ceilings and floors: gender wage gaps by education in spain sara de la rica *, juan j. dolado * *...
TRANSCRIPT
CEILINGS AND FLOORS: CEILINGS AND FLOORS: GENDER WAGE GAPS BY GENDER WAGE GAPS BY
EDUCATION IN SPAINEDUCATION IN SPAIN
Sara de la Rica Sara de la Rica **, Juan J. Dolado, Juan J. Dolado* ** *
& Vanesa Llorens& Vanesa Llorens** *** *
(*) UPV & IZA(**) UCIII & CEPR & IZA(***) LECG
Motivation
• Gender wage gaps: ln(Wm/Wf)(Wm- Wf)/ Wf
• Traditional: At the mean vs. New: At the quantiles
• Recent evidence about Glass Ceilings in Sweden (Albrecht et al., 2003)
• Southern vs. Central & Northern Europe
Figure 1b. Aggregate Gender Wage Gap Sweden 1999
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Quantiles
Ln W
age
Men
- L
n W
age
Wom
en
Gap per quintiles Average gap
Figure 1a. Aggregate Gender Wage Gap Spain 1999
0
5
10
15
20
25
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Quantiles
Ln
Wa
ge
Me
n -
Ln
Wa
ge
W
om
en
Gap per quintiles Average gap
Figure 1c. Gender Wage Gap by Education H-group Spain 1999
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Quantiles
Ln
Wa
ge
Me
n -
Ln
Wa
ge
W
om
en
Gap per quintiles Average gap
Figure 1d. Gender Wage Gap by Education L-group Spain 1999
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Quantiles
Ln
Wa
ge
Me
n -
Ln
Wa
ge
W
om
en
Gap per quintiles Average gap
Figure 2a. Gender Wage Gap by Education Denmark 1999
-0.10
-0.05
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Quantiles
Ln W
age
Men
- L
n W
age
Wom
en
Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers
Figure 2b. Gender Wage Gap by Education United Kingdom 1999
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Quantiles
Ln W
age
Men
- L
n W
age
Wom
en
Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers
Figure 2d. Gender Wage Gap by Education Italy 1999
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Quantiles
Ln W
age
Men
- L
n W
age
Wom
en
Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers
Figure 2c. Gender Wage Gap by Education Greece 1999
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Quantiles
Ln W
age
Men
- L
n W
age
Wom
en
Wage gap low educated w orkers Wage gap highly educated w orkers
• Composition effect by EducationGlass Ceiling (H-Group): High female
participation rate (80% vs 85%) Lower job stability (Lazear and Rosen, 1990) leads to lower promotion opportunities and higher wages (PUZZLE)
Glass Floor (L-Group): Low female participation rate (48% vs 68%) Statistical discrimination at the bottom of the wage distribution
INTERPRETATIVE MODELS• L-Group
Ability for men and women: , c.d.f. G()Need of training in period 1 (2 periods)Productivity: 1, 0< 1 <1 (period 1), 2 , 1 < 1< 2 (period
2)Firms know at the begining of period 2Workers receive a disutility shock with c.d.f. F() after
wages in period 1 & 2, Wi (i=1,2) are chosen by the firm. Workers do not quit if Wi - 0.
No wage renegotiation nor outside wage offers (monopsony)Fm()>Ff()
G()= U[0,]; fm() =U[0,m]; ff() =U[0,f]; f> m
mfiWWW
dFWW
i
i
i
i
i
i
W
W
iii
i
W i
i
i
, ,max)()(max2
2221
0
221
2
2
2
*2
*2
2*2 ),,(
22 fmi mfiWPeriod
1 Period
)(]()([)()( 1
0
1
0
1
0
*2
1
dGdFWdGW ii
W
iiW
244
2221*
1
024
222*
1*
1 mffm
fm WW
• H-Group (Lazear and Rosen, 1990)A model of job ladders: A (no training), B (training)A: , ; B: 1 , 2 Firms pay competitive wages in period 2: WA
2= , WB
2= 2 Cut-off points to allocate to B: *
f> *mLess women
are promoted but conditional on being promoted they should be earn higher wages
Explanations:(i) Different ability distribution (Mincer and Polacheck, 1974), (ii) Different outside offers (Booth et.al., 2003), (iii) Different competing skills (Gneezy et al., 2003, Babcock and Laschever, 2003)
iiiiii xxwQuxw '
'
• Data–ECHP (1999)
–H-Group: 721 (Men), 558 (Women)
–L-Group: 1585 (Men), 626 (Women)
• Quantile Regressions (QR) Buchinsky (1998), Koenker and Basset (1978)
Covariates-Exp (age), marital st., tenure, children age,Sec. Edn (L-W) , type of contract, immigrant, public, firm size, supervisory role, region, size local council, occupations.
