capriles et al 2012_early human bolivia

at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14

Contents lists available

Quaternary International

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/quaint

The earliest human occupations in Bolivia: A review of the archaeologicalevidence

José M. Capriles a,*, Juan Albarracin-Jordan b

aDepartment of Anthropology, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1114, St. Louis, MO 63130, United StatesbUnidad de Apoyo de Servicios de la Cooperación Canadiense, Calle Víctor Sangines No. 2678, La Paz, Bolivia

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online xxx

* Corresponding author. Present address: Center fDepartment of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh15260, United States.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J.M.yahoo.com (J. Albarracin-Jordan).

1040-6182/$ e see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.06.012

Please cite this article in press as: Capriles, J.evidence, Quaternary International (2012), h

a b s t r a c t

This paper reviews archaeological research of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene sites in Bolivia. Giventhat few projects have explicitly dealt with issues related to early human peopling of the country, anattempt is made to provide a comprehensive overview of known available data, focusing on radiocarbondated sites. Recent research in different regions of the country is not only improving understanding ofthe variability of early human settlements, but also providing new perspectives in relation to humanadaptation and climate change. Furthermore, ongoing research in Iroco and Cueva Bautista, in thehighland region of the country, shows that human colonization of high-altitude ecosystems (>3800 masl) occurred, at least, by 13,000 cal BP.

� 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The aim of this paper is to assess the current state of archaeo-logical research regarding the earliest human occupations inpresent day Bolivia. The state of the art of archaeological research isreviewed, with discussion of the prospects for carrying out furtherstudies in the country. In doing so, this paper provides a firstoverarching synthesis of the history of archaeology, differentinterpretation frameworks, and results of recent investigations onearly human occupations in Bolivia. It also provides information onavailable radiocarbon dates associated with early human settle-ments and discusses their archaeological context and implications.

Located in the center of South America, the Plurinational State ofBolivia has a surface area of 1,098,581 km2 (Fig. 1). This vast land-locked Neotropical country includes three major physiographicregions: the Andean highlands, the Sub-Andean valleys, and theeastern lowlands (Ibisch et al., 2004). The Andean highlands consistof a large open plateau, also referred to as altiplano, situated over3500 m above sea level (asl) and constrained by two mountainranges, running from north to south, with peaks over 6000 m asl.The climate of the altiplano is cold and seasonally dry, because theEastern Cordillera regularly prevents the Amazon’s moisture fromentering the highlands. The altiplano encompasses a series of high-

or Comparative Archaeology,, 3302 WWPH, Pittsburgh, PA

Capriles), albarracinjordan@

nd INQUA. All rights reserved.

M., Albarracin-Jordan, J., Thettp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.qua

elevation lakes and salt lakes, including Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopó,Salar de Coipasa, and Salar de Uyuni. The altiplano is divided intodifferent sections, depending on variation in elevation, tempera-ture, and precipitation. Following previous biogeographic classifi-cations (e.g., Troll, 1968), there is a rough correspondence betweenthe northern altiplano and the wet puna, the central altiplano andthe dry puna, and the southern altiplano and the salt puna.

The Sub-Andean valleys (3500e400 m asl) comprise scores ofadjacent rivers that progressively drop from the Andean highlandsinto large, white water rivers from the Amazon and La Plata basins.As these systems progressively plunge in elevation, they producea diversity of landscapes that range from extremely humidmontane forests (yungas) to relatively temperate shrublands anddry forests. The eastern lowlands (<400 m asl) are divided into thehot and humid tropical Amazonian lowlands (including the pampasof the Llanos de Moxos), and the southeastern dry and hot Chacoplains. Over 30 different ecosystems with distinctive and oftenunique plant and animal species make Bolivia one of the ten mostdiverse countries in the world and a biodiversity hotspot (Navarroand Maldonado, 2002). Not surprisingly, various cultural adapta-tions developed here through time, as manifested by a rich, yetlargely unexplored, archaeological record (Pereira Herrera andAlbarracin-Jordan, 1996; Michel López, 2006).

2. Paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic research in Bolivia

Environmental factors are complex, interlinked, and dynamicvariables that influence cultural change in varying ways. Humangroups are constantly adapting to and affecting their physical

earliest human occupations in Bolivia: A review of the archaeologicalint.2012.06.012

mailto:[email protected]



www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10406182

http://www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2012.06.012



Fig. 1. Map of Bolivia showing Archaic Period sites, Quaternary paleontological localities and geological faults (based on Marshall and Sempere, 1991, and data compiled in thispaper).

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e142

environment by means of complex ecological interactions such aspredation, domestication, and niche construction (Odling-Smeeet al., 2003). Paleoenvironmental research can contribute toexplaining long-term humaneenvironment interactionsthroughout time. Considerable paleoclimatic and paleoenvir-onmental research has been carried out in Bolivia by a number ofQuaternary geologists, glaciologists, limnologists, palynologists,paleoclimatologists, and paleoecologists (e.g., Abbott et al., 1997;Clayton and Clapperton, 1997; Thompson et al., 1998; Baucom andRigsby, 1999; Argollo and Mourguiart, 2000; Baker et al., 2001;Chepstow-Lusty et al., 2005; May and Veit, 2009; Placzek et al.,2009; Bush et al., 2010). Even though it is beyond the scope ofthis paper to discuss the significance all of this work, a summary ofthe most recent and significant research is presented here.

Currently, there are several ongoing paleoclimatologicalprojects from North American and European universities, as well asresearch organizations, focusing on a number of different envi-ronmental proxies. These studies have been increasingly funded byglobal climate change initiatives and are mainly concerned withunderstanding the effects of global warming and climate change intropical regions and the Andean mountain glaciers (see Thompsonet al., 2000; Bush et al., 2010). Most of these projects have beenimplemented in the highlands, but increasing work is being carriedout in the inter-Andean valleys and lowlands (e.g., Punyasena et al.,2008; May et al., 2011). Although there have been some

Please cite this article in press as: Capriles, J.M., Albarracin-Jordan, J., Theevidence, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.qu

controversies surrounding the reconstruction of climatic patternsof the last 20,000 years, increased research is facilitating consensusregarding the specific events and processes involved. For instance,Thompson et al. (1998) collected ice cores from Sajama, which, at6542 m asl is the highest mountain in Bolivia. The Sajama ice coreswere approximately 131 m deep, and analysis of their geochemicalcontent closely monitors changes in temperature and atmosphericgeochemistry during the last 25,000 years. The data are compatiblewith glacial reconstructions from other countries and include theidentification of significant impacts, such as an abrupt drop intemperature, about 5100 years ago (Thompson et al., 2000). Recentresearch at Sajama, based on 36Cl exposure ages, suggests glacialdevelopment between 16,900e10,200 cal BP, followed by climaticstability during the Holocene, slightly interrupted by two minorglacial advances, between 7000 and 3300 cal BP (Smith et al.,2009).

A clear implication of these studies, for discussing humanadaptations and early peopling of the Andean highlands, is thatglaciers did not extend over the altiplano. Because of its highelevation (>3500 m asl), geographical extent, and climatologicalcomplexity, during the Late Pleistocene, the altiplano was largelyice-free. Moraines and other typical geomorphological featuresassociated with their expansion are generally absent in the alti-plano and are mostly located in proximity to high mountain rangesin the Eastern and Western cordilleras (Clayton and Clapperton,

earliest human occupations in Bolivia: A review of the archaeologicalaint.2012.06.012

J.M. Capriles, J. Albarracin-Jordan / Quaternary International xxx (2012) 1e14 3

1997). For instance, the maximum extent of the Huayna Potosiglacier, at around 11,000 cal BP, was 4500m asl, just 2 kmwest of itscurrent level, above 5000 m asl (Jomelli et al., 2011).

A combination of melted glaciers and precipitation facilitatedthe formation of different lake cycles throughout the Quaternary(Argollo and Mourguiart, 2000; Baker et al., 2005; Chepstow-Lustyet al., 2005; Rigsby et al., 2005). Placzek et al. (2006, 2009, 2011)directed the most recent and thorough paleoenvironmentalreconstruction of the central and southern altiplano lake cyclesduring the Late Pleistocene. Based on collection and dating (usinga combination of AMS 14C and UeTh dates) of evaporites (tufa)samples from paleoshores profiles distributed throughout thealtiplano, the last two cycles they document correspond to LakeTauca and Lake Coipasa. Lake Tauca, dated between 18,100 and14,100 cal BP, was the deepest lake in the sequence, occupiedapproximately 60,000 km2 and had its highest stand between 3765and 3790 m asl (Placzek et al., 2006). After a short period ofregression, Lake Coipasa was the last of the large lake cycles,occurring between 13,000 and 11,000 cal BP, covering approxi-mately 30,000 km2, and having its highest stand at 3680 m asl(Sylvestre et al., 1999; Placzek et al., 2006, 2009).

Clayton and Clapperton (1997) documented synchronicitybetween the expansion of the last deep lake in the altiplano anda cycle of glacial advance ca. 13,500 and 11,500 cal BP. In coinci-dence with glacial expansion, Lake Coipasa, during this time,reached its highest stand, suggesting high precipitation andperhaps decreased temperatures by as much as �5 �C (Baker et al.,2005). Following this wet episode, no other significant trans-gression events are recorded in the altiplano, suggesting theHolocene was characterized by a comparatively stable climate.However, the paleohydrological work of Abbott et al. (1997, 2003),in Lake Titicaca and several high elevation lakes in the EasternCordillera, suggests that at least in the northern altiplano, therewasa period of rapid warming between 10,700 and 9700 cal BP andabsence of glacier advances after 8900 cal BP. Furthermore, theirwork hypothesizes that the Middle Holocene, between 6200 and2300 cal BP, was a period of increased aridity, as represented bya clear unconformity in well-dated lake cores, beginning7000e6000 cal BP (Abbott et al., 2003). Researchers working in thePeruvian side of the northern altiplano have noted that thisincreased aridity might explain the low frequency of earlyarchaeological settlements in the region (see Rigsby et al., 2003;Craig et al., 2010). Nevertheless, lake expansion and climatologicconditions could be related to different precipitation regimes acrossthe south central Andean highlands during the Holocene. Differ-ential precipitation between the northern and southern altiplano isprobably related to various factors that continue to constraintprecipitation seasonality and climatic variability in the southcentral Andes (Placzek et al., 2009, 2011).

3. The archaeology of early human occupations in Bolivia

Following Aldenderfer’s (2009: Fig. 5.1) chronological scheme forthe South Central Andes, the term “Archaic Period” refers to humanoccupations chronologically situated between, approximately,10,950 and 3900 cal BP. Geologically, this period ranges from theLate Pleistocene to the beginning of the Late Holocene. The end ofthe Archaic Period is associated with the consolidation of agricul-tural, pastoral, and ceramic technologies, sedentary ways of life, andemergent socio-political complexity. Aldenderfer’s (2009) generalsequence divides the Archaic Period into four sub-chronologicalperiods: Early Archaic (9500e8000 BP or 10,950e8950 cal BP),Middle Archaic (8000e6000 BP or 8950e6950 cal BP), LateArchaic (6000e4500 BP or 6950e5250 cal BP), and Terminal Archaic(4500e3600 BP or 5250e3950 cal BP). The term “Paleoamerican”

Please cite this article in press as: Capriles, J.M., Albarracin-Jordan, J., Theevidence, Quaternary International (2012), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.qua

(sensu Bonnichsen, 2005) is used to designate occupations earlierthan 9500 BP or 10,950 cal BP. The following sections are organizeddiachronically and geographically, emphasizing theoretical andmethodological contributions and focusing on recent research.

3.1. Archaic period studies: first phase (1900e1980)

In strong contrast with the suite of available paleoenvironmentalstudies, the archaeology of early human occupations in Bolivia islimited. Historically, most archaeological research in Bolivia hasbeen carried out in the highlands and inter-Andean valleys, partic-ularly in large, monumental sites, such as Tiwanaku. Furthermore,the question of the development of Tiwanaku as a state level polity,centered in the southeastern shores of the Lake Titicaca basin, hasreceived the most attention (Kolata, 1993, 2003; Albarracin-Jordan,1996, 2007; Stanish, 2003; Janusek, 2008). Research on the earliesthuman colonization in all regions of Bolivia lags behind researchcarried out in neighboring countries (see Aldenderfer, 1989, 1999;Dillehay, 2000, 2008; Lavallée, 2000; Miotti and Salemme, 2003;Núñez et al., 2005; Politis et al., 2008; Borrero, 2009; Aldenderferand Flores Blanco, 2011; Santoro et al., 2011).

