c hapter sixteen social psychology © 2012 john wiley & sons, inc. all rights reserved

© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter SixteenSocial Psychology


Social Psychology

Study of how others influence our thoughts, feelings, and actions


OUR THOUGHTS ABOUT OTHERS


Attributions

AttributionHow we explain our own

and others’ actions

Mistaken Attributions Fundamental attribution

error (FAE)Self-serving bias


Fundamental Attribution Error

Attributing people’s behavior to internal (dispositional) causes rather than external (situational) factors; related to the actor-observer bias

Explanations for the FAE:Saliency Bias Focusing on the most noticeable (salient) factors when

explaining the causes of behaviorJust-World PhenomenonTendency to believe that people generally get what

they deserve


Fundamental Attribution Error


Self-serving Bias

Taking credit for our successes and externalizing our failures


Culture and Attribution

Collectivistic cultures tend to be more aware of situational constraints for others

Less likely to experience the FAE and self-serving bias


Attitudes

Learned predisposition to respond cognitively, affectively, and behaviorally to a particular object


Cognitive Dissonance

Unpleasant tension and anxiety caused by a discrepancy between an attitude and a behavior

A way to create attitude change

ANIMATIONAttitudes and

Cognitive Dissonance

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/cyberpsych/cognitive_dis/cognitive_dis.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/cyberpsych/cognitive_dis/cognitive_dis.html


Cognitive DissonanceFestinger and Carlsmith (1959)


Cognitive Dissonance: An Example


Cognitive Dissonance: Summary


OUR FEELINGS ABOUT OTHERS


Prejudice and Discrimination

Prejudice A learned, generally negative, attitude toward members

of a groupThree components:1. Thoughts (stereotypes)2. Feelings/Emotions3. Behavioral tendencies (possible discrimination)

Implicit BiasHidden, automatic attitude that may serve as a guide to

behaviors independent of a person’s awareness or control



Stereotype A set of beliefs about the characteristics of

people in a group that is generalized to all group members; the cognitive component of prejudice

Discrimination Negative behaviors directed at members of a

group


Major Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination


Stereotypes and Classification

Ingroup Favoritism• Viewing members of the

ingroup more positively than members of an outgroup

Outgroup Homogeneity Effect• Judging members of an

outgroup as more alike and less diverse than members of the ingroup


Reducing Prejudice and Discrimination

Cooperation and Common Goals Encourage cooperation and not competitionIntergroup Contact Close interaction, interdependence, equal statusCognitive RetrainingPerspective taking, focus on similaritiesCognitive DissonanceExamples that don’t conform to prejudiced views


Interpersonal Attraction

Positive feelings toward anotherThree key factors:1. Physical attractiveness2. Proximity3. Similarity

WILEY VIDEOWishful Seeing

WILEY VIDEOGender and Love

http://www.wiley.com/college/sanderson/0471250260/sciencentral_videos_final/wishful_seeing/index.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/sanderson/0471250260/sciencentral_videos_final/wishful_seeing/index.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/genderandlove.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/genderandlove.html


Physical Attractiveness

• Factor in initial liking• Physically attractive individuals of all ages

receive more positive interactions, success, and health benefits

• Perceived attractiveness is also influenced by nonphysical traits

• Matching hypothesis—people of equal attractiveness tend to select each other as partners


Flirting

Women• Often initiate• Glances• Smile• Hand gestures• Primping• Sit straighter• Body orientation• Whispers• Touches• Play behaviors

Men• Make the first approach• Look for clear signals


Proximity

Attraction based on geographic closeness

Important for initial liking

Mere exposure—repeated exposure increases liking, unless it is a negative stimulus


Similarity

Major factor in long-term relationshipsPrefer similarity in many different aspects of life

and personhood“Birds of a feather flock together”Need complementarity—attraction toward

those with qualities we admire but personally lack

Need compatibility—attraction based on sharing similar needs


Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

Three Components of Love IntimacyPassionCommitment


Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love


Types of Love

Romantic• Intense feeling of attraction

to another within an erotic context and with future expectations

• Near universal• Typically short lived• Largely based on mystery

and fantasy• Interference can increase

these feelings

Companionate• Strong and lasting attraction

characterized by trust, caring, tolerance, and friendship

• Grows stronger with time• Overlook each

other’s faults


Culture and Attractiveness

Some universals:Men—maturity, ambitiousness, financial

resources (suggest support for partner and family)

Women—looks and youth (suggest fertility)Also differences in what is considered beautiful


OUR ACTIONS TOWARD OTHERS


Social Influence

Which line (A, B, or C) matches the line on the right (X)?

Two primary types of social influence:• Conformity • Obedience


Conformity

Changing behavior because of real or imagined group pressureNormative Social InfluenceConforming to group pressure out of a need for approval and

acceptanceNormCultural rule of behavior prescribing what is acceptable in a given situation

Informational Social InfluenceConforming because of a need for information and directionReference Groups People we conform to because we like and admire them and

want to be like them


Obedience

Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure


Milgram’s Studies of Obedience


Obedience

Four factors in obedience:1. Legitimacy and closeness of the authority

figure2. Remoteness of the victim3. Assignment of responsibility4. Modeling or imitating others


Reducing Destructive Obedience

• Socialization• Power of the situation—e.g.,

roles• Groupthink• Foot-in-the-door—small

requests build to larger requests

• Relaxed moral guard• Disobedient models


Group Processes

Group membershipGroup decision making


Group Membership

RolesStanford Prison Study (Zimbardo)


Group Membership

Deindividuation—reduced self-consciousness, inhibition, and personal responsibility that sometimes occurs in a group, particularly when the members feel anonymous


Group Decision Making

Group Polarization• Group’s movement toward

either riskier or more conservative behavior, depending on the members’ initial dominant tendency

Groupthink• Faulty decision making that

occurs when a highly cohesive group strives for agreement and avoids inconsistent information


Groupthink


Aggression

Any behavior intended to harm another living being

Some approaches for reducing aggression:• Catharsis

typically doesn’t help• Incompatible responses• Improve social and communication skills

WILEY VIDEOTeen

Steroids

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/teensteroids.html

http://www.wiley.com/college/huffman/0471747246/video/html/teensteroids.html


Aggression

Biological Factors• Instincts• Genes• Brain and Nervous System• Substance Abuse and Other

Mental Disorders• Hormones and

Neurotransmitters

Psychosocial Factors• Aversive Stimuli• Frustration-Aggression

Hypothesis—blocking of a desired goal (frustration) creates anger that may lead to aggression

• Culture and Learning• Violent Media


Altruism

Actions designed to help others with no obvious benefit to the helper

Explanatory models:1. Evolutionary—favors survival of

one’s genes2. Egoistic—motivated by

anticipated gain3. Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis—

due to empathy for someone in need


Altruism

Altruism and Decision Making

Diffusion of Responsibility—dilution (diffusion) of personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group members


c hapter sixteen social psychology © 2012 john wiley & sons, inc. all rights reserved

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