Table 1a Descriptive statistics
H-group ( Spain, 1999) Men Women Average St. dev Average St. dev N. observations 721 558 Age 37.61 10.34 35.78 9.49 Children 0-11 0.44 0.77 0.28 0.45 Children 12-16 0.22 0.50 0.13 0.33 Age Groups 17 to 24 0.07 0.26 0.09 0.28 25 to 34 0.37 0.48 0.45 0.50 35 to 44 0.31 0.46 0.28 0.45 45 0.25 0.43 0.19 0.39 Married 0.62 0.49 0.55 0.50 Immigrant 0.003 0.05 0.01 0.07 Weekly hours 41.22 6.54 38.31 5.94 Ln (gross hourly wage) 7.28 0.55 7.18 0.50 Experience 14.78 10.40 12.68 9.71 Occupation OC1 0.05 0.23 0.02 0.13 OC2 0.14 0.35 0.16 0.36 OC3 0.11 0.32 0.25 0.43 OC4 0.09 0.28 0.09 0.29 OC5 0.09 0.29 0.05 0.22 OC6 0.09 0.28 0.13 0.34 OC7 0.10 0.29 0.19 0.39 OC8 0.05 0.21 0.05 0.22 OC9 0.02 0.15 0.03 0.18 OC10 0.01 0.07 0.00 0.00 OC11 0.07 0.25 0.00 0.04 OC12 0.08 0.27 0.00 0.04 OC13 0.07 0.25 0.01 0.12 OC14 0.02 0.13 0.01 0.11 OC15 0.02 0.12 0.01 0.08 Firm Size 1-4 employees 0.07 0.26 0.10 0.31 5-19 employees 0.21 0.41 0.22 0.41 20-49 employees 0.17 0.38 0.21 0.40 50-99 employees 0.13 0.33 0.10 0.30 100-499 employees 0.18 0.39 0.14 0.35 > 500 employees 0.24 0.43 0.23 0.42 Public sector 0.35 0.48 0.51 0.50 Supervisory role Directive 0.16 0.37 0.06 0.24 Supervisor 0.27 0.45 0.25 0.43 W/o responsibility 0.56 0.50 0.69 0.46 Tenure 8.32 7.61 7.65 7.35 Permanent contract 0.80 0.40 0.73 0.44
Table 1b Descriptive statistics
L-group ( Spain, 1999) Men Women Average St. dev Average St. dev N. observations 1585 626 Age 37.89 11.31 36.19 11.33 Children 0-11 0.30 0.46 0.21 0.41 Children 12-16 0.16 0.37 0.17 0.38 Age Groups 17 to 24 0.13 0.33 0.18 0.38 25 to 34 0.31 0.46 0.32 0.47 35 to 44 0.25 0.43 0.23 0.42 45 0.31 0.46 0.27 0.45 Married 0.68 0.47 0.53 0.50 Immigrant 0.004 0.07 0.01 0.08 Secondary ed. 0.29 0.46 0.38 0.49 Weekly hours 42.64 6.19 40.36 5.74 Ln (gross hourly wage) 6.86 0.41 6.63 0.47 Experience 20.77 12.41 16.78 11.85 Occupation OC1 0.02 0.14 0.01 0.11 OC2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 OC3 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.04 OC4 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.07 OC5 0.02 0.13 0.02 0.14 OC6 0.05 0.21 0.06 0.24 OC7 0.07 0.25 0.18 0.38 OC8 0.08 0.28 0.18 0.38 OC9 0.04 0.20 0.13 0.33 OC10 0.02 0.15 0.01 0.10 OC11 0.22 0.42 0.08 0.27 OC12 0.10 0.30 0.01 0.10 OC13 0.20 0.40 0.06 0.24 OC14 0.05 0.21 0.20 0.40 OC15 0.13 0.33 0.06 0.24 Firm Size 1-4 employees 0.18 0.38 0.22 0.42 5-19 employees 0.31 0.46 0.25 0.44 20-49 employees 0.16 0.37 0.16 0.37 50-99 employees 0.10 0.30 0.11 0.31 100-499 employees 0.12 0.33 0.14 0.35 > 500 employees 0.12 0.33 0.11 0.32 Public sector 0.13 0.34 0.18 0.38 Supervisory role Directive 0.05 0.23 0.03 0.16 Supervisor 0.16 0.36 0.08 0.28 W/o responsibility 0.79 0.41 0.89 0.31 Tenure 7.27 7.75 6.41 7.28 Permanent contract 0.64 0.48 0.60 0.49