The first archaeological evidence of Archaic Period occupationsin Bolivia was reported by the French explorer, Georges Courty(1910), who visited two such sites in 1903, Relaves and Huancane,located between San Pablo and San Vicente in the remote region ofLípez, in the southern altiplano. Relaves, located at 4400 m asl,consisted of a lithic workshop, including green and black quartzitescrapers and burins. Huancane, at 4350 m asl, included chert andjasper flakes. Courty (1910), inferring from the artifact character-istics, argued that these sites were probably “Neolithic”; this wascertainly a non-conventional interpretation, given that the pre-vailing notion with respect to the peopling of the New World, atthat time, was linked to the Old World Paleolithic.

Dick Edgar Ibarra Grasso (informed by collectors in La Paz)reported the next significant archaeological discovery, in 1954, atthe site of Viscachani, located at 3820 m asl, in the road between LaPaz and Oruro. Ibarra Grasso (1954, 1955, 1957, 1965a, 1965b)described Viscachani as a large site, extending between six andeleven hectares, covered with projectile points and other flakedstone tools. He suggested that the settlement was located on top of8e15 m high terraces, on the shores of a now dried-up ancientglacial lake. Surface collections carried out between 1954 and 1960produced over 9000 artifacts (see also Vela, 1964). Excavationsconducted at the site included five initial test pits, shortly after theinitial report of the site (Ibarra Grasso, 1957: p. 145, 1965b: p. 32),and 30 additional test pits conducted in 1960 in collaboration withGerman scholars Hermann Trimborn, Hansjürgen Müller-Beck, andJosephine Welt (Ibarra Grasso, 1965a: p. 13). No substantive stra-tigraphy was documented in the excavations, due to a combinationof agricultural plowing and soil erosion.

Ibarra Grasso (1954) initially classified the Viscachani projectilepoints into two types. The first included elongated points similar towillow leafs and with fine lateral retouching, while the second typeincluded broader points, similar to bay leafs that were worked bypercussion flakes only. He linked the first type to the Ayampitíncomplex described byAlbertoRexGonzález (1952) fromanopen-airsite, located in the Argentinean province of Córdoba, while hecompared the second to an “Early Paleolithic” industry. OsvaldoMenghin (1954) subsequently named these industries Ayampati-nense and Viscachaniense, respectively. Ibarra Grasso (1965b: pp.54e57, 1973) then subdivided these groups into five chronologicalphases and speculated that the site could be as old as 20,000 years.

Archaeologists specializing in Andean archaeology welcomedthe new addition of a preceramic settlement into the expandinglist of Andean early sites (e.g., Lanning, 1967; Ravines, 1972), albeit



with some disagreement. For instance, Lanning and Hammel(1961) argued that the distinction between the two industrieswas probably artificial. To solve the controversy, Patterson andHeizer (1965) carried out a technological and stylistic analysis ofViscachani stone tools. Their sample consisted of 63 artifactspredominated by projectile points, suggesting the bulk of theassemblage was similar to the earliest (Ayampitín) level of Inti-huasi Cave (ca. 6300 BC), in northwest Argentina, and the Luz (ca.5500 BC) and Canario (ca. 4950 BC) complexes of the Peruviancoast. Exceptions included small stemmed points, characteristic ofLaguna Hedionda (see below) and the Pichalo Preceramic II ofnorthern Chile, dated to approximately 2000e3000 BC. Asa consequence, Viscachani was interpreted as a “typical” ArchaicPeriod settlement associated with an adaptation to highlandhunting and gathering, an interpretation still employed by manyresearchers (e.g., Bruhns, 1994: p. 60; Aldenderfer, 2000; Dillehay,2000: p. 181; Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004).

In 1958, an expedition from the University of Cambridge, led byVita-Finzi (1959), explored the salt lakes of the Atacama Desert, innorthern Chile, and the adjacent highland lakes of the Lípez desert,in southwest Bolivia. Lawrence Barfield (1961), the expedition’sarchaeologist, reported significant preceramic occupations at eightsites from Laguna Colorada, five sites from Laguna Hedionda, and atChacilla (Chucilla in Vita-Finzi’s map), a site located on the shores ofRio Grande de Lípez. Lithic artifacts were collected from the surfaceof all of these sites and included several projectile points. Addi-tionally, a rock shelter (Laguna Hedionda’s Site IV) was partiallyexcavated, revealing 12 overlapping layers, several of which werepreceramic. Barfield compared the lithic artifacts with the typo-logical sequence developed by Le Paige (1958), in northern Chile(but also based on some visits to Bolivian territory, see below). Asa result, the lithic assemblages, “Puripica” (contemporary withAyampitín), Tambillo, Cebollar, and a new assemblage, named“Colorada”, were identified and related to temporary, but frequentlyreoccupied, hunting camps. In Barfield’s interpretation, these sites,“give an indication of a long tradition of hunting in the area, but atpresent can only be tentatively fitted into a cultural or chronologicalscheme” (Barfield, 1961: p. 96). Furthermore, “there seemed to bea typological sequence [of settlements] associated with the shoresof progressively shrinking lakes” (Vita-Finzi, 1959: p. 402).

Le Paige (1964) carried out his explorations in the AtacamaDesert of northern Chile and, in addition, made some explorationsin the Bolivian southern altiplano. In Bolivia, he documented sitesin Soniquera, Quetena, Quetena Chico, San Agustín, San Pablo deLípez, Laguna Hedionda, Laguna Colorada, Laguna Verde, Zapaleri,and Laguna de Tara, collecting several artifacts, which he describesas mostly manufactured in black basalt and some local raw mate-rials (Le Paige, 1964: p. 37). Le Paige (1964) reported that theoccupations in southwest Bolivia correspond well with the chro-nological phases he identified in the different environments of theAtacama Desert. He suggested that the most important place forcarrying out further research should be Soniquera, where heidentified at least 11 different locations.

3.2. Archaic period studies: second phase (1980e2010)

3.2.1. Northern altiplanoThe northern altiplano around Lake Titicaca has received more

archaeological attention than any other region in Bolivia(Browman,1981; Kolata, 1993, 2003; Stanish, 2003; Janusek, 2008).Although this work has included several full coverage surveyprojects and several large-scale excavations, very few ArchaicPeriod sites have been identified. Juan Albarracin-Jordan (1992,1996: pp. 78e79) and Albarracin-Jordan and Matthews (1990)documented two sites and two isolated Archaic Period projectile


points in the Tiwanaku lower valley. Sergio Calla Maldonado (2011)has recently documented ten additional Archaic Period sites in theTiwanaku upper valley, and, based on typological comparisons ofprojectile points, he assigned four of these sites to the Early ArchaicPeriod. All of these sites consist of small (<1 ha) open-air campsand workshops. In addition, Carlos Lémuz Aguirre (2001: pp.187e188) documented three Late and Terminal Archaic Periodoccupations in Santiago de Huata, on the eastern shore of the lake.Similarly, José Capriles (2007) reported four Archaic Period sites onthe northeastern shore of Lake Titicaca, including two rock sheltersand two open-air camps. The only radiocarbon-dated Archaiccontext in the Bolivian side of Lake Titicaca is the lowest level atCh’uxuqullu, a site reported by Charles Stanish et al. (2002) at theIsland of the Sun. A charcoal sample produced an AMS date of3780 � 170 BP (Stanish et al., 2002: Table 1). In addition, two moresites in the Island of the Sun comprised Archaic Period occupations(Stanish and Bauer, 2004: Table 2.1).

In comparison, the work that Mark Aldenderfer and his studentshave been carrying out in the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca isnotable for its Archaic Period findings (Aldenderfer, 1998, 2000,2009; Cipolla, 2005; Craig, 2005; Klink, 2005; Klink andAldenderfer, 2005; Tripcevich, 2007). Interestingly enough,although Early Archaic sites have been reported from surfacesurveys in the Peruvian side of Lake Titicaca, most of the excavatedoccupations date to the Middle Archaic or later (Craig et al., 2010).For instance, two uncalibrated samples from the earliest levels ofthe Qillqatani rock shelter date to 7100 � 130 BP (Beta-18926) and7250 � 170 BP (Beta-18927) (Tripcevich, 2007: Table 3.5).

3.2.2. Central altiplanoResearch in the central altiplano identified a number of Archaic

Period occupations, and, although some excavations have beenconducted, few sites have been radiocarbon dated. Jorge ArellanoLópez (1992) and Arellano López and Kuljis Meruvia (1986)carried out research in Río Mauri where he documented two lithicworkshops, including Abrigo Clemente, a rock shelter with abun-dant lithic artifacts and naturalistic rock art paintings representingdeer. More recently, Vannesa Jiménez (2007, 2012) has surveyed thevalley of Markanasa, near Charaña and the Bolivian-Chilean-Peruvian border. She documented 23 open-air sites and four rockshelters, two of which (PAM-05 and PAM-06) were test excavatedand included a stratigraphic and projectile point sequence,comparable to thewell-studied nearby site of Hakenasa in northernChile (Santoro and Núñez, 1987; Moreno et al., 2009; Osorio et al.,2011; Santoro et al., 2011). Through collaboration, an AMS 14Csample of a camelid metapodial from one of the intermediate levels(45e52 cm) of her excavations at PAM-05was dated to 3201�51 BP(AA96431, bone collagen d13C ¼ �19.4). Jiménez (2012) has alsodiscovered, in Markanasa, the potential location of the obsidiansource previously known as “Khonko Type” (Giesso, 2003).

Yara Lizarraga-Mehringer (2004) conducted additional researchin Viscachani, including test excavations, documentation of natu-rally occurring profiles, collection of additional stone artifacts, andanalysis of material previously collected by Ibarra Grasso and otherscholars. She described sites in other areas, such as Viacha, Quel-lcatani, Callapa, and the inter-salar region, including surface find-ings similar to those from Viscachani. Although she did notradiometrically date any archaeological materials, Lizarraga-Mehringer’s (2004) detailed typological work confirms previousinterpretations about the site, including the possible long-termreoccupation cycles implied by the diversity of projectile points,bifaces, and other stone tools present at Viscachani. In addition, shealso reexamined other previously known Archaic Period sites,including Laguna Hedionda, Kayarani, Mayra Pampa, Huerta Mayu,and Ñuapua (see below).



Additional research in the central altiplano includes surfacesurveys that were carried out in Eucaliptus (Irahola, 2007) and CalaCala (Lima Tórrez et al., 2002: p. 71), where sites and lithic artifactssimilar to Viscachani were documented. Albarracin-Jordan (2006)has also conducted a survey between the city of Oruro and Pisiga,in the border with Chile, where some Archaic Period lithic work-shops and stationary camps were documented. Marcos MichelLópez (2008: p. 100) recorded two Late Archaic Period settle-ments in his survey of Huari, near the southern shore of Lake Poopó.Fox (2007: p. 73) identified a Terminal Archaic Period levelincluding foliated projectile points in his excavations at theFormative Period mound of Chuquiña. Research in Iroco, near themodern city of Oruro, documented 35 Archaic Period sites andincluded excavations and dating of one of these sites (Capriles et al.,2011; see below).

Albarracin-Jordan (2005a) carried out a systematic survey ofapproximately 16 km2 near the city of Potosí, as part of the envi-ronmental impact study of the San Bartolomé mining project. At analtitude between 4100 and 4400masl, 21 siteswere recorded, ten ofwhich consisted of Archaic Period occupations (Albarracin-Jordan,2005a). Seven of these sites were test-excavated, producinga considerable range of lithic artifacts and debitage. One of thesesites also included the fragmented remains of extinct Hippidiumhorse teeth in the same layer as lithic debitage. However, moreresearch, including radiocarbon dating, is required to confirm thiscontextual association.

3.2.3. Southern altiplanoSeveral years after the expeditions of Barfield and Le Paige,

Eduardo Berberián and Jorge Arellano López (1978, 1980) resumedresearch in Lípez. Most of their work consisted of a surface recon-naissance of open-air sites near Quetena and San Pablo de Lípez.They described different projectile point types, including lanceo-lated, rhomboid, and triangular. Based on typological comparisons,they suggest that these tools correspond to a transitional phase,from generalized hunting-gathering to specialized hunting thattook place between 8500 and 1500 BC (Berberián and ArellanoLópez, 1980: pp. 262e263). Arellano López (1984, 1987, 1992,2000) continued working in Lípez and reported additionalArchaic Period settlements near Alota, Soniquera, and Quetena. Inthe absence of dates, his interpretations switched from a chrono-logical approach to a functional interpretation, describing threetypes of sites: lithic workshops, temporary camps (paraderos), andhunting camps (Arellano, 1987: p. 189). Workshops were located ontop of terraces of rivers such as Quetena and Lípez that flow intoSalar de Uyuni. The temporary and hunting campswere, apparentlydispersed, over the interior of the plains. In addition, possibleresidential locations, such as rock shelters and caves, were locatedon rocky outcrops, sometimes quite far above the valley floors.Workshops, such as Mina Abaroa, included bifaces (with variableforms, amount of retouch and unmodified cortex), unifacial tools ofdifferent sizes and shapes, scrapers, and various flakes. In collabo-rationwith Arellano López, Juan Carlos Berazain (1995) also carriedout survey work in Laguna Colorada, documenting various ArchaicPeriod occupations. Unfortunately, his findings derive exclusivelyfrom dispersed surface findings. Arellano López (2000) excavatedand radiocarbon-dated a few sites in the region, but all of themcorrespond to Formative Period and later occupations.

