ch. 26 phylogeny and the tree of life€¦ · phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or...

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1 Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life

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Page 1: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Ch. 26Phylogeny and The Tree of Life

Page 2: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Essential Question:

How do we relate the information of evolution to the classification of organisms?

Page 3: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of species

Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships

molecular systematics looks at molecular sequences

Page 4: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Classification Schemes

• Aristotle ­ Plants and animals

• Carolus Linnaeus ­ Binomial         Nomenclature

genus & speciesEx. Homo sapiens = "wise man"

Page 5: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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• In 1969, R.H Whittaker argued for a five­kingdom system: Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia.

Page 6: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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• Three kingdoms of multicellular eukaryotes were distinguished by nutrition, in part.­Plant are autotrophic, making organic food by photosynthesis.­Most fungi are decomposers with extracellular digestion.­Most animals digest food within specialized cavities.

• Protista consisted of all eukaryotes that did not fit the definition of plants, fungi, or animals.

• The five­kingdom system prevailed in biology for over 20 years.

• three­domain system: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya, as superkingdoms.

Page 7: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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• taxonomy at the highest level is a work in progress.

• There will be much more research before there is anything close to a new consensus for how the three domains of life are related and how many kingdoms there are.

• New data will undoubtedly lead to further taxonomic modeling.

• Keep in mind that phylogenetic trees and taxonomic groupings are hypotheses that fit the best available data.

Page 8: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Systematics = the study of biological diversity in an evolutionary context

­includes taxonomy ­ naming and classification of  species and groups of species

Carolus Linnaeus ­ father of binomial nomenclaturegenus, species  Ex Homo sapiens

Hierarchical classification:DomainKingdomPhylumClass Order Family Genus Species

Page 9: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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taxon = taxonomic unit at any level

can make phylogenic trees (branching diagram of evolutionary history)

Page 10: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Phylogenic systematics = classification based on evolutionary history

based on:a. fossil evidenceb. DNA evidence

Types:PhyloCode ­ Classification only names groups that include   

a common ancestor and all of its descendentsCladograms ­ based on dichotomies

­each branch is a clade ­ all ancestral species and    all of its descendents (monophyletic)

Page 11: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Phylogenic trees ­ what they do and do not tell us

1. doesn't indicate actual ages of a particular species

2. Cannot assume that a taxon on a tree evolved from the one next to it

3. Do allow scientists to can identify close relatives if have DNA data.

4. Used to tell strain of anthrax used in bioterrorism attacks

Page 12: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Phylogenies can be inferred from morphological and molecular data

Ex. homologous structures

Problems come with analogous structures Ex. bats and birds ­ bats more closely related to a cat than a bird

but have a common ancestor ­ a tetrapod that couldn't fly

Homoplasies ­ Analogous structures that arose independently

Page 13: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Aligning segments of DNA

Evaluating Molecular Homologies

1. DNA segments are aligned

2. Deletion and insertion mutations shift sequences

3. two shaded regions do not align due to mutations

4. homologous regions realign after computer adds gaps in sequence 1

Page 14: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Shared Characters to construct phylogenic trees

Cladistics ­ An approach to systematics in which organisms are placed into groups called clades based on common descent

Page 15: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Monophyletic vs. paraphyletic vs. polyphyletic

monophyletic ­ consists of an ancestral species and all its descendentsParaphyletic ­consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all, of its descendentsPolyphyletic ­ inclueds taxa with different ancestors

Page 16: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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How cladograms are made

a.look at homology­­exception ­ can't look at convergent evolution species (species from different evolutionary branches that   resemble each other due to similar ecological roles and 

     natural selection ­ have analogous adaptations)

­the greater homology between species the closer related         they tend to be

­the more comlex two similar structures are, the less likely    they evolved separately

Page 17: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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convergent evolution and analogous structures

Page 18: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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b. shared derived characters (feature of a particular taxon)­shared primitive character ­ a character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon

Ex. vertebral column­shared derived character ­ novelty unique to a particular  clade

Ex. Hair of mammal   

Page 19: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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c. using an outgroup (species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species being studied­ an ingroup)

­cladograms show relationships, not necessarily chronologic data

Page 20: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Branch lengths can indicate relative amounts of genetic change

Above phylogenic tree represents compared sequences of a homologous gene that plays a role in development

Branch lengths = amount of genetic change

Page 21: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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d. use Parsimony­ "nature should be simple" ­ smallest number of evolutionary changes

Page 22: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Maximum Parisimony­ A principle that states that when considering multiple explanations for an observation, one should first investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts.

ex. in trees based on morphology ­ the most parsiminous tree requires the fewest evolutionary events

Ex. for DNA based trees ­ the most parsiminous tree requires the fewest base changes

Page 23: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Maximum Likelihood ­ principle ­ when considering multiple phylogenic hypotheses, one should take into account the hypothesis that reflects the most likely sequence of evolutionary events, given certain rules about how DNA changes over time.

Page 24: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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An organism's evolutionary history is documented in its genome

­different genes evolve at different ratesEx. can use mitochondrial DNA to look at recent   evolutionary events because it evolves relatively rapidly.

orthologous genes ­ homlogous genes that are found in different species because of speciation

Ex. Cytochrome c in ETC in humans and dogsparalogous genes ­ result from gene duplication ­ found as more than one copy in genome

Page 25: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Page 26: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Molecular clocks can be used to relate taxonomic groups

­are timing methods based on observation that at least  some regions of genomes evolve at constant rates

  ex. # of nucleotide and amino acid substitutions is         proportional to the time that has elapsed since the         lineages branched

Page 27: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Has been used to date when HIV­1 M invaded humans from primates (1930's)

Page 28: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Modern systematics is shaking some phylogenic trees

Page 29: Ch. 26 Phylogeny and The Tree of Life€¦ · Phylogeny = the evolutionary history of a species or groups of ... Systematics = classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary

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Three domains ­ based on rRNA gene sequences