Table 1c. Experience and Tenure throughout the Wage Distribution
(Spain,1999)
Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90
MEN (H) Experience 14.7 2.1 6.3 13.4 22.2 29.3
Tenure 8.3 0.4 1.2 6.2 16.0 20.4 WOMEN (H) Experience 12.7 2.0 5.1 10.2 19.1 27.3 Tenure 7.6 0.6 1.2 5.0 14.2 20.1 MEN (L)
Experience 21.1 5.2 11.3 20.2 31.1 38.2 Tenure 7.3 0.5 1.2 3.4 15.0 20.3
WOMEN (L) Experience 16.9 2.2 7.2 15.3 26.2 34.3
Tenure 6.4 0.2 0.8 3.0 11.2 19.8
Table 2a. OLS and QR
H-group ( Spain, 1999)
Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage
MEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90
Experience 0.020*** 0.012 0.016** 0.017** 0.021 0.032***
(0.006) (0.008) (0.007) (0.007) (0.009) (0.010)
Experience2 -0.0003* -0.0002 -0.0002 -0.0002 -0.00002 -0.0003
(0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002)
Exp*Children 0.0025 0.0035 0.0033 0.0027 0.0024 0.0009
(0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003)
Immigrant -0.080 -0.007 -0.139 0.056 -0.160 -0.205
(0.183) (0.334) (0.269) (0.189) (0.195) (0.207)
Public sector 0.085** 0.080 0.094* 0.068 0.070 0.109**
(0.034) (0.070) (0.051) (0.050) (0.052) (0.055)
Permanent contract 0.074* 0.131** 0.141*** 0.081 0.034 0.109*
(0.039) (0.058) (0.053) (0.049) (0.056) (0.062)
Supervisory role
Directive 0.320*** 0.164* 0.252*** 0.298*** 0.388*** 0.510***
(0.051) (0.085) (0.072) (0.066) (0.095) (0.091)
Supervisor 0.090*** 0.005 0.066* 0.107*** 0.123*** 0.148***
(0.030) (0.046) (0.039) (0.038) (0.045) (0.054)
Tenure 0.016*** 0.022*** 0.020*** 0.017** 0.012 0.011
(0.004) (0.006) (0.006) (0.007) (0.009) (0.011)
Married 0.071* 0.118** 0.030 0.032 0.070 0.049
(0.039) (0.056) (0.049) (0.045) (0.061) (0.072)
Firm size
5-19 employees -0.090 0.005 -0.067 -0.087 -0.153 -0.210
(0.067) (0.114) (0.073) (0.082) (0.111) (0.136)
20-49 employees -0.044 0.076 0.042 0.020 -0.096 -0.232**
(0.065) (0.116) (0.085) (0.077) (0.094) (0.113)
50-99 employees 0.043 0.191 0.124 0.060 -0.031 -0.206*
(0.065) (0.124) (0.086) (0.083) (0.105) (0.124)
100-499 employees 0.088 0.217* 0.165** 0.106 0.009 -0.112
(0.066) (0.121) (0.073) (0.080) (0.099) (0.113)
> 500 employees 0.144** 0.233* 0.216*** 0.154* 0.094 -0.008
(0.065) (0.125) (0.081) (0.080) (0.096) (0.119)
Nº Obs. 721 721 721 721 721 721