More recently, an intensive survey was carried out in thesurroundings of San Cristóbal and along the road between SanCristobal and Salar de Ascotán, near the Chilean border, as part ofthe Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) of the San CristobalMining Project (Albarracin-Jordan and Michel López, 1998;Albarracin-Jordan, 1999, 2000a, 2000b). Here, more than 300 siteshave been documented, including numerous Archaic Period open-


air lithic workshops and camps. In 23 of these sites, additional workconsisted of mapping, systematic surface collections, and testexcavations. Unfortunately, because of the strong aeolian processesthat occur in the region, most of the sites consist of deflated andhighly eroded locations covered by stone artifacts from multipleoccupations. In 2008, this work was complemented with a surveynear Alota and identified caves and rock shelters with stratified,well-preserved occupations that date back to the Late Pleistocene(see below).

3.2.4. Other regionsVery little is known from other regions of Bolivia. It is ironic that

some of the few dated Early Archaic Period sites in Bolivia, includingÑuapua, San Luis, and San Lucas are found in the inter-Andeanvalleys and Chaco lowlands (see below). In 1978, David Daviespublished a short evaluation of three Bolivian, early human remainsthat he described as having robust features (Davies, 1978: p. 280).Although the provenience of the remains is not specified (in thepaper, the sites are referred to as Bolivia I, II, and III), the presentauthors believe that at least two of these correspond to the Jai-huayco and Sacaba human skeletons (see Lynch, 1976: p. 231, 1990:p. 16). The Sacaba and Jaihuayco human remains correspond todifferent, partially mineralized skeletons discovered in the Cocha-bamba valley during civil constructionwork in the 1950s and 1960s(Ibarra Grasso, 1965a: p. 14). Mandibular and maxillary samplesfrom these skeletons were exported by Davies (in addition topossibly two additional human specimens) for radiocarbon dating,amino-acid racemization, and fluorine content analyses by ReinerProtsch (1979: p. 72) at the University of Frankfurt. The reportedresults of the Cochabamba (Jaihuayco) sample include a radiocarbondate of 13,050� 250 BP (Fra-102), an amino-acid racemization dateof 13,200 a (Fra-A-7), andfluorine content of 1.60e1.73%. The Sacabaspecimen only includes results of an amino-acid racemization assayof 18,000 a (Fra-A-10) and fluorine content of 2.08% (Berger andProtsch, 1991: p. 266). However, given the uncertainties associatedwith the application of these methods to materials with uncleardepositional histories, and the fact that Protsch was accused ofethical misconduct and fabrication of data regarding other fossilspecimens, these results are questionable (see Terberger and Street,2003; Schulz, 2004; Street et al., 2006). Although portions of theseskeletons were exported for research, fragments of both arecurrently on exhibition at theMuseoArqueológico de laUniversidadMayor de San Simón, in Cochabamba.

Richard MacNeish and Ricardo Céspedes Paz conductedresearch in the Cochabamba valleys, in the 1980s, and proposed theexistence of potential early sites in Kayarani, Mayra Pampa, and VilaVila. Although this work remains largely unpublished, their exca-vations in Kayarani produced very crudely made stone tools, whichsuggested an Archaic Period occupation. In 1997, Lizarraga-Mehringer (2004: pp. 337e347) continued these excavations andcollected a sample from the lowest layer of the excavation profilethat dated to 2415 � 50 BP (ETH-19374), suggesting the site wasoccupied considerably later than anticipated. In Mayra Pampa,located in the Mizque valley, Céspedes Paz found an extinct horsetooth in association with lithic tools, which indicated a, potentially,early human occupation (Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004: p. 360).However, during posterior excavations of the Formative Periodcomponent at the site, Brockington et al. (1995: Table 8) identifiedthree preceramic layers, including Level 12 that produced theTerminal Archaic date of 3905 � 65 BP (GX-12984).

In Chuquisaca and the lower flanks of the eastern Andes, IbarraGrasso (1965b; 1973) reported the presence of early sites in HuertaMayu, La Candelaria, Quila Quila, and Maragua. For the HuertaMayu rock shelter (see Ibarra Grasso and Querejazu Lewis, 1986;Lizarraga-Mehringer, 2004: p. 361), he inferred that the presence of



rock art, in the form of human “negative” handprints, might suggesta connection with Cueva de las Manos, in southern Argentina (butsee Capriles et al., 2008). Paja Colorada is another rock shelter, inwestern Santa Cruz, that also includes similar handprint repre-sentations. More recent research in the inter-Andean valleysinvolved systematic surface surveys that permitted the identifica-tion of two Archaic Period sites in the Icla valley (Blom and Janusek,2005: p. 96) and ten in the Cintis valley (Rivera Casanovas, 2004:p. 49); but follow-up research is required.

Virtually nothing is known about the earliest colonization of theBolivian Amazonian lowlands. Given glacial retreat, following theLate Glacial Maximum, it is assumed that an increased discharge ofQuaternary deposits on the Llanos de Mojos and other basinswould have made human settlement challenging and preservationof archaeological sites problematic (but see Lombardo et al., inpress). However, more research is required, particularly alongabandoned levees of paleo-rivers, incidental profiles of large rivers,and the Brazilian Shield, where deposits, possibly generated byanthropogenic activity during the Late Pleistocene and EarlyHolocene, might be better preserved (see Kipnis, 1998; Araujoet al., 2005).

4. Well-dated early human occupations

Available research results confirm that Archaic Period sites,including Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene occupations, are

Fig. 2. Map of Archaic Period ar


present in Bolivian territory (Fig. 2). Unfortunately, the lack ofemphasis on research on this period and, more importantly, theabsence of radiocarbon dating of potentially early contexts, havecaused a significant gap in the knowledge regarding early humanpresence in the country. Nevertheless, recent research projectshave produced radiometric dates that not only confirm the pres-ence of early sites, but also point to potential venues for continuingresearch. In this section, calibrations were performedwith Calib 6.0(http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/), using the SHCal04 dataset(McCormac et al., 2004) for dates younger than 10,000 BP and theIntCal09 dataset (Reimer et al., 2009) for older dates (Table 1, Fig. 3).

4.1. Chaco lowlands

4.1.1. ÑuapuaIn 1978, a paleontological mission, organized by the University

of Florida, the County Museum of Los Angeles, and the ServicioGeológico de Bolivia, conducted explorations in the Quaternarypaleontological site of Ñuapua (also known as Ñuagapua), in theChaco lowlands of southeastern Bolivia (MacFadden, 1981;MacFadden andWolff, 1981). Ñuapua is an eroded creek associatedwith sedimentary badlands of at least three geomorphologicalformations deposited in a lacustrine environment that includeabundant vertebrate fossil deposits (Hoffstetter, 1968). In additionto recovering numerous specimens of extinct paleofauna,researchers made the extraordinary finding of a partially fossilized

chaeological sites in Bolivia.


http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/

Table

1Rad

iocarbon

dates

older

than

5250

calBPan

dassociated

inform

ationfrom

earlyarch

aeolog

ical

sitesin

Bolivia.C

alibration

perform

edwithCalib

6.0(http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib

/)usingtheSH

Cal04

dataset

(McC

ormac

etal.,

2004

)fordates

younge

rthan

10,000BPan

dtheIntCal09

dataset

(Reimer

etal.,20

09)forolder

dates.T

heex

trem

esforthe1 s

and2s

range

sarereported.

Site

nam

eLabco

de

Altitude

Reg

ion

Yea

rsBP

Error

d13C

Cal

BP(1s)

Cal

BP(2s)

Method

Material

Culturalco

ntext

Referen

ces

Ñuap

ua,

Ñuag

apua,

1978

NYQuee

ns

College

(QC)

570

Chaco

lowlands

6600

370

7007

e77

8665

70e81

60Con

vention

alBon

e-ap

atite,

human

postcranial

Open

air,paleo

ntologicaldep

osit

(MacFa

dden

andW

olff

1981

:p.7

76)

N/A

570

Chaco

lowlands

7200

400

7613

e83

6272

53e89

76Con

vention

alBon

e-ap

atite,

human

cran

ial

Open

air,paleo

ntologicaldep

osit

(Marsh

alle

tal.,19

84:p

.34)

Ñuap

ua,

Ñuag

apua,

2002

Beta-19

4692

570

Chaco

lowlands

6870

50�2

1.7

7595

e76

8475

73e77

81AMS

Organ

icsedim

ent

Anthropog

enic

sedim

entin

naturally

occu

rringprofile

(Coltortie

tal.,20

10:

Table1)

Beta-19

7969

570

Chaco

lowlands

5980

80�2

4.1

6658

e68

5865

08e69

54Con

vention

alCharredmaterial

Hea

rthin

naturally

occu

rring

profile

(Coltortie

tal.,20

10:

Table1)

Tarija,S

anLu

isET

HZü

rich

(ETH

)18

60Inter-Andea

ndry

valle

ys76

4050

8349

e84

2482

18e85

37AMS

Bon

e-co

llage

n,

human

cran

ial

Open

-air

site,d

evelop

men

tex

cava

tion

s(D

elco

urt

2001

:p.1

1)

SanLu

cas,SL

79OZK

824

3050

Inter-Andea

ndry

valle

ys70

4160

�23.4

7745

e79

2576

87e79

37AMS

Charco

alHea

rthin

naturally

occu

rring

profile

(RiveraCasan

ovas

andCalla

Maldon

ado20

11:Ta

ble2)

Pumiri,URR-001

AA96

432

3880

Cen

tral

altiplano

4441

45�2

2.3

4867

e50

3648

46e52

71AMS

Charco

alRoc

ksh

elter,oc

cupationleve

lat

1.85

mbe

low

surface

(Mén

cias

2012

;Sa

lvatierra

2012

)Sa

lardeCoipasa,

Site

7AA54

456

3660

Cen

tral

altiplano

5444

4760

32e62

8160

03e62

89AMS

Charco

alTo

pof

anthropog

enic

sedim

ent

innaturally

occu

rringprofile

(Placzek

etal.,20

06:

Table1)

SalardeCoipasa,

Site

7AA54

457

3660

Cen

tral

altiplano

5591

4562

90e63

9562

16e64

35AMS

Charco

alBottom

ofan

thropog

enic

sedim

ent

innaturally

occu

rringprofile

(Placzek

etal.,20

06:

Table1)

Iroc

o,KCH20

AA91

568

3690

Cen

tral

altiplano

8273

82�1

9.7

9032

e92

8890

08e94

24AMS

Bon

e-co

llage

n,Lam

agu

anicoe

metap

odial

Open

-air

site,trash

feature

(Cap

riles20

11:Ta

ble7.2)

Iroc

o,KCH20

AA91

569

3690

Cen

tral

altiplano

8105

92�2

087

28e90

8786

30e92

52AMS

Bon

e-co

llage

n,C

avia

tsch

udiiman

dible

Open

-air

site,trash

feature

(Cap

riles20

11:Ta

ble7.2)

Cuev

aBau

tista,

AL0

3AA84

158

3930

Southern

altiplano

10,917

69�2

312

,684

e12

,878

12,614

e13

,054

AMS

Charco

alCav

e,oc

cupationleve

l1.7m

below

thesu

rface

(Albarracin-Jordan

and

Cap

riles20

11:p.9

6)



human skeleton. The human remains were associated witha lacustrine paleoenvironment that included fauna deposited insilty clay. The mammalian assemblage included remains of thefollowing families: Glyptodontidae, Megalonychoidae-Mylodontoidea, Gomphotheriidae, Toxodontidae, Macrachenidae,Equidae, Tayassuidae, Camelidae, Ctenomydae, Capromyidae, andOctodontidae (MacFadden and Wolff, 1981: Table 3). The humanremains were identified as those of a 50-year old female. A radio-carbon date, using bone apatite, directly dated these remains to6600 � 370 BP, and fluorine analysis did not result in significantdifferences between the human remains and the associated pale-ofauna (MacFadden, 1981: p. 9; MacFadden and Wolff, 1981: p.776). A second radiocarbon date from the Ñuapua human remainsprovided a consistent date of 7200 � 400 BP (Marshall et al., 1984:p. 34). In addition, Lynch (1990: p. 16) mentions an additionalradiocarbon date from Glyptodon remains that produced the date of21,000 BP, and two amino-acid racemization dates of13,000 � 3000 (AGL-034) and 14,500 � 2500 (AGL-002-H), citingan unpublished report by Wolff and colleagues. The amino-acidracemization dates might correspond to the work of Davies(1978) and Protsch (1979). The latter, as indicated above, maypose serious problems of credibility. The human remains of Ñuapuaare currently curated at the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural, inLa Paz.

