Regulation
• Autoregulation (intrinsic)
• Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some
environmental change
• Extrinsic regulation
• Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine
systems
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1-6 Homeostasis
• Receptor
• Receives the stimulus
• Control center
• Processes the signal and sends instructions
• Effector
• Carries out instructions
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Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature
Normal
condition
disturbed
Information
affects
RECEPTOR
Thermometer
HOMEOSTASIS
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
rises
Normal room
temperature
RESPONSE:
Room temperature
drops
CONTROL CENTER
(Thermostat)
Normal
condition
restored
EFFECTOR
Air conditioner
turns on
Sends
commands
to
20°°°° 30°°°° 40°°°°In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat(the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air condi-tioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case,when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostatturns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal.
With this regulatory system, roomtemperature fluctuates around theset point.
Airconditioner
turns on
Airconditioner
turns off
TimeR
oo
m t
em
pera
ture
(
°°°°C)22
Normalrange
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1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback
• The Role of Negative Feedback
• The response of the effector negates the stimulus
• Body is brought back into homeostasis
• Normal range is achieved
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Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature
Normal
temperature
disturbed
Information
affects
RECEPTORS
Temperaturesensors in skin
andhypothalamus
HOMEOSTASIS
STIMULUS:
Body temperature
rises
Normal body
temperatureRESPONSE:
Increased heat loss,
body temperature
drops
CONTROL
CENTER
Normal
temperature
restored
EFFECTORS
• Sweat glandsin skin increasesecretion
• Blood vesselsin skin dilate
Sends
commands
to
Events in the regulation of body temperature, which arecomparable to those shown in Figure 1−−−−2. A control centerin the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostatwith a set point of 37°°°°C. If body temperature exceeds37.2°°°°C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flowto the skin and increased sweating.
The thermoregulatory center keepsbody temperature fluctuatingwithin an acceptable range, usuallybetween 36.7 and 37.2°°°°C.
Vessels
dilate,
sweating
increases
Vessels
constrict,
sweating
decreases
TimeBo
dy
te
mp
era
ture
(
°°°°C)
37.2Normalrange37
36.7
Thermoregulatory
center in brain
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1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback
• The Role of Positive Feedback
• The response of the effector increases change of the
stimulus
• Body is moved away from homeostasis
• Normal range is lost
• Used to speed up processes
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Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting
Clottingaccelerates
Positivefeedback
loop
Blood clotChemicals
This escalating process
is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood clot,
which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.
As clotting continues,
each step releases
chemicals that further
accelerate the process.
The chemicals start chain
reactions in which cells,
cell fragments, and
soluble proteins in the
blood begin to form a clot.
Damage to cells in the
blood vessel wall releases
chemicals that begin the
process of blood clotting.
Chemicals
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1-7 Negative and Positive Feedback
• Systems Integration
• Systems work together to maintain homeostasis
• Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium
• Opposing forces are in balance
• Dynamic equilibrium — continual adaptation
• Physiological systems work to restore balance
• Failure results in disease or death
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Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation
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1-8 Anatomical Terminology
• Superficial Anatomy
• Locating structures on or near the body surface
• Anatomical Landmarks
• Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward
• Supine: lying down, face up
• Prone: lying down, face down
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1-8 Anatomical Terminology
• Superficial Anatomy
• Anatomical Landmarks
• References to palpable structures
• Anatomical Regions
• Body regions
• Abdominopelvic quadrants
• Abdominopelvic regions
• Anatomical Directions
• Reference terms based on subject
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks
Cephalic or head
Frontal or
forehead
Cranialor skull
Facialor face
Oral or mouth
Mental or chin
Axillary or armpit
Brachialor arm
Antecubitalor front of
elbow
Umbilicalor navel
TrunkAbdominal(abdomen)
Mammaryor breast
Thoracic orthorax, chest
Cervical or neck
Buccal or cheek
Otic or ear
Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbitalor eye
Anterior view
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Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks
Antebrachialor forearm
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Pollexor thumb
Digits(phalanges)
or fingers (digitalor phalangeal)Patellar
or kneecap
Cruralor leg
Digits (phalanges)or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Tarsal orankle
Anterior view
Hallux orgreat toe
Pedalor foot
Femoralor thigh
Pubic(pubis)
Inguinalor groin
Manualor hand
Pelvic(pelvis)
Trunk
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks
Acromial orshoulder
Olecranalor back
of elbow
Dorsal orback
Upperlimb
Cervicalor neck
Cephalicor head
Posterior view
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks
Posterior view
Lumbaror loin
Glutealor buttock
Popliteal orback of knee
Suralor calf
Calcaneal orheel of foot
Plantar orsole of foot
Lower limb
Upperlimb
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Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four
abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by twoperpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The
terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations,
are most often used in clinical discussions.