R2 0.655 0.402 0.438 0.453 0.449 0.472
Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in
parentheses. Dummy variables for region, local council size and occupation are also
included. Omitted group: wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms,
without responsibility, single, and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14)
Table 2b. OLS and QR
H-group ( Spain, 1999)
Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage
WOMEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90
Experience 0.011* 0.002 0.004 0.004 0.019* 0.016
(0.006) (0.010) (0.008) (0.008) (0.011) (0.013)
Experience2 -0.0001 0.00005 -0.00003 0.000004 -0.0002 -0.0002
(0.0002) (0.0003) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0002) (0.0003)
Exp*Children 0.0005 0.0020 0.0042** -0.0009 -0.0004 -0.0007
(0.002) (0.003) (0.002) (0.002) (0.003) (0.003)
Immigrant 0.008 0.230* 0.089 0.035 0.258 0.024
(0.128) (0.128) (0.143) (0.224) (0.311) (0.331)
Public sector 0.097*** 0.097 0.148*** 0.100** 0.070 0.103*
(0.035) (0.061) (0.049) (0.044) (0.048) (0.061)
Permanent contract 0.119*** 0.074 0.139*** 0.155*** 0.127* 0.069
(0.040) (0.068) (0.049) (0.048) (0.070) (0.082)
Supervisory role
Directive 0.134** 0.184 0.226** 0.172** 0.138 0.074
(0.063) (0.149) (0.105) (0.076) (0.110) (0.130)
Supervisor 0.049 0.067 0.037 0.036 0.082 0.034
(0.033) (0.059) (0.055) (0.049) (0.054) (0.073)
Tenure 0.017*** 0.020*** 0.021** 0.017* 0.013 0.007
(0.003) (0.006) (0.008) (0.011) (0.010) (0.012)
Married 0.038 0.008 -0.033 0.046 0.096** 0.044
(0.030) (0.053) (0.041) (0.040) (0.042) (0.048)
Firm size
5-19 employees 0.172*** 0.215* 0.162** 0.187*** 0.081 0.076
(0.063) (0.125) (0.065) (0.065) (0.093) (0.095)
20-49 employees 0.275*** 0.412*** 0.305*** 0.286*** 0.168* 0.191*
(0.063) (0.137) (0.078) (0.081) (0.096) (0.103)
50-99 employees 0.286*** 0.399** 0.283*** 0.364*** 0.174 0.225**
(0.072) (0.169) (0.104) (0.090) (0.109) (0.110)
100-499 employees 0.364*** 0.498*** 0.382*** 0.374*** 0.305*** 0.301***
(0.064) (0.113) (0.076) (0.084) (0.092) (0.094)
> 500 employees 0.316*** 0.512*** 0.338*** 0.349*** 0.186** 0.259***
(0.064) (0.113) (0.077) (0.086) (0.097) (0.097)
Nº Obs. 558 558 558 558 558 558
R2 0.655 0.465 0.477 0.472 0.423 0.388
Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in
parentheses. Dummy variables for region, local council size and occupations are also
included. Omitted group: wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms,
without responsibility, single, and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14).