In 1984, Arellano López (1986) conducted archaeologicalexplorations at Ñuapua describing a stratigraphic sequence thatcorroborated the paleontological findings. He reported the pres-ence of paleofauna in association with lithic artifacts that includedretouched quartzite flakes, burins, and scrapers; but no projectilepoints (Arellano López, 1986: pp. 51e52). Arellano López alsoreports the presence of a later ceramic occupation in Ñuapua andthe very fragmented remains of a second human individual. Inaddition, Lizarraga-Mehringer (2004) briefly visited the site, in1997, during the research for his dissertation, and collected addi-tional stone tools.

More recently, a team of Italian and Bolivian geologists returnedto Ñuapua (renaming the site with its proper Guarani toponym ofÑuagapua) and conducted new research to determine the associ-ation between humans and paleofauna (Coltorti et al., 2010, 2012).Their work primarily consisted of geomorphological reconstruc-tions based on descriptions and cross-linking stratigraphicsequences from naturally occurring profiles at the creek. Here, theyfound several lithic tools in association with animal fossils beneathseveral metres of Quaternary deposits. They also collected threesamples for radiometric dating. The youngest sample correspondsto a wooden plank dated to historic times (140 � 50 BP, Beta-197971) and deposited below 3 m of alluvium. The two olderdates are somewhat consistent with previous dates, and mightsupport the presence of human occupation during the Early Holo-cene. One sample was AMS dated to 6870 � 50 BP (Beta-194692)and consists of soil sediment deposited approximately 9 m belowthe surface in association with pottery and flint fragments (Coltortiet al., 2010: Table 1). The second sample was dated to 5980 � 80 BP(Beta-197969) and corresponds to charcoal from a hearth identified7 m beneath the surface in a naturally occurring profile (Coltortiet al., 2010: Fig. 3). Additional stone tools and ceramics werecollected in association with these dates as well as bone remains ofEquus, Vicugna, and other fossil taxa.

The site of Ñuapua is significant not only because of theextraordinary finding of Early Holocene human remains, but alsobecause of its remarkable association with extinct megafauna,including glyptodonts, giant ground sloths, horses, camelids, andeven mastodonts. This site has been often cited as the only datedearly human settlement in Bolivia (e.g., Lynch, 1990: p. 16; Borrero,2009: p. 149). The site has been interpreted as a Holocene paleo-


http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/

Fig. 3. Calibrated radiocarbon dates from early human occupations in Bolivia (data from Table 1).


refuge and the presence of human remains suggests their ecologicalrole as predators (MacFadden, 1981; Lynch, 1990). The recent studycarried out by Coltorti et al. (2010, 2012) supports the interpreta-tion of the role of humans as predators of surviving megafaunawellinto more recent time periods. Although the new dates andgeomorphological research add significant information on theunique attributes of the site, more research is required, includingsystematic work for establishing the specific nature of humansettlements and activities. Complementary research should includedirect dating of extinct megafauna, zooarchaeological studies ofanimal bones for evidence of human modifications, and tapho-nomic assessments of the site (Barnosky and Lindsey, 2010).

4.2. Inter-Andean valleys

4.2.1. Tarija and San LuisThe Tarija Basin located in southern Bolivia is famously known

for its thick Quaternary beds that include abundant paleontolog-ical remains of extinct fauna (e.g., Echazú, 1905; Hoffstetter, 1963;MacFadden and Wolff, 1981; Marshall et al., 1984; Marshall andSempere, 1991). Various expeditions from several countries wereconducted in Tarija between the 1830s and 1920s, resulting inmany collections of Quaternary extinct vertebrate paleofauna. Inaddition, local people speculated about the association of thesefindings and human remains. In 1942, at the request of Frenchnaturalist Paul Rivet, geologist Victor Oppenheim explicitly carriedout a geological survey of the Tarija Basin to assess the associationbetween fossil beds and human remains. Oppenheim (1943)identified several taxa of extinct fauna but categorically deniedthe association between these specimens and human occupations.In his words, human remains “should be attributed to the late pre-Columbian or even more recent inhabitants of the region”(Oppenheim, 1943: p. 555). Much later, MacFadden et al. (1983),using the magnetic polarity method, dated the Tarija Basin to theEnsenadan Formation (1.2e0.7 Ma), implying temporal incom-patibility between the fossil beds and human remains. However,Tonni et al. (2009) have recently cross-dated the Tarija fossil bedsand geological units with the well-studied Argentinean Pampeanchronological standard, suggesting that the Tarija Quaternarydeposits extend over most of the Quaternary, including the


Lujanian Formation (700,000e11,000 a), opening up the possi-bility for coexistence between humans and extinct megafauna (seealso Coltorti et al., 2007).

In 1987, a partially mineralized human skeleton was discoveredin the Tarija neighborhood of San Luis. A bone sample from theseremains was exported by B. Arózqueta and H.J. Siber and analyzedat the Ion Beam Geophysics Lab of the Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology (PSI/ETH Zürich), giving an AMS radiocarbon date of7640 � 50 BP (Delcourt, 2001: p. 11). Although the context of theSan Luis human skeleton is unclear, this date suggests that humanswere occupying the basin during the Middle Archaic and promptsa reassessment of the co-existence between humans and paleo-fauna. More recently, Philippe Delcourt (2001, 2003) has reportedfindings of rock shelters and open-air sites containing Preceramicoccupations in western Tarija, including Cerro Cobre, Rejara,Mecoya, Quebrada Honda, Laguna Taxara, Copacabana, Yunchará,and Iscayachi (see also Michel López et al., 2000; Ventura et al.,2010). In addition to different projectile point types, the presenceof fish tail points at some of these sites is intriguing. The humanremains from San Luis are currently curated at the Museo NacionalPaleontológico y Arqueológico, in Tarija, but more research isrequired to determine the presence of early humans in the valley.

4.2.2. San LucasClaudia Rivera Casanovas and Sergio Calla Maldonado (2011)

have recently carried out a survey of the San Lucas region in theupper Cinti Valley of western Chuquisaca (see also RiveraCasanovas, 2004). As a result, they reported 33 Archaic Periodsettlements, of which about 58% were located in the high sierra and42% in lower quebradas. Only two sites were larger than 1 ha, whilemost consisted of small camp sites. Their work in the valleyincluded cleaning up a naturally occurring profile in a river cut. Theprofile unveiled evidence of human occupation with a hearth andan associated occupation surface covered by approximately 6 m ofalluvium. An AMS date of the hearth produced the date of7041 � 60 BP (OZK-824) or 7938e7689 cal BP (Rivera Casanovasand Calla Maldonado, 2011: Table 2). In addition, they provideda typology of projectile points and other stone tools that suggestspeople in the valleys and highlands shared a similar technologicaltradition.



4.3. Highlands

4.3.1. PumiriJavier Méncias (2012) and Dagner Salvatierra (2012) conducted

research in Pumiri, near Turco (in the Department of Oruro), andthe little known Sora Sora obsidian source (Avila Salinas, 1975;Burger et al., 2000). Here, they excavated a rock shelter (URR-001)associated with a possibly early rock art style and documented over2 m of stratigraphic deposition, including a substantial ArchaicPeriod sequence (Méncias, 2012). Through collaboration, a charcoalsample from the deepest clear human occupation level of this site(1.85 m below the surface) was AMS 14C dated to 4441 � 45 BP(AA96432, d13C ¼ �22.3) or 4867e5036 cal BP. This level wasassociated with a large foliated projectile point, manufactured inlocally available chert, a small obsidian triangular stemmedprojectile point, an obsidian core, and numerous flakes.

4.3.2. Salar de CoipasaDuring fieldwork conducted for reconstructing the sequence of

paleolakes in the southern and central altiplano (see above), Placzeket al. (2006) identified a rock shelter locatedon the shores of Salar deCoipasa. Site 7 e of their study e is located at 3660 m asl and isassociatedwith a steep tufa encrusted slope on the border of the saltflat. The rock shelter included a naturally occurring profile withcoarsely stratified anthropogenic sediments described as brownsandy-silts with abundant charcoal, bone, and stone tool fragments(Placzek et al., 2006: Sup. mat.). Scattered lithic flakes and approx-imately 20 rhomboid and foliated projectile points were foundwithin a 10-m radius. Two charcoal samples from the bottom andtop of the anthropogenic layers of the profile were analyzed,producing a date range between 5636 and 5397 BP or6440e6000 cal BP (Placzek et al., 2006: Table 1). The absence oflacustrine sediments over the dated archaeological depositssuggests neither subsequent lake transgression during or after thehuman occupation of this site nor a possible regional wetlandexpansion (Placzek et al., 2006: p. 527). This human occupation issignificantbecausenotonly it is oneof the fewdatedsites in this areaof the altiplano, but also because it shows that there were humangroups occupying this region during the Mid-Holocene, a time ofprobable increased aridity and environmental unpredictability (seeBaker et al., 2005; Núñez et al., 2005; Grosjean et al., 2007).

4.3.3. IrocoIroco is located in the northern margin of Lake Uru-Uru in the

Department of Oruro. Here, the authors have been carrying outfieldwork research since 2003, first as part of the EnvironmentalImpact Assessment (EIA) study of the Kori Chaca Mining Projectand, subsequently as part of a research project focused on earlycamelid pastoralism (Albarracin-Jordan, 2005b; Capriles, 2011;Capriles et al., 2011). Iroco includes typical highland habitats suchas lakeshores, floodplains and foothills, with characteristically openvegetation composed of grasslands and shrublands. During theHolocene, the climate of the area fluctuated, producing alternatingstages of lacustrine and riverine environments (Rigsby et al., 2005).

During systematic high-intensity, full-coverage survey of38.35 km2, 35 Archaic Period settlements were documented(Capriles, 2011; Capriles et al., 2011). Based on site size andcontents, a diversity of settlements was identified, including lithicworkshops, home bases, and logistical and stationary camps. Onlythree sites were larger than 0.5 ha. In 2005, systematic collectionsand excavations were conducted at one of these sites, KCH20(Albarracin-Jordan, 2005b). All surface artifacts were collected from96 (25 m2) plots. As a result, 4439 lithic artifacts were collected,mainly consisting of flakes and debitage (91%). However, completeand fragmented stone tools were also present, including several


types of projectile points, preforms, unifacial scrapers, bifaces,knifes, and burins. The most frequent rawmaterial was black basalt(62%), followed by two types of chert (23%), and other less frequentraw materials, including obsidian. Black basalt probably originatedat Querimita, a quarry located in the southwestern shore of LakePoopó (see Michel López, 2008).

The first five excavation units produced interesting stratigraphicinformation but only a handful of stone tools, mostly depositedwithin a discrete silt layer of occupation covered by aeolian sandydeposits. However, in Unit 6, located in the northeast of the site,a large and dense feature was identified, containing several stonetools and animal bone remains associated with a silt layer. Thefeature consisted of a sub-rectangular shaped trash pit or cappedhearth surrounded by large cobbles and stains of possible post-holes, and measured 1.2 m by 1 m long and 15 cm deep. Lithicremains recovered from this feature included 155 specimensincluding three projectile points, seven scrapers, a quartzitepercussion hammer, and dozens of flakes from different rawmaterials. Two shouldered and stemmed projectile points (Caprileset al., 2011: Fig. 4a, h) recovered from the feature, in Unit 6, sug-gested the site was occupied during the Early Archaic (Type 1B inKlink and Aldenderfer, 2005: p. 31). The faunal remains consisted of446 bone specimens, comprising guanaco-sized camelids, deer,wild guinea pigs, ducks, coots, and avocets with clear evidence ofburning and breakage, demonstrating they were deposited asa result of human butchery, consumption, and discard activities(Capriles, 2011). Two AMS radiocarbon dates from animal bonecollagen recovered from the trash pit feature produced the agerange of 8314e8059 BP or 9289e8729 cal BP (Capriles, 2011:Table 7.2). The frequency and distribution of lithic artifacts impliesthat tool manufacture and maintenance activities were carried outat the site. Moreover, the archaeofaunal evidence suggests anintensive activity area that included in situ food preparation,consumption, and discard (Capriles, 2011). Site KCH20, at Iroco,serves as a baseline for understanding the foraging subsistenceeconomy in the altiplano during the Early Archaic Period.

