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Helping learners recognise and use verb+noun collocations

Assignment Focus: Systems - Lexis

Assignment Title: Helping learners recognise and use verb+noun

collocations

Word Count: 2461

Submission Date: 19th May 2012

Contents

Jennie Wright LSA 1: Helping learners recognise and use verb+noun collocations 1

Introduction ………………………………………………….. 3

2. Analysis of verb+noun collocations ………………………. 4

3. Discussion of issues for learners ………………………. 8

4. Suggestions for teaching …………………………………….. 10

5. Bibliography ………………………………………………….. 18

Introduction

Focusing this essay specifically on verb+noun collocations allows me to

address a common obstacle for both learners and teachers. In my own teaching,

I have heard the exasperated cries of learners when they are told they should

say ‘tell the truth’ rather than ‘say the truth’ without being given a clear rationale.


Consequently, I and others (Bahns 1993, Benson 1990) often find the arbitrary

aspect of collocations a challenge and this essay will attempt to find solutions to

the numerous difficulties of teaching verb+noun collocations.

Not only has my personal teaching experience pressed me to focus on

this issue, but whilst researching collocation I discovered that ‘in an analysis of

over 5000 verb-noun combinations in a written 240,000 word corpus...over a

third... were found to be collocations’ (Howard 1996:120 cited by Nadja

Nesselhauf 1996:2). This clearly demonstrates that there should be a stronger

emphasis on this aspect of ‘lexico-grammar’ (Parrot 2010:124) which occurs with

such high frequency.

Developing learners’ ability to recognise and use verb+noun collocations

can result in faster language processing in reading and writing, benefitting

fluency, speech production and comprehension of prefabricated chunks of

language (Aston 1995). Furthermore, using verb+noun collocations furnishes

learners with ‘alternative ways of saying something, which may be more colourful

/expressive or more precise’ (McCarthy & O’Dell 2005:6) and help improve

writing style with regard to register appropriateness.

Finally, investigating how verb+noun collocations are approached in

textbooks, dictionaries and vocabulary workbooks will provide me with a better

understanding of these frequently occurring combinations to further enhance my

learners’ language learning.

Analysis of verb+noun collocations

Definition


‘When two items co-occur, or are used together frequently, they are said

to collocate’ (Gairns & Redman1986:37). Some co-occurring items are more

strongly fixed than others, collocating with a higher frequency, and there are

degrees of semantic transparency. As a result, collocation ‘is best seen as part of

a continuum of strength of association’ (Thornbury 2002:7). There are many

types of collocations (adverb+adjective, adjective+noun, etc.), all featuring a

restricted choice of combinations with habitual lexico-grammatical patterning

(often called chunking).

Form and meaning

Although there are many types of collocations, verb+noun collocations

have the following features:

Basic form:

a) Infinitive + indefinite article + singular noun

To start a fight

To end a relationship

b) Infinitive + plural noun

To take photos

To pay compliments

c) Infinitive + non-countable noun

To take action

To pay attention


d) Infinitive + definite article + noun

To do the ironing

To do the dishes

e) Delexicalised verb phrases:

i. Delexicalised verb + indefinite article + noun

To give a speech

To take a break

To have an accident

ii. Delexicalised verb + non-countable noun

To make progress

iii. Delexicalised verb + plural noun

To make decisions

Fixed forms:

Often close synonyms cannot be used to replace the verb, although the

meaning is similar. In the following cases, (taken from McCarthy & O’Dell 2005)

using synonyms of the verb is not permissible:

To close a meeting NOT to shut a meeting

To start a car NOT to begin a car

To charge my mobile NOT to load my mobile

Meaning:


If an incorrect verb is used within certain verb+noun collocations, it

changes the meaning of the lexical unit and can cause misinterpretation or

confusion:

To make a joke (of someone) vs. To play a joke (on someone)

Subsequently, in order to convey the intended meaning, the correct

verb+noun combination must be used and learners need to be taught the full

pattern to avoid hindering communication.

Pronunciation

When verb+noun collocations are formed with a singular noun, the

indefinite article is normally pronounced rapidly, without stress, and with a weak

vowel sound. In these cases, the article is pronounced as a schwa /ә/.

In addition to using weak forms, which ‘is essential to smooth and

rhythmical speaking [and] gives learners insight into the speech of native

speakers’ (Underhill 2005:64), liaison also assists learners by linking final

consonant sounds to following initial vowel sounds:

Recognising and using verb+noun collocations

Recognising verb+noun collocations can be complicated as the formation

of patterns is often arbitrary and may contrast greatly with a learner’s L1. As

indicated in the introduction, identifying patterns in thematically opaque phrasal


verbs can be taxing as they are uninformative or unclear, e.g. to make up for lost

time, they made the story up.

Producing prefabricated verb+noun combinations appropriately when

speaking can result in rapid communication without learners having to process

individual words (Skehan 1992). Learners are then able to exploit verb+noun

combinations as ready-made chunks, and ‘carry them around as units, and slot

them into the message like single items’ (Willis 2003:45).