Table 2c. OLS and QR
L-group ( Spain, 1999)
Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage
MEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90
Experience 0.013*** 0.017*** 0.010*** 0.010*** 0.008* 0.008
(0.003) (0.006) (0.003) (0.003) (0.004) (0.005)
Experience2 -0.0002*** -0.0003** -0.0002*** -0.0002*** -0.0001 -0.0001
(0.00005) (0.0001) (0.00007) (0.00007) (0.00009) (0.0001)
Exp*Children -0.002** -0.003* -0.002 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001
(0.0008) (0.001) (0.001) (0.0009) (0.0009) (0.001)
Secondary ed. 0.060*** 0.081** 0.060** 0.055*** 0.025 0.023
(0.020) (0.040) (0.027) (0.019) (0.024) (0.035)
Immigrant -0.143 -0.192 -0.222 -0.244 0.005 0.151
(0.144) (0.130) (0.150) (0.165) (0.270) (0.265)
Public sector 0.020 0.006 0.033 0.032 0.036 0.054
(0.030) (0.049) (0.038) (0.027) (0.040) (0.047)
Permanent contract 0.065*** 0.105** 0.061** 0.028 0.037 0.073**
(0.022) (0.048) (0.030) (0.026) (0.027) (0.037)
Supervisory role
Directive 0.161*** 0.193*** 0.113** 0.166*** 0.135** 0.104*
(0.040) (0.073) (0.051) (0.050) (0.068) (0.059)
Supervisor 0.089*** 0.083** 0.080*** 0.096*** 0.092*** 0.074**
(0.023) (0.035) (0.028) (0.031) (0.032) (0.035)
Tenure 0.012*** 0.015*** 0.014*** 0.012** 0.009* 0.010*
(0.003) (0.004) (0.004) (0.005) (0.006) (0.006)
Married 0.079*** 0.123*** 0.083*** 0.070*** 0.073** 0.077**
(0.021) (0.038) (0.025) (0.027) (0.030) (0.033)
Firm size
5-19 employees 0.081*** 0.132*** 0.078** 0.089*** 0.067* 0.082*
(0.024) (0.051) (0.032) (0.028) (0.035) (0.048)
20-49 employees 0.119*** 0.104* 0.151*** 0.125*** 0.102*** 0.098**
(0.026) (0.060) (0.038) (0.032) (0.034) (0.045)
50-99 employees 0.110*** 0.106 0.147*** 0.118*** 0.115** 0.079
(0.033) (0.067) (0.047) (0.033) (0.046) (0.051)
100-499 employees 0.239*** 0.231*** 0.224*** 0.248*** 0.262*** 0.274***
(0.030) (0.063) (0.042) (0.034) (0.043) (0.058)
> 500 employees 0.311*** 0.375*** 0.283*** 0.340*** 0.338*** 0.344***
(0.034) (0.064) (0.038) (0.041) (0.042) (0.056)
Nº Obs. 1585 1585 1585 1585 1585 1585
R2 0.303 0.237 0.250 0.282 0.327 0.350
Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in
parentheses. Dummy variables for region, local council size and occupation are also included.
Omitted group: wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms, without responsi-
bility, single, with primary education and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14)
Table 2d. OLS and QR
L-group ( Spain, 1999)
Dependent variable : Ln. gross hourly wage
WOMEN Average =10 =25 =50 =75 =90
Experience 0.007* 0.008 0.009 0.008 0.006 0.006
(0.004) (0.010) (0.006) (0.005) (0.006) (0.007)
Experience2 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001 -0.0001
(0.00009) (0.0002) (0.0001) (0.0001) (0.0001) (0.0001)
Exp*Children -0.002 0.00004 -0.004** -0.003* 0.002 0.002
(0.001) (0.004) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002) (0.002)
Secondary ed. 0.113*** 0.103* 0.077* 0.069 0.096** 0.155
(0.033) (0.059) (0.043) (0.043) (0.041) (0.060)
Immigrant -0.479*** -0.249* -0.358*** -0.528*** -0.584*** -0.868
(0.073) (0.140) (0.112) (0.148) (0.144) (0.173)
Public sector 0.108*** 0.150** 0.134** 0.066 0.067 0.066