4.3.4. Cueva BautistaFollowing up on questions that emerged during the San Cris-

tobal Mining Project Environmental Impact Assessment, survey andexcavations were conducted in the Sora River valley (locatedbetween San Agustín and Alota, in Lípez), in 2008 and 2010(Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011). As a result, 17 ArchaicPeriod settlements were documented, eleven of which correspondto caves and rock shelters. Some of these sites include evidence ofPaleoamerican origin (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011). In2008, a 1 m2 test pit was excavated in Cueva Bautista (AL03), sit-uated at 3932 m asl. The unit was located at the center of the caveand produced a 1.8 m deep stratigraphic sequence. The uppermostlayers were composed of pre-Hispanic occupations, includinga Formative Period ritual cache dated to 3111 � 54 BP or3384e3101 cal BP (AA84157). More importantly, at 1.7 m below thesurface and beneath approximately 80 cm of culturally-sterilenaturally deposited fill, an occupation level associated with lithicartifacts and carbonized wood was identified. A charcoal samplefrom this occupation surface was AMS dated to 10,917 � 69 BP or12,989e12,806 cal BP (AA84158). Lithic artifacts recovered from theLate Pleistocene stratum at Cueva Bautista included five lightbrown chert flakes, one red jasper flake, one chalcedony flake, fiveobsidian flakes (one with retouch), and one black basalt flake.Most of the identified lithic raw materials are locally andregionally available, but the closest known obsidian source isLaguna Blanca/Zapaleri, near the Bolivian-Chilean-Argentineanborder, and roughly 150 km south of the site (Nielsen, 2004;Yacobaccio et al., 2004; Seelenfreund et al., 2010).



Currently, Cueva Bautista is the earliest, archaeologically docu-mented, settlement in Bolivian territory and one of the earliestarchaeological sites in the south central Andes (Albarracin-Jordanand Capriles, 2011). The site’s early occupation is consistent witha few early settlements such as Tuina and Salar Punta Negra in theAtamaca Desert (Núñez et al., 2002; Grosjean et al., 2005) and itsimportance for understanding human colonization of, and adap-tation to, high altitude ecosystems in the Andes, during the LatePleistocene, cannot be overlooked. The southern altiplano of Bolivianeeds much more scientific attention, not just in terms of recon-structive approaches, but also in terms of methodological advancesand theory building processes. The authors are currently conduct-ing more research at Cueva Bautista and its surroundings.

5. Conclusions

5.1. Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene archaeology in Bolivia

Bolivia is a country with a vast number of archaeological sites,representing a broad spectrum of cultural manifestations throughtime and space. Unfortunately, very little research has been done toaddress issues related to the earliest human presence in the diverseregions that comprise the country. This paper presented an over-view and assessment of the research framework associated withArchaic Period sites. Although many weaknesses remain, ongoingstudies have begun to fill in the main gaps and to provide a clearand robust set of data. Until fairly recently, Archaic Period archae-ology in Bolivia, based mostly on typological comparisons withsequences from neighboring countries, was limited to chronolog-ical speculation (e.g., Arellano López, 2000). Furthermore, ArchaicPeriod archaeology in Bolivia, in strong contrast with neighboringcountries (with the sole exception of Paraguay), has been slow inproducing substantial data. Until recently, very little was knownabout the distant past in this part of the Andes. However, the newgeneration of Bolivian archaeologists is beginning to redress thissituation. Currently, significant data concerning the Paleoamericancolonization of this part of the Andes is being systematicallycollected. Moreover, the Early Archaic occupation of variousecological zones in Bolivia is receiving more attention. Thearchaeological context and radiocarbon dates of San Lucas, San Luis,and Ñuapua suggest the presence of human inhabitants in theinter-Andean valleys and Chaco lowlands of southern Bolivia by atleast 8000 cal BP. The possible association of early hunter-gathererswith paleofauna, extending into the Holocene is an intriguingquestion that awaits resolution (Coltorti et al., 2012). Follow-upresearch in San Lucas and future work in the valleys of Tarijaought to provide important complementary information withrespect to earlier sites. Although some sites might be covered byconsiderable alluvium accumulated throughout the Holocene,archaeological work in rock shelters and caves, river cuts and fossilbeds, should contribute to a larger corpus of information. Addi-tionally, bioanthropological assessment and geochemical testing onthe human remains of San Luis and Ñuapua, as well as on thehuman skeletons of Cochabamba, are other important areas forfuture research.

In the highlands, the abundance of Archaic Period occupationshistorically documented in surveys and excavations is considerable.Although few of these sites have been radiometrically dated, theypoint towards significant human presence beginning as early as ca.13,000 cal BP. The earliest human groups that colonized thecontinent already possessed the complex social, symbolic, andtechnological sophistication that characterizes our species(Dillehay, 2008; Goebel et al., 2008; Meltzer, 2009). In fact, theearliest colonization of the Andes involved complex processes ofbiological and cultural adaptation to unique environmental


circumstances (Aldenderfer, 2008). These processes along withspecific strategic evolutionary responses to challenging environ-mental factors are susceptible to comparative research. Forinstance, given that paleoenvironmental research suggests thatbetween 13,000 and 11,000 cal BP, the altiplano was covered byextensive lakes, the earliest human adaptations to high-elevationenvironments might be related to foraging on lacustrineresources, and not merely limited to the exploitation of relativelylarge mammals, such as wild camelids or deer.

The complex geography of the Andean highlands includesabundant locations with potentially well-preserved evidence ofearly human occupations. The few available dated sites indicate thepresence of human occupations in the Bolivian highlandsthroughout the Holocene. The dispersion of highland sites calls formore research involving systematic excavations and radiocarbondating of both open-air sites and stratified rock shelters. Asresearch continues, it is expected that questions related to thedevelopment of specific cultural traditions, economic systems, andprocesses of animal and plant domestication, would certainly beaddressed using evidence recovered from these sites.

In a recent assessment of the Archaic Period archaeology of thesouth central Andes, Aldenderfer (2009: p. 81) asked, “where is theBolivian Archaic?” This paper, in part, responds to this fundamentalquestion. Three factors that emerged during the 1990s contributedsubstantially to the growing interest in Paleoamerican and ArchaicPeriod research. First, the growing number of archaeological impactstudies, carried out for mining, hydrocarbon, and infrastructureprojects, has increased the number and types of archaeological sitesknown in Bolivia. Work in Iroco (Oruro) and Cueva Bautista (Potosí)derived from archaeological impact studies that were part ofenvironmental impact assessments. Second, a new generation ofstudents from Universidad Mayor de San Andrés has successfullyrenewed interest on much belated research topics. Whereas,between 1952 and 1985, Bolivian archaeology was controlled bystate organizations that focused almost entirely on Tiwanaku andother “monumental” sites, the creation of an archaeology depart-ment in 1986 encouraged investigation of a wider range of topicsincluding earlier chronological periods. Finally, increased collabo-ration between Bolivian and foreign researchers has produced newopportunities for improving academic training, accessing researchresources for specialized analyses, and broadening the significanceof carrying out comprehensive archaeological studies.

5.2. Early human settlement in Bolivia: research prospects

A number of Quaternary paleontological localities have beendescribed in Bolivia (Hoffstetter, 1968; MacFadden and Wolff,1981; Marshall et al., 1984; Marshall and Sempere, 1991;Mamani Quispe and Andrade Flores, 2003). Several of these sitesdate earlier than the Late Pleistocene, but some are younger (i.e.,Lujanian) and could potentially include evidence of associationbetween human remains and paleofauna, as in the case of Ñuapuaand possibly San Luis (Fig. 1). Unfortunately, most of the paleon-tological research has focused on collecting and describing speci-mens with little in situ taphonomic and paleoecological research.However, the location and distribution of these sites in addition tothe diversity of animals they contain should provide importantinformation regarding the paleoenvironment, subsistence, andcharacter of the earliest human occupations in Bolivian territory.Well-preserved, yet exposed, Quaternary fossil beds are oftenassociated with geological faulting. Future research near andaround recent faults (Lavenu et al., 2000) could be potentiallyproductive for predicting fossil locations in association with earlyhuman occupations. The correlation between paleontological fossilbeds, geological faulting, and the location of the four known early



human skeletons, suggests this might be an interesting venue forfurther research.

It is certain that increased archaeological research in the Boli-vian highlands will continue to increase the number of early sites.As Dillehay (2000: p. 182) predicted a decade ago, “more searchingin the high puna and altiplano of the central and southern Andesmay bring to light more rock shelters with early occupation.”Nevertheless, along with an increased number of sites, ArchaicPeriod archaeology in Bolivia has to move beyond culture-historysystematics and typological work and focus on theory driven andproblem oriented research (Lanata and Borrero, 1999; Politis,2003). For example, economic utilization strategies can be relatedto evolutionary questions using explicit expectations from optimalforaging theory. Favorably, some of this work is already occurring.For instance, Jiménez (2012) is approaching her research in Mar-kanasa by employing an explicitly ecological approach thataddresses the development of ecological adaptations to highlandenvironments. Calla Maldonado (2011) has also approached theArchaic Period occupations of the Tiwanaku valley using an explicitMarxist approach that connects social formations to subsistencestrategies. Ongoing research in Iroco and Cueva Bautista involvesthe analysis of settlement patterns and technological organizationin terms of resilient ecological adaptations to climate change, in thecontext of environmental constraints on social and economicdecisions (Albarracin-Jordan and Capriles, 2011; Capriles, 2011;Capriles et al., 2011).

Moreover, ongoing and new survey and excavations projectshave to be complemented by updated documentation protocolsand specialized contextual and artifact analyses. Future workshould include specialized zooarchaeological, paleoethnobotanical,and geoarchaeological studies for addressing research-orientedquestions. Lithic studies should move beyond describing projec-tile points to characterize assemblages in terms of technologicalorganization and explain changes in settlement systems. Finally, itis essential to date these assemblages and to compare them towell-studied complexes fromPeru, Chile, and Argentina (Rick andMoore,1999; Lavallée, 2000; De Souza, 2004; Klink and Aldenderfer, 2005;Núñez et al., 2005; Santoro et al., 2005; Aldenderfer, 2009; Ascheroand Hocsman, 2011; Hoguin and Yacobaccio, 2012).

An important limitation for research in Bolivia is the availabilityof funds for radiocarbon dating. Only well-funded projects havebeen able to afford thehigh costs of radiocarbondates. This is an areawhere collaborations with other scholars (including other Quater-nary scientists) could make a difference and produce significantresults. The integration between paleoclimatological data andarchaeological researchhasbeen successful in southernPeru (Rigsbyet al., 2003; Craig et al., 2010) and northern Chile (Grosjean et al.,2007; Santoro et al., 2011), but these collaborations, for the mostpart, are still absent in Bolivia, and therefore, this is an area inwhichfuture work should categorically develop. Furthermore, collabora-tion with paleoclimatologists is essential for understanding long-term processes, such as cultural adaptations to different dimen-sions, magnitudes, and degrees of global climate change.

The archaeology of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene is anexciting, challenging, and expanding field in Bolivian archaeology.There are plenty of opportunities for making significant discoveriesand contributing to broader research issues in New Worldarchaeology, including the early peopling of the continent, humanevolutionary adaptations to high-elevation environments, domes-tication of plants and animals, population dynamics in relation toglobal climate change, early social interaction, and the role ofhumans in the extinction of megafauna. Learning more about theearly peopling of the Andes, the Amazon and La Plata basins willalso lead to a better understanding of the sources of culturaldiversity that still puzzle scholars from diverse scientific fields.


Acknowledgements

Our research in Iroco and Cueva Bautista received funding fromthe National Geographic Society, the National Science Foundation,the Bartolomé de Las Casas Foundation, Monopol, FactumxIngeniería, and Washington University in St. Louis. The radio-carbon dates from Markanasa, Pumiri, Iroco, and Cueva Bautistawere supported by discount fees from the NSF-University of Ari-zona AMS-Facility. We would like to thank Gustavo Politis, LucianoPrates, Lucas Bueno, and James Steele for inviting us to participatein the South American Radiocarbon Database Project and for theiruseful recommendations on the paper. We would also like toexpress our gratitude to Dave Browman, Alejandra Domic, BlaineMaley, Fiona Marshall, and two anonymous reviewers forproviding many helpful comments and suggestions on an earlierversion of this paper.