Right UpperQuadrant
(RUQ)
Right LowerQuadrant
(RLQ)
Left UpperQuadrant(LUQ)
Left LowerQuadrant(LLQ)
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Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Righthypochondriac
region
Right lumbarregion
Rightinguinal
region
Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic
regions provide more precise regional descriptions.
Left hypochondriacregion
Left lumbarregion
Left inguinalregion
Epigastricregion
Umbilicalregion
Hypogastric(pubic)region
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Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions
Stomach
Spleen
Urinarybladder
Liver
Gallbladder
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Anatomical relationships. The relationship between
the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and thelocations of the internal organs are shown here.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1-7 Directional References
Cranial
Posterioror dorsal
Anterioror ventral
Caudal
A lateral view.
Superior Right Left
Lateral
Proximal
Medial
Proximal
Distal
DistalInferior
An anterior view. Arrowsindicate important directionalterms used in this text;definitions and descriptions
are given in Table 1−−−−2.© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 1-2 Directional Terms
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1-8 Anatomical Terminology
• Sectional Anatomy
• Planes and sections
• Plane: a three-dimensional axis
• Section: a slice parallel to a plane
• Used to visualize internal organization and structure
• Important in radiological techniques
• MRI
• PET
• CT
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Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes
Frontal plane
Transverse plane
Sagittal plane
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Table 1-3 Terms That Indicate Sectional Planes
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1-9 Body Cavities
• Essential Functions of Body Cavities
1. Protect organs from accidental shocks
2. Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs
• Ventral body cavity (coelom)
• Divided by the diaphragm
• Thoracic cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity
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Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity
• Provides protection• Allows organ movement• Linings prevent friction
Ventral Body Cavity
Thoracic Cavity
Surrounded by chest wall anddiaphragm
Surrounds right lung Contains thetrachea, esophagus,and major vessels
MediastinumRight Pleural Cavity
Peritoneal Cavity
Surrounds left lung
Subdivides during development into
Surrounds heart
Pericardial Cavity
Contains many digestive glandsand organs
Abdominal Cavity
Abdominopelvic Cavity
Extendsthroughoutabdominal cavityand into superiorportion of pelviccavity
Pelvic Cavity
Contains urinarybladder,reproductiveorgans, lastportion ofdigestive tract
Left Pleural Cavity
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1-9 Body Cavities
• Serous Membranes
• Line body cavities and cover organs
• Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer
• Parietal layer — lines cavity
• Visceral layer — covers organ
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1-9 Body Cavities
• The Thoracic Cavity
• Right and left pleural cavities
• Contain right and left lungs
• Mediastinum
• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,
esophagus, and thymus
• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
• The heart is located within the pericardial cavity
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Figure 1-10a The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions
POSTERIOR ANTERIOR
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Peritoneal
cavity
Abdominal
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominopelvic
cavity
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Figure 1-10b The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions
Visceralpericardium
Pericardialcavity
Parietalpericardium
Heart Air space
Balloon
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Figure 1-10c The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions
Spinal cord
Mediastinum
Parietalpleura
Pleural cavity
Pericardialcavity
Right lung
POSTERIOR
Left lung
ANTERIOR
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1-9 Body Cavities
• The Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Peritoneal cavity: chamber within abdominopelvic
cavity
• Parietal peritoneum: lines the internal body wall
• Visceral peritoneum: covers the organs
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1-9 Body Cavities
• The Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Abdominal cavity — superior portion
• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones
• Contains digestive organs
• Retroperitoneal space
• Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular
body wall
• Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the
digestive tract