(0.039) (0.073) (0.066) (0.051) (0.060) (0.072)
Permanent contract 0.121*** 0.194*** 0.160*** 0.111** 0.029 0.120
(0.035) (0.062) (0.060) (0.048) (0.041) (0.051)
Supervisory role
Directive -0.050 0.018 0.017 -0.150 0.079 0.060
(0.129) (0.210) (0.138) (0.127) (0.184) (0.176)
Supervisor 0.075* 0.081 0.094 0.096** 0.070 0.067
(0.045) (0.088) (0.061) (0.049) (0.066) (0.078)
Tenure 0.021*** 0.027*** 0.024*** 0.016*** 0.013** 0.010
(0.004) (0..005) (0.006) (0.006) (0.007) (0.010)
Married 0.065** 0.040 0.071* 0.093*** 0.022 0.086
(0.027) (0.050) (0.043) (0.032) (0.033) (0.044)
Firm size
5-19 employees 0.122*** 0.137* 0.162*** 0.145*** 0.097* 0.063
(0.040) (0.074) (0.062) (0.056) (0.056) (0.060)
20-49 employees 0.255*** 0.360*** 0.270*** 0.258*** 0.177** 0.142
(0.044) (0.086) (0.062) (0.058) (0.069) (0.070)
50-99 employees 0.211*** 0.286*** 0.254*** 0.191*** 0.134* 0.034
(0.053) (0.076) (0.069) (0.066) (0.073) (0.087)
100-499 employees 0.266*** 0.313*** 0.293*** 0.290*** 0.213*** 0.182
(0.048) (0.076) (0.068) (0.058) (0.057) (0.066)
> 500 employees 0.324*** 0.281*** 0.329*** 0.392*** 0.347*** 0.194
(0.060) (0.092) (0.082) (0.075) (0.076) (0.082)
Nº Obs. 626 626 626 626 626 626
R2 0.308 0.372 0.372 0.385 0.421 0.462
Note: ***, **, * represent significance at 99, 95 and 90% respectively. Standard deviations in
parentheses. Dummy variables for region and local council size included. Omitted group:
wage earners in private sector in less-than-5-employees firms, without responsibility,
single, with primary education and in non-qualified jobs in services and commerce (OC14)
• Different QR by gender and by education [Tables 2 a-d]
i. H-group Higher returns to experience (), being married (),
supervisory role (), (Men) Higher returns for public sector, size>20, OC4-6 (Women)
ii. L-group Higher returns for experience (), being married and
supervisory role () (Men) Higher returns to tenure () (Women) , Higher returns for public sector, permanent contract,
secondary attainment, public sector (Women)
GENDER GAP DECOMPOSITION (Oaxaca-Blinder)
)()( ))()(()()( '' fmfmfmfm xExExEwEwE
wuEwxE'
fmfmfmfmfm uuxxx ''
fmfmfm
fffmmm
ExExEx
ExxwQExxwQ
''
//
MM decomposition
• Draw θ-th quantile from U[0,1]
• Estimate βm (θ)
• Draw xf and construct βm (θ) xf . Repeat N=100 times
• Construct counterfactual gap ( M=250 times):
βm (θ) xf - βf (θ) xf = (βm (θ) - βf (θ)) xf .
Returns
Table 3a. Counterfactual gender gaps H-group ( Spain, 1999)
OLS =10 =25 =50 =75 =90
Observed Gap 9.74 8.00 10.20 10.54 16.68 24.25
Counterfactual gap 7.23 -2.38 1.25 7.37 15.03 22.28 (0.02) (0.36) (0.78) (1.56) (2.21) (3.03) % 74.2 --- 12.2 79.9 90.1 92.2
Note: Standard deviations (s.d.) in parenthesis. The s.d. have been obtained through 250 replications of the decomposition
Table 3b. Counterfactual gender gaps L-group ( Spain, 1999)
OLS =10 =25 =50 =75 =90
Observed Gap 22.73 33.33 24.71 17.31 16.82 18.94
Counterfactual gap 17.08 31.34 21.54 11.18 8.76 9.28 (0.02) (2.27) (1.61) (1.52) (1.56) (3.26) % 75.1 94.0 87.2 64.6 52.1 49.0
Note: Standard deviations (s.d.) in parenthesis. The s.d. have been obtained through 250 replications of the decomposition; (a) with selection bias correction.