References

Abbott, M.B., Seltzer, G.O., Kelts, K.R., Southon, J., 1997. Holocene Paleohydrology ofthe Tropical Andes from Lake Records. Quaternary Research 47 (1), 70e80.

Abbott, M.B., Wolfe, B.B., Wolfe, A.P., Seltzer, G.O., Aravena, R., Mark, B.G.,Polissar, P.J., Rodbell, D.T., Rowe, H.D., Vuille, M., 2003. Holocene Paleohydrologyand glacial history of the Central Andes using multiproxy Lake sedimentstudies. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194 (1e3),123e138.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., Capriles, J.M., 2011. The Paleoamerican occupation of CuevaBautista: Late Pleistocene human evidence from the Bolivian Highlands.Current Research in the Pleistocene 28, 95e98.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., Matthews, J.E., 1990. Asentamientos Prehispánicos en el Vallede Tiwanaku, vol. 1. Producciones Cima, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., Michel López, M., 1998. Diagnóstico Arqueológico en la Regiónde San Cristóbal, Provincia Nor Lípez, Departamento Potosí: Informe de Pros-pección Regional. Report submitted to the Dirección Nacional de Antropología yArqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 1992. Prehispanic and Early Colonial Settlement Patterns inthe Lower Tiwanaku Valley, Bolivia. Ph.D. Dissertation, Southern MethodistUniversity, Dallas.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 1996. Tiwanaku: Arqueología Regional y Dinámica Segmen-taria. Plural Editores, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 1999. Evaluación Arqueológica en la Región de San Cristóbal:Recolecciones Intensivas de Superficie y Mapeo de Sitios en Áreas de FuturoImpacto Minero (Tesorera, Jayula, Ánimas y Cerrillos). Report submitted to theDirección Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2000a. San Cristóbal: La Carretera Hacia el Océano Pacífico(Vía Ollagüe) y el Impacto a los Sitios Arqueológicos. Informe de ProspecciónArqueológica. Report submitted to the Dirección Nacional de Antropología yArqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2000b. Prospección Arqueológica en Bancos de Préstamo yVariantes de la Futura Carretera a Ollagüe. Report submitted to the DirecciónNacional de Antropología y Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2005a. Proyecto San Bartolomé: Estudio de Evaluación deImpacto Arqueológico (EEIAR). Report submitted to the Dirección Nacional deAntropología y Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2005b. Empresa Minera Inti Raymi, Proyecto Kori Chaca:Estudio de Evaluación de Impacto Arqueológico (EEIAR). Report submitted tothe Dirección Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2006. Carretera Oruro-Pisiga: Estudio de Evaluación deImpacto Arqueológico (EEIAR). Report submitted to the Dirección Nacional deAntropología y Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2007. La Formación del Estado Prehispánico en los Andes:Origen y Desarrollo de la Sociedad Segmentaria Indígena. Fundación Bartoloméde las Casas, La Paz.

Aldenderfer, M.S., Flores Blanco, L., 2011. Reflexiones para Avanzar en los Estudiosdel Período Arcaico en los Andes Centro-Sur. Chungara, Revista de AntropologíaChilena 43, 531e550.

Aldenderfer, M.S., 1989. The Archaic Period in the south-central Andes. Journal ofWorld Prehistory 3 (2), 117e158.

Aldenderfer, M.S., 1998. Montane Foragers: Asana and the South-Central AndeanArchaic. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.

Aldenderfer, M.S., 1999. The Pleistocene/Holocene transition in Peru and its effectsupon human use of the landscape. Quaternary International 53e54, 11e19.

Aldenderfer, M.S., 2000. Late Andean hunting-collecting. In: Peregrine, P.N.,Ember, M. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Prehistory. South America, vol. 7. KluwerAcademic/Plenum Publishers, New York, pp. 195e216.

Aldenderfer, M.S., 2008. High elevation foraging Societies. In: Silverman, H.,Isbell, W.H. (Eds.), Handbook of South American Archaeology. Springer, NewYork, pp. 131e143.



Aldenderfer,M.S., 2009. KeyResearch themes in the South-Central AndeanArchaic. In:Marcus, J.,Williams,P.R. (Eds.), AndeanCivilization:aTribute toMichaelE.Moseley.Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 75e88.

Araujo, A.G.M., Neves, W.A., Piló, L.B., Atui, J.P.V., 2005. Holocene dryness andhuman occupation in Brazil during the “Archaic Gap”. Quaternary Research 64(3), 298e307.

Arellano López, J., Kuljis Meruvia, D., 1986. Antecedentes Preliminares de lasInvestigaciones Arqueológicas en la Zona Circumtitikaka de Bolivia Sector(Occidental Sur). Prehistóricas 1, 9e28.

Arellano López, J., 1984. Comunicación preliminar sobre asentamientos precer-ámicos en el sur de Bolivia. Estudios Atacameños 7, 85e92.

Arellano López, J., 1986. Ñuapua un Asentamiento Paleoindígena en Bolivia. Pre-históricas 1, 49e60.

Arellano López, J., 1987. Primeras Evidencias sobre el Paleoindio en Bolivia. EstudiosAtacameños 8, 186e197.

Arellano López, J., 1992. El Desarrollo Cultural Prehispánico en el Altiplano y VallesInterandinos de Bolivia. In: Meggers, B.J. (Ed.), Prehistoria Sudamericana:Nuevas Perspectivas. Taraxacum, Washington, D.C, pp. 309e325.

Arellano López, J., 2000. Arqueología de Lipes: Altiplano Sur de Bolivia. MuseoJacinto Jijón y Caamaño, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito.

Argollo, J., Mourguiart, P., 2000. Late Quaternary climate history of the Bolivianaltiplano. Quaternary International 72 (1), 37e51.

Aschero, C.A., Hocsman, S., 2011. Arqueología de las Ocupaciones Cazadoras-Recolectoras de Fines del Holoceno Medio de Antofagasta de la Sierra (PunaMeridional Argentina). Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena 43, 393e411.

Avila Salinas, W., 1975. Elementos Trazas de Algunas Obsidianas Bolivianas. Pub-licación No. 4. Instituto Nacional de Arqueología, La Paz.

Baker, P.A., Seltzer, G.O., Fritz, S.C., Dunbar, R.B., Grove, M.J., Tapia, P.M., Cross, S.L.,Rowe, D., Broda, J.P., 2001. The history of South American tropical precipitationfor the past 25,000 Years. Science 291 (5504), 640e643.

Baker, P.A., Fritz, S.C., Garland, J., Ekdahl, E., 2005. Holocene hydrologic variation atLake Titicaca, Bolivia/Peru, and its relationship to North Atlantic climate vari-ation. Journal of Quaternary Science 20 (7e8), 655e662.

Barfield, L., 1961. Recent discoveries in the Atacama Desert and the Bolivian Alti-plano. American Antiquity 27 (1), 93e100.

Barnosky, A.D., Lindsey, E.L., 2010. Timing of Quaternary megafaunal extinction inSouth America in relation to human arrival and climate change. QuaternaryInternational 217 (1e2), 10e29.

Baucom, P.C., Rigsby, C.A., 1999. Climate and Lake-level history of the Northernaltiplano, Bolivia, as recorded in Holocene sediments of the Rio Desaguadero.Journal of Sedimentary Research 69, 597e611.

Berazain, J.C., 1995. Transición Socioeconómica y Cultural de las Bandas de Caza-dores Recolectores Epipaleolíticos en el Sector Circunlacustre de Laguna Colo-rada, Sud Lípez. Licenciatura Thesis. Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz.

Berberián, E.E., Arellano López, J., 1978. Los Cazadores y Recolectores Tempranos enla Región de Lípez (Departamento Potosí). Publicación No. 28. Instituto Nacionalde Arqueología, La Paz.

Berberián, E.E., Arellano López, J., 1980. Desarrollo Cultural Prehispánico en elAltiplano Sur de Bolivia (Pcias. Nor y Sud Lipez e Dpto. Potosí) PrimeraAproximación. Revista do Museo Paulista 27, 259e281.

Berger, R., Protsch, R., 1991. Fluorine dating. In: Göksu, H.Y., Oberhofer, M.,Regulla, D. (Eds.), Scientific Dating Methods. Kluwer Academic Publishers,Dordrecht, pp. 251e270.

Blom, D.E., Janusek, J.W., 2005. Explicando la Diversidad: Migración e IntercambioComercial en los Valles Orientales, Icla-Bolivia. Textos Antropológicos 15 (2),93e110.

Bonnichsen, R., 2005. An introduction to Paleoamerican origins. In: Bonnichsen, R.,Lepper, B.T., Stanford, D., Waters, M.R. (Eds.), Paleoamerican Origins: BeyondClovis. Center for the First Americans, College Station, pp. 3e19.

Borrero, L.A., 2009. The elusive evidence: the archaeological record of the SouthAmerican extinct megafauna. In: Haynes, G. (Ed.), American MegafaunalExtinctions at the End of the Pleistocene. Springer, New York, pp. 145e168.

Brockington, D., Pereira Herrera, D., Sanzetenea, R., Muñoz, M.A., 1995. EstudiosArqueológicos del Periodo Formativo en el Sur-Este de Cochabamba,1988e1989. In: Cuadernos de Investigación Serie Arqueológica, vol. 8. Uni-versidad Mayor de San Simón, Cochabamba.

Browman, D.L., 1981. New light on Andean Tiwanaku. American Scientist 69 (4),408e419.

Bruhns, K.O., 1994. Ancient South America. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Burger, R.L., Mohr-Chávez, K.L., Chávez, S.J., 2000. Through the glass darkly: pre-

hispanic obsidian procurement and exchange in Southern Peru and NorthernBolivia. Journal of World Prehistory 14 (3), 267e362.

Bush, M.B., Hanselman, J.A., Gosling, W.D., 2010. Nonlinear climate change andAndean feedbacks: an imminent turning point? Global Change Biology 16 (12),3223e3232.

Calla Maldonado, S.A., 2011. Prospección Arqueológica en el Valle Alto de Tiwanaku,Contribuciones al Estudio de la Evolución del Asentamiento Prehispánico en elValle de Tiwanaku. Licenciatura Thesis, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, LaPaz.

Capriles, J.M., Tapia Matamala, O., Segurola, J.C., Palomino, S.D., Flores Bedregal, E.,Azeñas, V., Aramayo Baeza, P., Herrera Carrasco, O., 2008. Informe Final delProyecto Análisis Arqueológico en Mojocoya. Report Submitted to the Govern-ment of Chuquisaca and the National Unit of Archaeology of Bolivia, La Paz.

Capriles, J.M., Calla Maldonado, S., Albarracin-Jordan, J., 2011. Tecnología Lítica yEstrategias de Subsistencia durante los Períodos Arcaico y Formativo en el


Altiplano Central, Bolivia. Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena 43,455e468.

Capriles, J.M., 2007. Inventario, Diagnóstico y Jerarquización de Recursos Arqueo-lógicos en la Zona Norte del Lago Titikaka, Bolivia. Report Submitted to Vice-Ministry of Tourism and the National Unit of Archaeology of Bolivia, La Paz.

Capriles, J.M., 2011. The Economic Organization of Early Camelid Pastoralism in theAndean Highlands of Bolivia. Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington University, St.Louis.

Chepstow-Lusty, A., Bush, M.B., Frogley, M.R., Baker, P.A., Fritz, S.C., Aronson, J., 2005.Vegetation and climate change on the Bolivian altiplano between 108,000 and18,000 yr ago. Quaternary Research 63 (1), 90e98.

Cipolla, L.M., 2005. Preceramic period settlement patterns in the Huancané-PutinaRiver Valley, Northern Titicaca Basin, Peru. In: Stanish, C., Cohen, A.B.,Aldenderfer, M.S. (Eds.), 2005. Advances in Titicaca Basin Archaeology, vol. 1.Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles,pp. 55e63.

Clayton, J.D., Clapperton, C.M., 1997. Broad Synchrony of a Late-Glacial glacieradvance and the highstand of Palaeolake Tauca in the Bolivian altiplano. Journalof Quaternary Science 12 (3), 169e182.

Coltorti, M., Abbazzi, L., Ferretti, M., Iacumin, P., Paredes Rios, F., Pellegrini, M.,Pieruccini, P., Rustioni, M., Tito, G., Rook, L., 2007. Last glacial mammals in SouthAmerica: a new scenario from the Tarija Basin (Bolivia). Naturwissenschaften94 (4), 288e299.

Coltorti, M., Della Fazia, J., Paredes Rios, F., Tito, G., 2010. The Ñuagapua alluvial fansequence: early and late Holocene human-induced changes in the BolivianChaco? Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 121 (2), 218e228.