In contrast with adverb+adjective collocations, most combinations of

verb+noun ‘only have a conceptual meaning and in normal use have no

emotional or evaluative associations’ (Gairns & Redman 1986:19). Therefore, it

may be possible for learners to use verb+noun combinations more unreservedly

compared with other lexicalised chunks such as idiomatic expressions. However,

although learners may use many verb+noun collocations without apprehension

regarding negative associations, there are exceptions where register may

become an issue as the following examples demonstrate:

Typical of spoken English Typical of formal / official English

‘to get off the bus’ ‘to alight from the bus’

‘to throw away items’ ‘to dispose of unwanted items’

Discussion of issues for learners

Form, meaning and use


Although learners can be understood (or their intention be inferred) in the

majority of verb+noun collocation errors (Parrot 2010), these errors in form and

differences in meaning can negatively ‘add to the foreign flavour in the learner’s

speech and writing’ (Bahns 1993:56). While communicative competence may not

always be hindered, the correct verb+noun form is essential to avoid

misunderstandings, especially in formal or professional situations where even a

small change could cause uncertainty or even embarrassment. An example of

this would be telling work colleagues that you and your wife are ‘making a baby’

instead of ‘having a baby’. Thornbury (2002:7) calls this ‘the most elusive aspect

of the lexical system and the hardest, therefore, for learners to acquire’ which

results in common occurrences of non-standard English.

The mammoth quantity of verb+noun collocations needs to be taken into

account by both teachers and learners (The Macmillan Collocations Dictionary

has over 4500 entries and 756 pages). This needs to be carefully considered

together with the possible overload of combinations that require focused learning.

Due to the sheer quantity of arbitrary forms, Pinker (1994:152) believes that

‘there is no hope that mnemonic tricks might lighten the memorization burden’

and because of this, Pinker feels the capacity for learning so many combinations

is a real concern. However, more recently, Lindstromberg and Boers (2008) have

designed a book of tasks to combat this, opposing Pinker’s views.

Compounding the issue of quantity, new verb+noun collocations are

frequently introduced to our lexicon with rapid progression. Examples of this are

verb+noun collocations which arose with the arrival of the Internet and modern

technology, e.g. to surf the web and to syncronise an iPod.

Awareness


Parrot states that there are numerous concerns which need to be taken

into account when raising learners’ awareness of collocations. Primarily, if

learners do not have an understanding of how collocations combine to form

prefabricated chunks, ‘it may be impossible to work out the meaning from

context’ (2010:129). Due to this lack of awareness, if learners cannot recognise

‘the general phenomenon of collocation’ (Willis 2003:46) or become skilled at

noticing which verb+noun collocations are restricted, errors will undoubtedly

emerge.

Influence of L1

McAlpine and Myles (2003) cite collocation as an area heavily influenced

by L1. Learners have a tendency to directly translate verbs and nouns used in

their mother tongue to create English verb+noun collocations, resulting in

unnatural sounding speech.

One common example of L1 interference is when the ‘French use the

equivalent of take in expressions where English speakers would use have,

leading to mistakes like Let’s take a drink’ (Smith & Swan 2001:70).

Subsequently, the over-reliance on word for word translation from a learner’s L1

to English leads to errors, for example, French learners mistakenly say ‘to know

a success’ (Ibid.:87).

Additionally, native-English speakers often hold opposing views regarding

verb+noun collocations. American English often uses take where British English

uses have, e.g. have/take a meal, have/take the lead, take/have a look.

Resource deficiency

Learners studying alone can have difficulties comprehensively grasping

specific verb+noun collocations without assistance. This can be attributed to the

lack of sufficient dictionary examples and explanations which do not include


‘detailed information about common collocational patterns and idioms; fixed and

semi-fixed lexical expressions and different degrees of variability; relative

frequency...and formality level’ (Mc Alpine & Myles 2003:75). Although recent

online dictionaries and dictionaries of collocation have attempted to achieve this,

in my experience, classroom textbooks in particular lack adequate detail for

learners to fully use arbitrary verb+noun combinations with complete success

and confidence.

Lower levels

As mentioned previously, errors are often attributed to learners focusing

on producing language word by word rather than perceiving verb+noun

collocations as whole lexical units. Predominantly, lower level learners who are

often less confident do this to ensure they do not make mistakes. Sadly, this

‘often leads to more mistakes, and can make it difficult for them to make

themselves understood’ (Parrot 2010:130).

Suggestions for teaching

Key teaching approaches and procedures

Most text books cover a variety of verb+noun collocations, but the area is

approached differently depending on the type of course being delivered.

1. Business English text books primarily focus on using the most common

business verb+noun combinations, and Business English courses use a wealth

of authentic material to draw examples from. Hill (2000:57) believes explicit focus

using authentic materials is a suitable approach for Business English courses

due to the huge amount of verb+noun patterns available:


These four examples were taken from one article regarding the new Apple

iPhone (O’Flaherty 2011):

1. While we had a good initial experience with the Iphone 4S camera and

browser, …

2. At short range we didn't notice a huge difference.

3. Apple's new voice control system that helps users carry out tasks...

4. Apple has also made improvements to Iphone storage.

Evaluation:

This approach could be used effectively in classroom practice during

reading lessons to focus on vocabulary and reading skills. Learners could be

instructed to find, highlight or underline all verb+noun collocations to successfully

identify combinations and help raise awareness and noticing skills. In addition,

using authentic materials helps combat resource deficiency, brings new

combinations into the classroom and calls attention to new patterns.