Figure 3a. Gender gap (Observed and Counterfactual). H-group. Spain 1999
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
10 25 50 75 90
Quantiles
Ln W
age
Men
- L
n W
age
Wom
en
Observed Counterfactual
Figure 3b. Gender gap (Observed and Counterfactual). L-group. Spain. 1999
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
10 25 50 75 90
Quantiles
Ln W
age
Men
- L
n W
age
Wom
en
Observed Counterfactual
PANEL & STAT. DCN.
• ECHP waves (1994-01) to follow workers in their jobs over time.
• Follow approach in Farber & Gibbons (1996)
• Interact Tenure* Female
• RESULT: Only Positive & Significant for L-group.
Table 4a: Descriptive statistics of (log) Real Wages and Tenure (in years); ECHP (1994-01) Workers younger than 40
at first interview Workers older than 39 at first
interview Men Women Men Women L H L H L H L H
Mean Log Wage
1.71 (0.37)
2.10 (0.46)
1.54 (0.34)
2.05 (0.46)
1.81 (0.38)
2.54 (0.49)
1.62 (0.43)
2.34 (0.37)
Mean Tenure 4.02 (4.72)
5.41 (5.00)
3.68 (4.35)
5.14 (4.83)
5.57 (5.67)
9.05 (5.95)
6.24 (5.40)
9.21 (5.97)
N. obs. 8617 3323 3381 2871 2394 498 930 249
Note: All workers with more than 15 years of tenure at the same firm are excluded from the sample since the variable Tenure is truncated at 15 for them.
Table 4b: (Log) Real Wage Regressions – Workers younger than 40 years at first interview Fixed Effects Estimation
Men Women Pooled Men and Women
All L H All L H L H Tenure 0.014
(0.002)
0.011 (0.002)
0.019 (0.004)
0.017 (0.003)
0.023 (0.004)
0.016 (0.004)
0.012 (0.002)
0.019 (0.004)
Tenure2 -0.001 (0.0001)
-0.001 (0.0002)
-0.001 (0.0003)
-0.001 (0.0001)
-0.002 (0.0002)
-0.002 (0.0002)
-0.001 (0.0002)
-0.001 (0.0002)
Female*Tenure --- --- --- --- --- --- 0.011 (0.005)
-0.003 (0.006)
Female* Tenure2
--- --- --- --- --- --- -0.0007 (0.0005)
-0.0004 (0.0004)
N.obs 11940 8617 3323 6252 3381 2871 11998 6194
Table 4c: (Log) Real Wage Regressions – Workers older than 40 years at first interviewed Fixed Effects Estimation
Men Women Pooled Men and Women
All Low High All Low High Low High Tenure 0.011
(0.004) 0.010
(0.004)
0.011 (0.012)
-0.003 (0.006)
0.003 (0.007)
-0.006 (0.014)
0.010 (0.004)
0.011 (0.011)
Tenure2 -0.0005 (0.0002)
-0.0004 (0.0002)
0.0001 (0.0003)
-0.0001 (0.0004)
0.0007 (0.0005)
-0.0004 (0.0002)
-0.001 (0.0005)
Female*Tenure --- --- --- --- --- -0.006 (0.008)
-0.018 (0.021)
Female* Tenure2
--- --- --- --- --- 0.0002 (0.0005)
0.002 (0.0009)
N.obs 2892 2394 498 1179 930 249 3324 747
Notes: All regressions include also 6 dummies for region, 14 dummies for occupation, 2 dummies for industry and a dummy for work status (supervisor or not). Workers with more than 15 years of tenure are not included since the variable Tenure is truncated at 15 for them. In the last panel, when pooled men and women are taken together, all explanatory variables are interacted with Female.
CONCLUSIONS
• New finding: Glass Floors• Due to statistical dcn. in countries with low
participation of L-women.• Further research: - Other alternatives for H-group (stress leaves) - Endogenize Participation (with S. de la Rica and C. Gª-Peñalosa…in progess) - Academic women-economists (with M. Almunia
and F. Felgueroso)