Coltorti, M., Della Fazia, J., Paredes Rios, F., Tito, G., 2012. Ñuagapua (Chaco, Bolivia):evidence for the Latest Occurrence of megafauna in association with humanremains in South America. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 33 (1),56e67.

Courty, M.G., 1910. La Question du Préhistorique Américain. Bulletins et Mémoiresde la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris 6 (1), 189e190.

Craig, N., Aldenderfer, M., Baker, P., Rigsby, C., 2010. Terminal Archaic settlementpattern and land cover change in the Rio Ilave, Southwestern Lake Titicacabasin, Peru. In: Dean, R.M. (Ed.), The Archaeology of Anthropogenic Environ-ments. Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University,Carbondale, pp. 35e53.

Craig, N., 2005. The Formation of Early Settled Villages and the Emergence ofLeadership: a Test of Three Theoretical Models in the Rio Ilave, Lake TiticacaBasin, Southern Peru. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California, Santa Barbara.

Davies, D.M., 1978. Some Observations on the Otovalo skeleton and other remainsof early man in South America. Journal of Human Evolution 7 (4), 279e281.

De Souza, P., 2004. Cazadores Recolectores del Arcaico Temprano y Medio en laCuenca Superior del Río Loa: Sitios, Conjuntos Líticos y Sistemas de Asenta-miento. Estudios Atacameños 27, 7e43.

Delcourt, P., 2001. Un inventario arqueológico preliminar en el Departmento deTarija. In: Beck, S., Paniagua, N., Preston, D. (Eds.), Historia, Ambiente y Sociedaden Tarija, Bolivia. Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, LaPaz, pp. 9e23.

Delcourt, P., 2003. Panorama de la Arqueología en el Departamento de Tarija -Bolivia. In: Ortiz, G., Ventura, B. (Eds.), La Mitad de Verde del Mundo Andino:Investigaciones Arqueológicas en la Vertiente Oriental de los Andes y las TierrasBajas de Bolivia y Argentina. Universidad Nacional de Jujuy, San Salvador deJujuy, pp. 205e228.

Dillehay, T.D., 2000. The Settlement of the Americas: a New Prehistory. Basic Books,New York.

Dillehay, T.D., 2008. Profiles in Pleistocene history. In: Silverman, H., Isbell, W.H.(Eds.), The Handbook of South American Archaeology. Springer, New York,pp. 29e43.

Echazú, R., 1905. Sobre la Geología y la Paleontología del Valle de Tarija. El Comerciode Bolivia, La Paz.

Fox, J.R., 2007. Time and Process in an Early Village Settlement System on theBolivian Southern Altiplano. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Pittsburgh,Pittsburgh.

Giesso, M., 2003. Stone tool production in the Tiwanaku Heartland. In: Kolata, A.L.(Ed.), Tiwanaku and its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an AndeanCivilization. Urban and Rural Archaeology, vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution Press,Washington, D.C, pp. 363e383.

Goebel, T., Waters, M.R., O’Rourke, D.H., 2008. The Late Pleistocene dispersal ofmodern humans in the Americas. Science 319 (5869), 1497e1502.

González, A.R., 1952. Antiguo Horizonte Precerámico en las Sierras Centrales de laArgentina. Runa: Archivo para las Ciencias del Hombre 5, 110e133.

Grosjean, M., Núñez, L., Cartajena, I., 2005. Palaeoindian occupation of the AtacamaDesert, Northern Chile. Journal of Quaternary Science 20 (7e8), 643e653.

Grosjean, M., Santoro, C.M., Thompson, L.G., Núñez, L., Standen, V.G., 2007. Mid-Holocene climate and culture change in the South Central Andes. In:Anderson, D.G., Maasch, K.A., Sandweiss, D.H. (Eds.), Climate Change andCultural Dynamics: a Global Perspective on Mid-Holocene Transitions.Academic Press/Elsevier, London, pp. 51e115.

Hoffstetter, R., 1963. La Faune Pléistocéne de Tarija (Bolivie). Bulletin du MuséumNational d’Histoire Naturelle 35 (2), 194e203.

Hoffstetter, R., 1968. Ñuapua, un Gisement de Vertebrés Pléistocenes dans le ChacoBolivien. Bulletin du Muséum National d’Historie Naturelle 40 (4), 823e836.

Hoguin, R., Yacobaccio, H.D., 2012. Análisis Lítico de Ocupaciones del HolocenoMedio de Hornillos 2 (Jujuy, Argentina): Discutiendo la Tecnología y



Distribución de las Puntas de Proyectil “San Martin”. Chungara, Revista deAntropología Chilena 44 (1), 85e99.

Ibarra Grasso, D.E., Querejazu Lewis, R., 1986. 30,000 Años de Prehistoria en Bolivia.Los Amigos del Libro, Cochabamba.

Ibarra Grasso, D.E., 1954. Hallazgo de Puntas Paleolíticas en Bolivia. CuadernosAmericanos 13, 161e166.

Ibarra Grasso, D.E., 1955. Hallazgo de Puntas Paleolíticas en Bolivia. In: Anais do 31Congreso Internacional de Americanistas. Anais Anhembi, Sao Paulo,pp. 561e568.

Ibarra Grasso, D.E., 1957. El Paleolítico Inferior en América. Cuadernos Americanos16, 135e175.

Ibarra Grasso, D.E., 1965a. Trabajos Arqueológicos en Bolivia, 1960e1964. BoletínBibliográfico de Antropología Americana 26/28 (1), 11e15.

Ibarra Grasso, D.E., 1965b. Prehistoria de Bolivia. Los Amigos del Libro, Cochabamba.Ibarra Grasso, D.E., 1973. Prehistoria de Bolivia, second ed. Los Amigos del Libro,

Cochabamba.Ibisch, P.L., Beck, S.G., Gerkmann, B., Carretero, A., 2004. Ecoregions and ecosystems.

In: Ibisch, P.L., Mérida, G. (Eds.), Biodiversity: The Richness of Bolivia. Knowl-edge and Conservation Status. Ministerio de Desarrollo Sostenible, FundaciónAmigos de la Naturaleza, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, pp. 47e88.

Irahola, M., 2007. Proyecto Arqueológico “Eucaliptus”. Chachapuma: Revista deArqueología Boliviana 2, 63e64.

Janusek, J.W., 2008. Ancient Tiwanaku. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Jiménez, V., 2007. Proyecto Arqueológico Mauri “PAM”, Charaña. Chachapuma:

Revista de Arqueología Boliviana 2, 62e63.Jiménez, V., 2012. La Movilidad de los Cazadores-Recolectores en el Valle de Mar-

kanasa durante el Período Arcaico (7700e3200 AP). Licenciatura thesis, Uni-versidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz.

Jomelli, V., Khodri, M., Favier, V., Brunstein, D., Ledru, M.P., Wagnon, P., Blard, P.H.,Sicart, J.E., Braucher, R., Grancher, D., Bourles, D.L., Braconnot, P., Vuille, M., 2011.Irregular tropical glacier retreat over the Holocene epoch driven by progressivewarming. Nature 474 (7350), 196e199.

Kipnis, R., 1998. Early hunter-gatherers in the Americas: perspectives from CentralBrazil. Antiquity 72, 581e592.

Klink, C.J., Aldenderfer, M.S., 2005. A projectile point chronology for the South-Central Andean Highlands. In: Stanish, C., Cohen, A.B., Aldenderfer, M.S.(Eds.), 2005. Advances in Titicaca Basin Archaeology, vol. 1. Cotsen Institute ofArchaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 25e54.

Klink, C.J., 2005. Archaic period Research in the Río Huenque Valley, Peru. In:Stanish, C., Cohen, A.B., Aldenderfer, M.S. (Eds.), 2005. Advances in TiticacaBasin Archaeology, vol. 1. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of Cal-ifornia, Los Angeles, pp. 13e24.

Kolata, A.L., 1993. The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Blackwell,Cambridge.

Kolata, A.L., 2003. The Proyecto Wila Jawira Research Program. In: Kolata, A.L. (Ed.),Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an AndeanCivilization. Urban and Rural Archaeology, vol. 2. Smithsonian Institution Press,Washington, D.C, pp. 3e17.

Lanata, J.L., Borrero, L.A., 1999. The archaeology of hunter-gatherers in SouthAmerica: recent history and new directions. In: Politis, G.G., Alberti, B. (Eds.),Archaeology in Latin America. Routledge, London, pp. 76e89.

Lanning, E.P., Hammel, E.A., 1961. Early lithic industries of Western South America.American Antiquity 27 (2), 139e154.

Lanning, E.P., 1967. Peru Before the Incas. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs.Lavallée, D., 2000. The First South Americans: The Peopling of a Continent from the

Earliest Evidence to High Culture. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Lavenu, A., Thiele, R., Machette, M.N., Dart, R.L., Bradley, L.A., Haller, K., 2000. Maps

and Database of Quaternary Faults in Bolivia and Chile. U.S. Geological Survey,International Lithosphere Program, Denver.

Le Paige, G., 1958. Antiguas Culturas Atacameñas en la Cordillera Chilena: Época Pale-olítica. Revista Anales de la Acadamia Chilena de Ciencias Naturales 22, 139e165.

Le Paige, G., 1964. El Precerámico en la Cordillera Atacameña y los Cementerios delPeríodo Agroalfarero de San Pedro de Atacama. Anales de la Universidad delNorte 3, 1e93.

Lémuz Aguirre, C., 2001. Patrones de Asentamiento Arqueológico en la Península deSantiago de Huata, Bolivia. Licenciatura Thesis. Universidad Mayor de SanAndrés, La Paz.

LimaTórrez,M.P., LópezBejarano, J.M.,MaldonadoVargas,M.R., CastellónCampero,W.,2002. Proyecto Cala Cala: Informe de Prospección. Report submitted to the Direc-ción Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Lizarraga-Mehringer, Y., 2004. Viscachani y el Precerámico de Bolivia. Ph.D.Dissertation, University of Cologne, Cologne.

Lombardo, U., May, J.H., Veit, H. Mid- to Late-Holocene fluvial activity behind pre-columbian Social Complexity in the Southwestern Amazon Basin. The Holocene,in press.

Lynch, T.F., 1976. Current Research: Andean South America. American Antiquity 41,229e232.

Lynch, T.F., 1990. Glacial-age man in South America? A critical review. AmericanAntiquity 55, 12e36.

MacFadden, B.J., Wolff, R.G., 1981. Geological investigations of late cenozoic verte-brate bearing-deposits in Southern Bolivia. In: Anais II Congresso Latino-Americano de Paleontología, vol. 2, pp. 765e778. Porto Alegre.

MacFadden, B.J., Siles, O., Zeitler, P., Johnson, N.M., Campbell, K.E., 1983. Magneticpolarity stratigraphy of the Middle Pleistocene (Ensenadan) Tarija formation ofsouthern Bolivia. Quaternary Research 19, 172e187.


MacFadden, B.J., 1981. Collecting fossil mammals in Bolivia: the southern connec-tion. The Plaster Jacket 38, 3e20.

Mamani Quispe, B., Andrade Flores, R., 2003. Fósiles: Naturaleza en Bolivia. MuseoNacional de Historia Natural, La Paz.

Marshall, L.G., Sempere, T., 1991. The Eocene to Pleistocene vertebrates of Boliviaand their stratigraphic context: a review. Revista Técnica de Yacimientos Pet-rolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos 12 (3e4), 631e652.

Marshall, L.G., Berta, A., Hoffstetter, R., Pascual, R., Reig, O.A., Bombin, M., Mones, A.,1984. Mammals and Stratigraphy: Geochronology of the Continental Mammal-Bearing Quaternary of South America. Paleaovertebrata, Mémoire Extraordi-naire, Montpellier.

May, J.H., Veit, H., 2009. Late Quaternary Paleosols and their paleoenvironmentalsignificance along the Andean Piedmont, Eastern Bolivia. Catena 78, 100e116.

May, J.H., Zech, J., Zech, R., Preusser, F., Argollo, J., Kubik, P.W., Veit, H., 2011.Reconstruction of a Complex Late Quaternary Glacial Landscape in the Cordil-lera de Cochabamba (Bolivia) based on a Morphostratigraphic and MultipleDating Approach. Quaternary Research 76 (1), 106e118.

McCormac, F.G., Hogg, A.G., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Higham, T.F.G., Reimer, P.J.,2004. SHCal04 Southern Hemisphere Calibration 0e11.0 cal kyr BP. Radiocarbon46 (3), 1087e1092.

Meltzer, D.J., 2009. First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America.University of California Press, Berkeley.