2. Books which aim to teach collocations, e.g. Collocations in Use

(McCarthy & O’Dell 2005) approach the area contextually by focusing on the

most common verb+noun combinations within specific themes. These themes

attempt to form coherent collocation groups to ease the learners’ burden. Popular

themes include illness and health, e.g. to catch a cold, the flu, pneumonia

(Ibid.:58), and food, e.g. to take an order, to set the table.

Evaluation:

Activities in this book and the approach it takes have proved very

successful in my classroom. Dealing with collocation thematically contextualises

each new verb+noun collocation which helps categorise new combinations and


combat ambiguity. Each unit moves from explanation to practice activities which

could help build learner confidence (specifically lower levels).

3. A three-stage programme for teaching chunks is recommended by

Lindstromberg and Boers (2008:11). Their book is split into three task sets to

deal with each step proposed below:

1. To help students notice chunks and appreciate their importance

2. To deliberately target selected sets of chunks and apply techniques

known to help students commit chunks to memory

3. To consolidate knowledge through review

Evaluation:

The above-mentioned steps could be integrated into an ESA (Engage

Study Activate) approach by teachers to encourage learners to commit new

patterns to long-term memory through the understanding of form and repeated

use of targeted patterns. Having tried some of these tasks in the classroom, I can

confirm that it is possible to lighten the memorisation burden and contest Pinker’s

beliefs.

4. Using learner errors to exploit new verb+noun combinations is a

recommended procedure by Lewis (2000:20) to take advantage of combinations

which arise during class:


Evaluation:

Based on my experience and that of my colleagues, our learners have

found the idiosyncrasies of verb+noun combinations to be fascinating and are

eager to discuss new combinations as they arise. Classroom strategies which

would make this approach more effective and enhance conscious-raising are:

i. discussing the concept of collocations

ii. teaching learners how to recognise, practise and use new combinations

iii. developing dictionary skills to find information on new collocations

However, this approach could also be inefficient in moving away from

primary lesson aims so should be used cautiously. Hill, (2000:63) also reminds

teachers not to ‘go overboard’ and ensure combinations taught occur with high

frequency.

5. Bahns (1993:59) carried out a study between English and German and

found that a contrastive analysis of verb+noun combinations ‘shows that there is

direct translational equivalence for a large number of (English) verb+noun


collocations’. Consequently, Bahns feels that undertaking contrastive analysis

with learners would illustrate whether or not there are direct L1 counterparts thus

reducing the learning burden and preventing L1 interference issues.

Evaluation:

In a classroom, this would be more effective and manageable with mono-

lingual learners. However, this approach could reduce both learners’ and

teachers’ burden dramatically.

Key task types and resources

The following examples are the most commonly found tasks from EFL

textbooks:

1. Underline collocations in the text:


McCarthy & O’Dell (2005:9)

2. Match the verb with the correct noun:

Watcyn-Jones (2001:79)

3. Correct the verbs:


Incorrect: ‘If you make your homework, I will do a cake.’

Correct: ‘If you do your homework, I will make a cake.’

4. Draw spider graphs / word maps with the verb in the middle:

Cunningham & Moor (2007:12)

5. Design tables with common verb+noun combinations

McCarthy & O’Dell (2005:56)

Evaluation:


All the above tasks are valuable for increasing learners’ sensitivity to

verb+noun collocations, which is essential in motivating and stimulating an

interest in these high frequency patterns. Hill (2000:61) feels teachers should

initially ‘encourage students to think bigger than the word’ and these tasks

attempt to do this. Within the classroom, each of these tasks can be used in

practice stages to raise awareness of specific combinations and aid retention by

ensuring learners attend ‘to linguistic features of the input they are exposed to’

including phonological and discoursal features (Thornbury 1997:326). Finally,

most of these tasks attempt to illustrate arbitrary patterns, building learner

confidence before requiring learners to use new verb+noun collocations.

Conclusion

For me personally, using these tasks to teach unknown verb+noun

combinations has proved successful. Consequently, my learners are better able

to process new patterns, group collocations, deduce rules inductively and test

personal hypotheses.

Bibliography


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University Press.

2. Bahns, J. (1993). Lexical Collocations: A Contrastive View. ELT Journal, 47(1),

56-63.

3. Benson, M. (1990). Collocations and General-purpose Dictionaries. International

Journal of Lexicography, 3(1), 23-34.

4. Boers, F., & Lindstromberg, S. (2008). Teaching Chunks of Language: From

Noticing to Remembering. Innsbruck: Helbling Languages.

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Developments in the Lexical Approach. (pp.47-69). London: Thomson Heinle

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J. Conzett, (Eds.), Teaching Collocation: Further Developments in the Lexical

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9. McAlpine, J., & Myles, J. (2003). Capturing Phraseology in an Online Dictionary

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4s-hands

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Oxford: Macmillan.

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