Méncias, J.A., 2012. Aplicación de la Arqueología Rupestre en el ComplejoArqueológico de Pumiri (Provincia Sajama del Departamento de Oruro, Bolivia).Licenciatura Thesis, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz.

Menghin, O.F.A., 1954. Culturas Precerámicas en Bolivia. Runa: Archivo para lasCiencias del Hombre 6, 125e132.

Michel López, M.R., Gutiérrez, D., Beirelein de Gutiérrez, M., 2000. DiagnósticoArqueológico para la Reserva Biológica Cordillera de Sama. Report submitted tothe Dirección Nacional de Antropología y Arqueología de Bolivia, La Paz.

Michel López, M.R., 2006. Arqueología de Bolivia. In: Comte, G. (Ed.), Historia deBolivia: Período Prehispánico. Fundación Cultural Banco Central de Bolivia, LaPaz, pp. 49e183.

Michel López, M.R., 2008. Patrones de Asentamiento Precolombino del AltiplanoBoliviano. Lugares Centrales en la Región de Quillacas, Departamento de Oruro,Bolivia. Ph.D. Dissertation, Uppsala University, Uppsala.

Miotti, L.L., Salemme, M.C., 2003. South America: long and winding roads for thefirst Americans at the Pleistocene/Holocene Transition. Quaternary Interna-tional 109-110, 1e2.

Moreno, A., Santoro, C.M., Latorre, C., 2009. Climate change and human occupationin the Northernmost Chilean altiplano over the last ca. 11 500 cal. a BP. Journalof Quaternary Science 24, 373e382.

Navarro, G., Maldonado, M., 2002. Geografía ecológica de Bolivia: vegetación yambientes acuáticos. Centro de Ecología Simón I, Patiño, Cochabamba.

Nielsen, A.E., 2004. Aproximación a la Arqueología de la Frontera Tripartita Bolivia-Chile-Argentina. Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena 36 (2), 861e878.

Núñez, L., Grosjean, M., Cartajena, I., 2002. Human occupations and climate changein the Puna de Atacama, Chile. Science 298 (5594), 821e824.

Núñez, L., Grosjean, M., Cartajena, I., 2005. Ocupaciones Humanas y Paleoambientesen la Puna de Atacama. Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo,Universidad Católica del Norte, Taraxacum, San Pedro de Atacama.

Odling-Smee, F.J., Laland, K.N., Feldman, M.W., 2003. Niche Construction: theNeglected Process in Evolution. University of Princeton Press, Princeton.

Oppenheim, V., 1943. The Fossiliferous Basin of Tarija, Bolivia. Journal of Geology 51,548e555.

Osorio, D., Jackson, D., Ugalde, P.C., Latorre, C., De Pol-Holz, R., Santoro, C.M., 2011.Hakenasa Cave and its relevance for the peopling of the Southern Andeanaltiplano. Antiquity 85, 1194e1208.

Patterson, T.C., Heizer, R.F., 1965. A preceramic stone tool collection from Viscachani,Bolivia. Ñawpa Pacha 3, 107e115.

Pereira Herrera, D.L., Albarracin-Jordan, J., 1996. Pueblos y Culturas Precolombinasde Bolivia. In: Mihotek B, K. (Ed.), Comunidades, Territorios Indígenas y Bio-diversidad en Bolivia. CIMAR, Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René Moreno,Santa Cruz de la Sierra, pp. 151e167.

Placzek, C., Quade, J., Patchett, P.J., 2006. Geochronology and stratigraphy of LatePleistocene Lake cycles on the Southern Bolivian altiplano: implications forcauses of tropical climate change. Geological Society of America Bulletin 118,515e532.

Placzek, C., Quade, J., Betancourt, J.L., Patchett, P.J., Rech, J.A., Latorre, C., Matmon, A.,Holmgren, C., English, N.B., 2009. Climate in the dry Central Andes overGeologic, Millennial, and Interannual Timescales. Annals of the MissouriBotanical Garden 96 (3), 386e397.

Placzek, C.J., Quade, J., Patchett, P.J., 2011. Isotopic tracers of Paleohydrologic changein large lakes of the Bolivian altiplano. Quaternary Research 75, 231e244.

Politis, G.G., Prates, L., Pérez, S.I., 2008. El Poblamiento de América: Arqueología yBio-Antropología de los Primeros Americanos. Eudeba, Buenos Aires.

Politis, G.G., 2003. The theoretical landscape and the methodological developmentof archaeology in Latin America. Latin American Antiquity 14 (2), 115e142.

Protsch, R., 1979. New absolute dates on Upper Pleistocene fossil Hominids fromAmerica. In: Berger, R., Suess, H.E. (Eds.), Radiocarbon Dating: Proceedings ofthe Ninth International Conference, Los Angeles and La Jolla, 1976. University ofCalifornia Press, Berkeley, pp. 69e75.

Punyasena, S.W., Mayle, F.E., McElwain, J.C., 2008. Quantitative estimates of glacialand Holocene temperature and precipitation change in Lowland AmazonianBolivia. Geology 36, 667e670.


http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0959683612437872


Ravines, R., 1972. Secuencia y Cambios en los Artefactos Líticos del Sur del Perú.Revista del Museo Nacional 38, 133e184.

Reimer, P.J., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Blackwell, P.G., BronkRamsey, C., Buck, C.E., Burr, G.S., Edwards, R.L., Friedrich, M., Grootes, P.M.,Guilderson, T.P., Hajdas, I., Heaton, T.J., Hogg, A.G., Hughen, K.A., Kaiser, K.F.,Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Manning, S.W., Reimer, R.W., Richards, D.A.,Southon, J.R., Talamo, S., Turney, C.S.M., van der Plicht, J., Weyhenmeyer, C.E.,2009. IntCal09 and Marine09 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0e50,000years cal BP. Radiocarbon 51, 1111e1150.

Rick, J.W., Moore, K.M., 1999. El Precerámico de la Puna de Junín: El Punto de Vistadesde Panalauca. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 3, 263e296.

Rigsby, C.A., Baker, P.A., Aldenderfer, M.S., 2003. Fluvial history of the Rio IlaveValley, Peru, and its relationship to climate and human history. Palae-ogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 194, 165e185.

Rigsby, C.A., Bradbury, J.P., Baker, P.A., Rollins, S.M., Warren, M.R., 2005. LateQuaternary palaeolakes, rivers, and wetlands on the Bolivian altiplano and theirpalaeoclimatic implications. Journal of Quaternary Science 20, 671e691.

Rivera Casanovas, C., Calla Maldonado, S., 2011. Cazadores Recolectores del PeríodoArcaico en los Valles y Serranías de la Región de San Lucas, Chuquisaca, Bolivia.Chungara, Revista Chilena de Antropología 43, 433e454.

Rivera Casanovas, C., 2004. Regional Settlement Patterns and Political Complexity inthe Cinti Valley, Bolivia. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.

Salvatierra, D., 2012. Estudio de las Torres Funerarias (Estructuras Funerarias) enPumiri, Provincia Sajama del Departamento de Oruro. Licenciatura thesis,Universidad Mayor de San Andrés, La Paz.

Santoro, C.M., Núñez, L., 1987. Hunters of the dry puna and the salt puna inNorthern Chile. Andean Past 1, 57e109.

Santoro, C.M., Standen, V.G., Arriaza, B.T., Dillehay, T.D., 2005. Archaic funerarypattern or postdepositional alteration? The patapatane burial in the highlandsof South Central Andes. Latin American Antiquity 16, 329e346.

Santoro, C.M., Ugalde, P.C., Latorre, C., Salas, C., Osorio, D., Jackson, D., Gayó, E., 2011.Ocupación Humana Pleistocénica en el Desierto de Atacama: Primeros Resul-tados de la Aplicación de un Modelo Predictivo de Investigación Inter-disciplinaria. Chungara, Revista de Antropología Chilena 43, 353e366.

Schulz, M., 2004. Die Regeln Mache Ich. Der Spiegel 34, 128e131.Seelenfreund, A., Pino, M., Glascock, M.D., Sinclaire, C., Miranda, P., Pasten, D.,

Cancino, S., Dinator, M.I., Morales, J.R., 2010. Morphological and geochemicalanalysis of the Laguna Blanca/Zapaleri Obsidian source in the Atacama Puna.Geoarchaeology 25, 245e263.

Smith, C.A., Lowell, T.V., Caffee, M.W., 2009. Lateglacial and Holocene cosmogenicsurface exposure age glacial chronology and geomorphological evidence for thepresence of cold-based glaciers at Nevado Sajama, Bolivia. Journal of Quater-nary Science 24, 360e372.

Stanish, C., Bauer, B.S., 2004. The settlement history of the island of the sun. In:Stanish, C., Bauer, B.S. (Eds.), Archaeological Research on the Islands of the Sunand Moon, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia: Final Results of the Proyecto Tiksi Kjarka.Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California, Los Angeles, pp. 21e42.


Stanish, C., Burger, R.L., Cipolla, L.M., Glascock, M.D., Quelima, E., 2002. Evidencefor early long-distance obsidian exchange and watercraft use from theSouthern Lake Titicaca Basin of Bolivia and Peru. Latin American Antiquity13, 444e454.

Stanish, C., 2003. Ancient Titicaca: the Evolution of Complex Society in SouthernPeru and Northern Bolivia. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Street, M., Terberger, T., Orschiedt, J., 2006. A critical review of the German paleo-lithic hominin record. Journal of Human Evolution 51, 551e579.

Sylvestre, F., Servant, M., Servant-Vildary, S., Causse, C., Fournier, M., Ybert, J.P., 1999.Lake-level chronology on the Southern Bolivian altiplano (18�e23�S) duringLate-glacial time and the Early Holocene. Quaternary Research 51, 54e66.

Terberger, T., Street, M., 2003. New evidence for the chronology of the aurignacianand the question of pleniglacial settlement in Western Central Europe. In:d’Errico, F., Zilhao, J. (Eds.), The Chronology of the Aurignacian and of theTransitional Technocomplexes. Dating, Stratigraphies, Cultural Implications, vol.33. Trabalhos de Arqueologia, Lisbon, pp. 213e221. Proceedings of Symposium6.1 of the 15th Congress of the UISPP Liege, Belgium, September 2001.

Thompson, L.G., Davis, M.E., Mosley-Thompson, E., Sowers, T.A., Henderson, K.A.,Zagorodnov, V.S., Lin, P.N., Mikhalenko, V.N., Campen, R.K., Bolzan, J.F., Cole-Dai, J., Francou, B., 1998. A 25,000-year tropical climate history from Bolivian IceCores. Science 282 (5395), 1858e1864.

Thompson, L.G., Mosley-Thompson, E., Henderson, K.A., 2000. Ice-core palae-oclimate records in tropical South America since the last glacial maximum.Journal of Quaternary Science 15, 377e394.

Tonni, E.P., Soibelzon, E., Cione, A.L., Carlini, A.A., Scillato Yané, G.J., Zurita, A.E.,Paredes Ríos, F., 2009. Preliminary correlation of the Pleistocene sequences ofthe Tarija Valley (Bolivia) with the pampean chronological standard. Quater-nary International 210, 57e65.

Tripcevich, N., 2007. Quarries, Caravans, and Routes to Complexity: prehispanicObsidian in the South-Central Andes. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Cal-ifornia, Santa Barbara.

Troll, C., 1968. The cordilleras of the tropical Americas: aspects of climate, phyto-geographical and agrarian ecology. In: Troll, C. (Ed.), Geo-ecology of theMountainous Regions of the Tropical Americas. Ferd. Dummlers Verlag, Bonn,pp. 15e56.

Vela, R.A., 1964. Catálogo de la Colección Vela (Prehistoria Americana). In: Con-tribución al 36 Congreso Internacional de Americanistas. Diputación Provincialde Valencia. Servicio de Investigación Prehistórica, Valencia.

Ventura, B., Delcourt, P., Ortiz, G., Methfessel, L., Greco, C., Buitrago, W., ParedesRios, F., 2010. El Registro Arqueológico de las Antiguas Poblaciones de los VallesOrientales de la Provincia Arce, Tarija, Bolivia. Intersecciones en Antropología11, 59e72.

Vita-Finzi, C., 1959. A Pluvial Age in the Puna de Atacama. The Geographic Journal125 (3e4), 401e403.

Yacobaccio, H.D., Escola, P.S., Pereyra, F.X., Lazzari, M., Glascock, M.D., 2004. Questfor ancient routes: obsidian sourcing Research in Northwestern Argentina.Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (2), 193e204.


capriles et al 2012_early human bolivia

Documents

paleoclimatic research

paleoenvironmental research

culogical research

signicant research

andean highlands consistof

paleoenvironmental research

subandean valleys

theeastern lowlands